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Snowball Sampling: Problems and Techniques of Chain Referral Sampling
Abstract
In spite of the fact that chain referral sampling has been widely used in qualitative sociological research, especially in the study of deviant behavior, the problems and techniques involved in its use have not been adequately explained. The procedures of chain referral sampling are not self-evident or obvious. This article attempts to rectify this methodological neglect. The article provides a description and analysis of some of the problems that were encountered and resolved in the course of using the method in a relatively large exploratory study of ex-opiate addicts.
... Para realização das entrevistas, foi utilizada a técnica de amostragem "Snowball" ou "Bola de Neve" (Biernacki;Waldorf, 1981), que consiste em localizar as/os especialistas locais da pesquisa, a partir da indicação dos primeiros. Essa sequência de indicação possibilitou o reconhecimento dos especialistas locais (Nardel, 1939). ...
... Para realização das entrevistas, foi utilizada a técnica de amostragem "Snowball" ou "Bola de Neve" (Biernacki;Waldorf, 1981), que consiste em localizar as/os especialistas locais da pesquisa, a partir da indicação dos primeiros. Essa sequência de indicação possibilitou o reconhecimento dos especialistas locais (Nardel, 1939). ...
O uso de plantas medicinais no tratamento de doenças é historicamente ancestral entre as populações humanas, principalmente, em comunidades tradicionais. A etnobotânica, como campo de conhecimento, tem buscado compreender a dinâmica do uso de plantas nas mais diversas populações humanas. Este estudo tem como objetivo refletir acerca da importância da valorização e manutenção dos conhecimentos tradicionais sobre as plantas medicinais no cuidado com a saúde da família, bem como na preservação sociocultural da comunidade quilombola do Timbó, Garanhuns – Pernambuco, Brasil. Este estudo se caracterizou como qualitativo, descritivo e exploratório, cuja coleta de dados foi realizada através de entrevistas semiestruturadas com especialistas locais, ou seja, aqueles reconhecidos como detentores de maior conhecimento sobre as plantas medicinais no território do estudo e que, por sua vez, fazem uso de plantas medicinais, seja para seu próprio consumo, seja no cuidado familiar. Os resultados encontrados com a pesquisa evidenciaram que o principal cuidado em saúde realizado é a utilização de plantas medicinais na atenção primária à saúde. No entanto, percebeu-se, por meio das respostas dos especialistas locais, que está ocorrendo significativa diminuição da transmissão do conhecimento entre as gerações familiares e que não existe, efetivamente, a participação da equipe de saúde institucional junto aos moradores da comunidade como difusores de informações sobre esta prática. Além disso, foi possível compreender os processos socioculturais e ecológicos de conservação da biodiversidade cultural, que vêm se transformando ao longo do tempo, assim como ressaltar o importante papel da agricultura familiar, dos povos e comunidades tradicionais, pois se torna evidente que estas comunidades tradicionais são agentes diretamente responsáveis em preservar esse patrimônio imaterial de plantas nativas e exóticas. Palavras-chave: Etnobotânica. Saberes Tradicionais. Erva Medicinal. Abstract The use of medicinal plants in the treatment of diseases is historically ancestral among human populations, especially in traditional communities. Ethnobotany, as a field of knowledge, has sought to understand the plant’s use dynamics in the most diverse human populations. This study aims to reflect on the importance of valuing and maintaining traditional knowledge about medicinal plants in the care of the family's health, as well as in the sociocultural preservation of the quilombola community of Timbó, Garanhuns - Pernambuco, Brazil. This study was characterized as qualitative, descriptive and exploratory, whose data collection was carried out through semi-structured interviews with key informants who use medicinal plants, either for their own consumption or in family care. The results found with the research showed that the main health care performed is the use of medicinal plants in primary health care. However, it was noticed, through the answers of the informants, that there is a significant decrease in the transmission of knowledge between the family generations and that there is no effective participation of the institutional health team with the residents of the community as disseminators of information about this practice. In addition, it was possible to understand the sociocultural and ecological processes of conservation of cultural biodiversity that have been changing over time, as well as highlight the important role of family farming, peoples and traditional communities, as it becomes evident that these traditional communities are agents directly responsible for preserving this intangible heritage of native and exotic plants. Keywords: Ethnobotany. Traditional Knowledge. Medicinal Herb.
... Realizaram-se 22 entrevistas (Apêndice B) utilizando o método de amostragem snowball (Biernacki;Waldorf, 1981 (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017); leitura e classificação; codificação a partir de categorias organizativas; análise e elaboração do texto. (6) A construção de redes políticas, recorrendo à etnografia de redes e à Análise de Redes Sociais, delineia as conexões, relacionamentos e interdependências entre os atores (Howard, 2002) em diversos níveis hierárquicos -local, regional e internacional. ...
... Realizaram-se 22 entrevistas (Apêndice B) utilizando o método de amostragem snowball (Biernacki;Waldorf, 1981 (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017); leitura e classificação; codificação a partir de categorias organizativas; análise e elaboração do texto. (6) A construção de redes políticas, recorrendo à etnografia de redes e à Análise de Redes Sociais, delineia as conexões, relacionamentos e interdependências entre os atores (Howard, 2002) em diversos níveis hierárquicos -local, regional e internacional. ...
This article aims to understand the emergence and action of a multilevel governance network in Latin America and the Caribbean. To this end, the Latin American Network of Civil Society Organizations for Education (REDUCA) is analyzed, a “network of networks” that seeks to promote a regional agenda in line with global education reform, without neglecting the interests of locally organized entrepreneurs. Drawing from theoretical frameworks by Rhodes (2007) and Jessop (1998) on new governance and employing methods such as document analysis, event observation and interviews, the connection between the origin of REDUCA and the context, actors, and objectives of the networks that preceded it from a relational perspective is established. The study highlights how the dynamics between the local, regional, and global levels can be impacted by the convergence of interests between multilateral organizations and business networks and raises questions about the relationship between multilevel governance and democratic participation.
... Information om studien skickades ut till verksamhetschefer inom daglig verksamhet som forskarna visste hade arbetat med IKT under perioden i fråga, vilka sedan spred den vidare. Utifrån dessa inledande kontakter fick forskarna tips om ytterligare dagliga verksamheter som också arbetat med IKT i någon bemärkelse (jfr Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981). Inom de dagliga verksamheter där chefer och personal var positivt inställda till att delta spreds sedan informationen om studien vidare till enskilda stödanvändare som hade mottagit aktiviteter genom eller med stöd av IKT samt till stödpersoner i användarnas hemmiljöer som arbetat under den angivna perioden. ...
Digital daily activities – challenges and opportunities for the digital inclusion of adults with intellectual disability This article analyses challenges and opportunities related to the digitisation of daily activities for adults with intellectual disability (ID) using information and communication technology (ICT). An overarching question is whether these experiences can promote digital inclusion for people with ID, in accordance with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The article draws on interviews with 16 service users, nine support persons and 19 staff and managers at five day centres, all of which used digital activities during the COVID-19 pandemic. The interviews were analysed using theoretical thematic analysis informed by van Dijk’s (2012) arguments on the diffusion, acceptance, and adoption of new technologies to achieve digital inclusion. During the spring of 2020, many day centres closed due to COVID-19. The introduction of digital activities revealed a lack of access to ICT. Bureaucratic barriers were encountered, such as uncertainty about secure digital platforms and GDPR. Additionally, ICT use could be challenging due to rapid developments, as well as ubiquitous demands for the innovation and improvement of provided activities. Another obstacle was a lack of digital skills and scepticism towards digital activities among staff at the day centres and support persons in the service users’ home environments, which sometimes led to the denial of services. Yet, cooperative ICT usage among staff and support persons was perceived to promote a more holistic approach to service provision. When adequately supported, ICT usage allowed opportunities for personal development and improved self-esteem in persons with ID, as well as individually tailored service provision. The experiences of using ICT during the pandemic increased the day centres’ abilities to overcome physical distance in offering meaningful activities for service users. However, disparities persist, warranting further efforts towards reducing the digital divide affecting people with ID.
... The current study benefited from the snowball sampling method for data collection. First, we contacted initial participants and they referred us to other participants (Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). We reached theoretical saturation when there was enough data to tell a rich story (Braun and Clarke, 2013). ...
This study examines online shopping behavior during the pandemic in the emerging market, Turkey. The current research benefits from the Stimulus-Organism-Response framework and innovation resistance theory. We analyzed the qualitative data with thematic analysis. We carried out thirty in-depth interviews to collect qualitative data. Our findings show that environmental stimuli (crowding, product category, usefulness, past experiences, the perceived threat of COVID-19) and the organism (perceived benefits, tradition barrier, risk barrier) affect the response (shopping from online stores during the pandemic).
Bu çalışma, yükselen bir pazar olan Türkiye'de pandemi sırasında online alışveriş davranışlarını incelemektedir. Mevcut çalışma, uyarıcı-organizma-tepki çerçevesinden ve yenilik direnci teorisinden faydalanmaktadır. Nitel veriler, tematik analizle analiz edilmiştir. Nitel verilerin toplanması amacıyla 30 derinlemesine görüşme yapılmıştır. Bulgular, uyarıcılar (kalabalık, ürün kategorisi, kullanışlılık, geçmiş deneyimler, algılanan COVID-19 tehdidi) ve organizmanın (algılanan faydalar, gelenek engeli, risk engeli), pandemi sırasında online alışverişi (tepki) etkilediğini göstermektedir.
... The questionnaire was hosted on Google Forms and a non-probabilistic snowball sampling method [34] was used to distribute it, mainly through social networks. The leading platform was Instagram, where the @elretonutricional account was created, and the survey was disseminated to a varied audience with the help of various professionals, influencers, and supporters. ...
Intermittent fasting (IF) is a dietary approach that has gained popularity in recent years.
More and more Spanish people are following this eating pattern, which consists of alternating peri�ods of fasting with periods of food intake. Its benefits include improved metabolic and vascular
health and weight loss. Objectives: 1. To study the prevalence of IF among the Spanish population.
2. To explore how demographic factors influence the choice to adopt this dietary approach. Meth�ods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on the Spanish population using the NutSo�HH questionnaire, which was constructed, validated, and disseminated by the research team
through a non-probabilistic snowball sampling approach, collecting socio-demographic data and
nutritional, social and lifestyle habits of the population. Results and conclusions: A valid sample of
22,181 people participated, of whom 4.59% (N = 1018) said they practiced IF. The data show that
more middle-aged men than women practice IF. In addition, individuals who follow IF methods
are less likely to have no control over their food intake, are less scared to gain weight and have a
higher body image, but no differences were found related to unhealthy food and nights out. There
were also no significant differences in terms of the level of education, income, size of municipality,
or region of residence. In conclusion, a person who practices IF seems to have adopted a healthier
lifestyle and social habits.
... Convenience sampling involves choosing easily accessible consumers to determine different socioeconomic factors affecting mode choice behavior and to collect choice data [56]. Snowball sampling is a non-probability technique in which sample subjects help the researcher recruit more sample subjects for the study [57], and it is beneficial for surveying hard-to-reach individuals [58]. Both traditional (pen and paper) and digital (Google Forms) platforms were utilized for this survey. ...
Congestion persists despite various demand management techniques, particularly for handling recurrent congestion. However, non-recurrent congestion from events like VIP movements poses unique challenges, especially during peak hours. This study investigates the environmental and economic impacts of road blockages due to VIP movements in developing countries, focusing on Pakistan. Considering practiced standard operating procedures associated with VIP movements, this study finds significant delays and economic burdens in debt-ridden economies. It uses discrete choice modeling and microsimulation techniques to evaluate the value of travel time and quantifies road blockage effects on fuel consumption, travel time, and carbon emissions. Data from central blockage locations in Rawalpindi and Islamabad reveal a value of travel time estimated at 1.77 USD/h, with income and gender significantly influencing mode choices during VIP movements. Moreover, road blockages exceeding two minutes substantially negatively impact the environment and economy, particularly in developing nations. Urgent action is needed for effective mitigation strategies and sustainable transportation policies to address the detrimental effects and promote alternative transportation modes. Recommendations include limiting VIP blockages to a maximum of two minutes and implementing policies to discourage private car usage. Despite limitations, the study emphasizes the critical role of sustainable transportation policies in enhancing the well-being of road users in developing nations.
... Regarding (a), due to the practical constraints outlined in Section 2.2 (i.e., lack of comprehensive farmer lists, safety concerns, reluctance of local communities to engage with outsiders), we adopted a snowball sampling approach. While this sampling method offers certain advantages in study contexts such as ours, it has also been associated to potential biases (Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981;Illenberger et al., 2008;Kirchherr and Charles, 2018;Parker et al., 2019). For example, although the local guides/translators were invaluable in building trust and facilitating community entry, they might have introduced sampling biases by selecting respondents with specific characteristics, viewpoints, or locations, or interpretation biases stemming from their crucial role as cultural brokers in the community. ...
Small-scale food producers can benefit significantly from the adoption and effective utilization of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). For example, ICTs can help improve food production and access to markets, which is particularly valuable in many Sub-Saharan African countries that both urbanize rapidly but whose food systems still rely significantly on small-scale food producers. This study examines the adoption patterns and desirable characteristics of ICTs, as well as the factors influencing them, among small-scale food producers engaged in urban agriculture in South Africa. We administered 85 in-person surveys through referrals from local producers’ network in disadvantaged areas of Cape Town ( n = 21; Gugulethu, Philippi, Khayelitsha) and Johannesburg ( n = 64; Central Business District, Soweto, Orange Farm). A substantial proportion of the respondents articulated the need for food-related mobile applications with functions that facilitate price comparisons, and the sharing of best practices and health advice. User-friendliness, low internet data use, and affordability were perceived as the most important characteristics for such food-related mobile applications. Redundancy analysis (RDA) reveals that the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of respondents significantly influence the desired functionalities of food apps and their preferred activities among the respondents. Producers that are married and have more children, have higher income and education, and own larger land holdings, show very distinct patterns in terms of desirable functions and uses for food apps. Our research underscores the need for comprehensive approaches to the development and promotion of food-related ICTs when targeting small-scale food producers. The barriers and needs identified here can help ICT developers, development agencies and policy-makers design fit-for-purpose interventions and policies to facilitate ICT adoption among urban small-scale food producers in rapidly urbanizing areas.
... In Australia and Canada, convenience sampling was used to recruit participants who contacted us in response to study advertising via advocacy group mailing lists, our website and Twitter [60]. We also used snowball sampling [61] and purposive sampling to increase diversity [60]. Purposive sampling included contacting individuals known to the research team, and advocacy groups contacting individuals known to them at our request, whose experience we sought for the research (e.g., diverse diagnoses). ...
Introduction
Assisted dying (AD) has been legalised in a small but growing number of jurisdictions globally, including Canada and Australia. Early research in both countries demonstrates that, in response to access barriers, patients and caregivers take action to influence their individual experience of AD, as well as AD systems more widely. This study analyses how patients and caregivers suggest other decision‐makers in AD systems should address identified issues.
Methods
We conducted semistructured, qualitative interviews with patients and caregivers seeking AD in Victoria (Australia) and three Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Ontario and Nova Scotia). Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis and codebook template analysis.
Results
Sixty interviews were conducted with 67 participants (65 caregivers, 2 patients). In Victoria, this involved 28 interviews with 33 participants (32 caregivers, 1 patient) about 28 patient experiences. In Canada, this involved 32 interviews with 34 participants (33 caregivers, 1 patient) about 33 patient experiences. We generated six themes, corresponding to six overarching suggestions by patients and caregivers to address identified system issues: (1) improved content and dissemination of information about AD; (2) proactively develop policies and procedures about AD provision; (3) address institutional objection via top‐down action; (4) proactively develop grief resources and peer support mechanisms; (5) amend laws to address legal barriers; and (6) engage with and act on patient and caregiver feedback about experiences.
Conclusion
AD systems should monitor and respond to suggestions from patients and caregivers with firsthand experience of AD systems, who are uniquely placed to identify issues and suggestions for improvement. To date, Canada has responded comparatively well to address identified issues, whereas the Victorian government has signalled there are no plans to amend laws to address identified access barriers. This may result in patients and caregivers continuing to take on the burdens of acting to address identified issues.
Patient or Public Contribution
Patients and caregivers are central to this research. We interviewed patients and caregivers about their experiences of AD, and the article focuses on their suggestions for addressing identified barriers within AD systems. Patient interest groups in Australia and Canada also supported our recruitment process.
... To be included in this study, participants had to be nurses who were 1) practicing in primary care for a minimum of two contracts (approximately sixteen weeks) and 2) actively working in Nunavik or had worked in Nunavik within the last three years. We used purposive (Gentles et al., 2015) and snowball sampling (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981) to recruit 10 nurses working in primary care clinics. ...
Health inequities experienced by Indigenous Peoples are the consequence of unbalanced structural determinants of health, mainly due to systemic racism and colonialism. Primary care registered nurses face multiple challenges, including lacking resources to care for these communities and address health inequities. This study aimed to explore equity-oriented care and services from the perspectives of primary care registered nurses working in Nunavik (Northern Quebec, Canada) Inuit communities. We used a critical postcolonial perspective and an interpretive descriptive design. We conducted semi-structured interviews with ten participants and thematically analyzed the data collected. The results showed dynamic conceptualizations of equity-oriented care and services that shaped how participants see the northern colonial context, the healthcare accessibility, and the nursing care approach within Inuit communities. From these findings, we call for accountability measures like antiracist policies to promote transformational changes toward health equity.
... Inicialmente obtivemos a aceitação em participar da pesquisa por parte de três magistrados/as, cuja seleção se deu em virtude de terem vivenciado direta ou indiretamente episódios jurídico-políticos que geraram repercussões midiáticas. A partir desses primeiros participantes, através da técnica "bola de neve" (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981), fomos remetidos a outros potenciais participantes. A decisão pela quantidade de entrevistas (15) se deu em razão do ponto de saturação teórica (Bauer & Aarts, 2008). ...
The article presents part of the results of a qualitative research that sought to understand, based on Serge Moscovici’s Theory of Active Minorities, how critical judges in relation to the Judiciary and the magistracy assess the possibility of innovation in legal practices. Fifteen interviews were carried out using semi-directed episodic technique. An argumentative analysis of the statements was carried out and their interpretation was subsequently carried out based on the depth hermeneutics framework. Three ways in which dissident magistrates relate to innovative potential were identified: impotence, individual potency and collective potency. The predominance of the affect of impotence was noted, as well as the centrality of individual actions. This resulted in the partial confirmation of our working hypothesis that there would be movements within the magistracy that could be equated to active minorities according to the definition given by Moscovici.
... For recruitment, specifically, four acquaintances of the first author, three acquaintances of the third author, two persons whom the first author was acquainted with through the Japanese Society of Occupational Therapy and the Japanese Society for Higher Brain Dysfunction, and 11 OTs selected based on the snowball sampling (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981) were invited to participate in this study. We avoided stringent selection criteria, as the number of OTs providing community work support in Japan constituted less than 1% of the members of the Japanese Association of Occupational Therapists (2020) as of 2019. ...
Background
Ensuring effective return to work following acquired brain injuries is crucial from the perspectives of both quality of life and the economy. However, techniques of occupational therapy support for return to work remain relatively unelucidated.
Aims/Objectives
To clarify the specific contents of occupational therapy required for work and work support for clients with acquired brain injuries.
Material and Methods
An interview-based survey was conducted with participants who had >10 years of occupational therapy experience and had provided work support. We selected participants via snowball sampling. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis.
Results
A total of 20 participants (15 women and 5 men; 6, 12, 1, and 1 in their 30s, 40s, 50s, and 60s, respectively) were included. Six concepts were generated on reviewing the support for work items considered important by the occupational therapist as follows: “Support for vocational life,” “Support for interpersonal skills,” “Support for work,” “Support for illness, disability, and awareness,” “Support for utilization of compensation measures,” and “Support for goal setting.”
Conclusions
We clarified the specific contents of work support, including support for vocational life and support for work, that is administered by occupational therapists who provide work support for clients with acquired brain injury. The insights from the study improve understanding of OTs’ roles and contributions in supporting clients with acquired brain injuries in returning to work.
... On the other hand, the identified stakeholders were given the opportunity to suggest other stakeholders during completion of the questionnaire. This technique is known as the snowball technique, first developed by Goodman [47] and then used by many other authors [48,49]. Then, when those stakeholders were not on the "initial stakeholder list" they were added to it and the questionnaire was sent to them. ...
Background
The share of renewable energy feeding the European grid has been growing over the years, even though the intermittency of some renewable energy sources can induce electric grid instability. Energy storage has proven to be an effective way of reducing grid instability. Various solutions for large-scale energy storage are being researched nowadays. This study focusses on the innovative low-head pumped hydro storage (LH PHS) technology, a large-scale energy storage scheme suitable for shallow seas (5 – 30 m depth). Implementation of renewable energy technologies, such as wind farms in Europe, Asia and North America, has faced public opposition which has delayed or even cancelled the implementation of renewable energy projects. Literature about public perception of projects highlights the importance of involving stakeholders from the early stages of project planning. Considering this, the present study aims to collect stakeholder opinions (via an online survey) to determine what is necessary for a smooth implementation of LH PHS in the North Sea, both from technical and policy points of view.
Results
Stakeholders from commercial parties, government authorities and local groups recognized the potential of LH PHS as a means to increase the share of renewable energies within the European power grid. Economics, bureaucratic burden, and structural safety have emerged as primary aspects of concern respecting the implementation of LH PHS. The impression of the respondents is that a low-head pumped hydro station would not have negative effects on their organizations. Furthermore, most of the engineering firms participating in the study communicated that their knowledge and resources could be involved in the construction of such an energy storage facility.
Conclusion
As identified stakeholder concerns such as economics and structural safety are currently being researched, effective communication of the findings of this research is paramount to keep stakeholders informed of the ongoing progress. Two-way communication between researchers and stakeholders is recommended to enhance public acceptance of future technologies. Furthermore, is it advisable to undertake an examination of the available energy policies relevant to LH PHS.
... The data were collected through the snowball modality (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981), with a self-administered questionnaire available online, via a specific platform (Google Forms) for open virtual data collection during March and April 2022. A card with an invitation and the link was shared on social media and the university departments to share the invitation with students. ...
This study describes the perceptions of aging and the health care received by 101 LGBT+ individuals in Brazil (São Paulo, Mato Grosso, and Rio Grande do Sul). Participants completed an online 13-item demographic and LGBT+ perception questionnaire. The age ranged from 18 to 55 years, 75.5% were Caucasian, 92% self-identified as cisgender and 55% were homosexual. Most did not stop seeking healthcare (59.8%) because of fear, but they avoided revealing their sexuality to health professionals (65.7%). Participants had negative views about aging and regarded the health system as caustic, and health professionals exhibited unethical behaviors and gaps of knowledge related to LGBT+ practice. Continuing education about the LGBT+ community should be prioritized to mediate discriminatory healthcare.
... After informing the company of the scope of the study, three key informants were self-selected by the company, because it considers that they are figures that dominate the IP and its management control (see Table 1). For this selection, we used the Snowball methodology, which is appropriate for this type of study (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981). This company seeks to actively participate in the development and provision of the most advanced technologies of preventive and personalised medicine: ...
Internationalisation has become crucial to economic development, especially for companies that are more technological and scientific. These companies arouse curiosity, as they quickly begin their internationalisation process (IP), adopting the Born Global model shortly after its creation. It has also been noted that, when they seek to benefit from mutual flexibility, the opportunity to use technical and economic knowledge, and even the collective assumption of costs and risks, it is common for them to resort to the internationalisation model based on Network Theory. Considering that internationalisation is part of the company’s growth strategy, and that this may require an adjustment of the information structure, namely the Management Accounting and Control System (MACS), it becomes relevant to understand how IP affects MACS. In this way, our study aims to respond to how MACS adjusts to Born Global internationalisation model (BGIM) and Network Model of Internationalisation (NMI) for a successful internationalisation strategy? In this study, we evaluate how MACS is adjusted in order to become a tool capable of collecting and processing the set of useful information necessary for the implementation of the internationalisation strategy. We conducted a single case study in a Portuguese health-sector company. Our results show that MACS needs to be adjusted to facilitate the implementation of IP.
... Snowball sampling was used to leverage initial participants to refer others who fit specific criteria and were interested in joining the study, enhancing access to a broader range of individuals beyond traditional recruitment methods [14]. Criterion sampling ensured participants matched particular characteristics vital to the research goals, like SES and dietary habits, facilitating a deeper examination of micronutrient access through the SEM and the impact of socioeconomic elements [15]. ...
Background: Micronutrient deficiencies disproportionately affect various populations, influenced by a complex interplay of socioeconomic factors. This study delves into the intricate relationship between socioeconomic status and micronutrient access, emphasizing the perceptions of affordability, availability, and the impact of social support networks. Methods: A qualitative research design was employed, using purposive sampling to enlist a diverse cohort of participants from varied socioeconomic backgrounds. The methodology comprised semi-structured interviews and focus groups to gather detailed insights into the participants’ experiences and views on micronutrient access. The analysis framework was based on the Social Ecological Model (SEM), enabling an in-depth examination of individual, interpersonal, community, and societal influences. Results: With 30 participants, aged 20–70, representing a range of unique characteristics such as differing health conditions, cultural backgrounds, and economic statuses, the study uncovered five key themes: Individual-Level Factors, Interpersonal Relationships, Community Environment, Societal Factors, and Intersectionality. These themes illustrate how personal dietary habits, social networks, community resources, and broader socioeconomic policies converge to shape micronutrient access, emphasizing the complex interplay of overlapping social identities and structural barriers. Conclusion: The findings highlight the need for holistic nutrition interventions that account for the extensive spectrum of socioeconomic determinants. This study not only enriches the theoretical underpinnings of the SEM but also provides actionable insights for crafting targeted strategies to enhance micronutrient access and ameliorate dietary inequities. It advocates for comprehensive public health initiatives attuned to the nuanced needs and hurdles faced by diverse demographic sectors.
... This approach enabled reaching a large target audience while making use of project member networks. Secondly, we applied a chain referral technique called "Snowball sampling" [70,71]. A vital component of this approach was internal brainstorming activities with project partners who provided referrals to stakeholders. ...
A fast-paced policy context is characteristic of energy and climate research, which strives to develop solutions to wicked problems such as climate change. Funding agencies in the European Union recognize the importance of linking research and policy in climate and energy research. This calls for an increased understanding of how stakeholder engagement can effectively be used to co-design research questions that include stakeholders' concerns. This paper reviews the current literature on stakeholder engagement, from which we create a set of criteria. These are used to critically assess recent and relevant papers on stakeholder engagement in climate and energy projects. We obtained the papers from a scoping review of stakeholder engagement through workshops in EU climate and energy research. With insights from the literature and current EU climate and energy projects, we developed a workshop programme for stakeholder engagement. This programme was applied to the European Climate and Energy Modelling Forum project, aiming to co-design the most pressing and urgent research questions according to European stakeholders. The outcomes include 82 co-designed and ranked research questions for nine specific climate and energy research themes. Findings from the scoping review indicate that papers rarely define the term 'stakeholder'. Additionally, the concepts of co-creation, co-design, and co-production are used interchangeably and often without definition. We propose that workshop planners use stakeholder identification and selection methods from the broader stakeholder engagement literature.
... Due to the uncertain nature of the phenomenon, we chose an exploratory multicase study [38]. We selected our informants using snowball sampling [3] in Slack asking for subjects that used GenAI for a wide range of activities. As of the tools used, our studies found that ChatGPT and GitHub Copilot were the most common for code and text, while some reported that they used Midjourney and DALL-E 2 for image creation. ...
Generative AI (GenAI) has fundamentally changed how knowledge workers, such as software developers, solve tasks and collaborate to build software products. Introducing innovative tools like ChatGPT and Copilot has created new opportunities to assist and augment software developers across various problems. We conducted an empirical study involving interviews with 13 data scientists, managers, developers, designers, and front-end developers to investigate the usage of GenAI. Our study reveals that ChatGPT signifies a paradigm shift in the workflow of software developers. The technology empowers developers by enabling them to work more efficiently, speed up the learning process, and increase motivation by reducing tedious and repetitive tasks. Moreover, our results indicate a change in teamwork collaboration due to software engineers using GenAI for help instead of asking coworkers, which impacts the learning loop in agile teams.
... Per le interviste alle donne con disabilità si era adottato il metodo del cd. campionamento a valanga o a palla di neve (Biernacki, Waldorf 1981), partendo da alcuni contatti dell'associazione AFADIS-UCM Asociación de familiares y amigos de personas con discapacidad -Universidad Complutense de Madrid, partner spagnola del citato progetto europeo, e la tecnica della "storia di vita", afferente alla categoria dell'approccio biografico (Bichi 2002). Il numero delle interviste effettuate agli assistenti sessuali e prese in considerazione per questo contributo è estremamente esiguo (tre) e tuttavia significativo rispetto all'esperienza e alle pratiche del centro fisico (il primo e fino a qualche anno fa l'unico in Spagna) in quanto le persone intervistate (due) sono le uniche saltuarie dipendenti che, al momento dell'indagine, operano anche come assistenti sessuali. ...
The aim of this article is to investigate and deepen the characteristics of sexual assistance as an «emerging profession» and the meanings attributed by those who practice it and see a professional identity in it. In particular, we set out to identify the models that are being articulated in Italy and Spain, in the direction of contributing to the overall debate on «professions on the margins». Guiding our analysis will especially be the conceptual categories of dirty work and body work as well as of emotional work. For this purpose we will mainly use, for the Spanish case, qualitative interviews with sexual assistants, field notes and the analysis of the main online platform for matching demand and supply of sexual assistance services in the city of Madrid. For the Italian case, on the other hand, the analysis will be documentary, based on textual and video materials (also in the latter case it is interviews with sexual assistants) collected on YouTube and on the website of the only association dealing with sexual assistance in our country.
... [5] approach. [17,22,40] Targeted sampling incorporated street ethnography, stratification, quota 131 sampling, and snowball sampling to form an priori knowledge of the target population and 132 ability to include individuals with different characteristics. [22] In this method, researchers need 133 to conduct ethnography to identify the target population's networks, demographic features, and 134 locations, and then use these data to develop a sampling frame of locations with important 135 subgroup features as strata or quotas. ...
Due to stigma or legal issues, populations with higher HIV risk are often hard to reach, which impedes accurate population estimation of HIV burden. To better sample hard-to-reach populations (HTRPs) for HIV surveillance, various sampling methods have been designed and/or used since HIV epidemic following the first reported AIDS cases in 1981. This paper describes the development and the assessment (i.e., validity and reproducibility) of approximately eight sampling methods (e.g., convenience sampling, snowball sampling, time location sampling, and respondent-driven sampling) for HTRPs in HIV surveillance, with a focus on respondent-driven sampling (RDS). Compared to other methods, RDS has been greatly assessed. However, current evidence is still inadequate for RDS to be considered the best option for sampling HTRPs. The field must continue to assess RDS and to develop new sampling approaches or modifications to existing approaches.
... The interviews were conducted between February and September 2020, with follow-up interviews and personal communications with key informants between January 2022 and October 2022. Given the challenges in recruiting platform workers for interviews, several strategies were employed, including recruitment near restaurants, social media profile searches, using the platforms' delivery services, and snowballing techniques (Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). ...
The Nordic working life model (NWLM) promotes ‘good work’ on societal and workplace levels. However, this model is now challenged by emerging business models in the platform economy. This study investigates how digital labor platforms respond to conflicting institutional logics and how platform-mediated work intervenes with the inherent logic of the NWLM. The authors examine platform business strategies and their implications for working environment regulations, co-determination, and collective bargaining. Empirical data comprising 50 interviews with food delivery workers, platform managers, union representatives, employer association representatives, and occupational health and safety regulators from the Norwegian Labor Inspection Authority were analyzed by applying institutional complexity as a theoretical framework. The findings illustrate that a high degree of institutional complexity provides companies with discretionary space, which they utilize to achieve legitimacy and competitive advantages. The authors introduce the term institutional opportunism to describe how adaptation is performed. The study reveals that the platform economy, characterized by workers with limited experience of and knowledge about working life and strong market pressures, poses a challenge to the NWLM.
... This method is iterative, and participants guide researchers, contributing to the growth of the sample. Therefore, it is known as the "snowball effect" [33] . ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) has become a very important concept in today's digital communication age. With the development of technology, the use of AI has become widespread in many fields, including the field of communication. This article focuses on the relationship between communication and AI. In this context, the advantages, and disadvantages of using AI in the field of communication were examined. Data obtained from semi-structured in-depth interviews with communication academics were analysed with the content analysis technique. The findings underscore the increasing prevalence of AI usage in the field of communication. Positive aspects such as speed and efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and the ability to analyse large datasets easily were highlighted. However, negative impacts were also identified, including concerns related to privacy and security, the potential lag in emotional intelligence compared to humans, the risk of individuals losing their jobs or harbouring job loss concerns, and the possibility of applications that may not align with ethical principles. As AI continues to evolve in the future, the aim is to address privacy and security concerns, develop applications in alignment with ethical principles, and enhance capabilities to analyse larger datasets while achieving a more advanced emotional intelligence structure.
... Surveyed households were selected by the snowball sampling method. This approach involves two stages: (a) the identification of a sample of respondents with characteristic x at the zero-stage (s 0 ); and (b) the solicitation of referrals to other potentially eligible respondents believed to have characteristic x at snowball stages s 1 through s k [9][10][11]. Applying this approach, the research conducted the zero-stage (s 0 ) at each of the 20 communes in the study locations; therefore, the number of villages and households surveyed was not equivalent. ...
Vietnam’s Central Highlands, under the ‘boom’ of increased immigrant populations, forest loss, and agriculture expansion, have been facing unbalanced and unsustainable development. This study determines the existence of agroforestry in the region and how farmers responded to the expansion of agriculture over decades by secondary and survey data from 248 households of 20 communes in five provinces. After decades of mono-agriculture development, farmers faced a range of problems and consequently began applying agroforestry practices. About 65% of the surveyed households applied agroforestry and multi/inter-crop systems, but almost all the households were small farms. Agroforestry at both the farm and landscape levels existed and featured diversity. Plant and animal diversity in the agroforestry systems of the households was rich. We recommend that upgrading the agroforestry level can likely cope with the requirements of market-based production and also provide basic benefits. Thus, to help conserve the forests, improve the farmers’ livelihoods, and protect the ecosystem in the Central Highlands and the whole of Vietnam, a National Agroforestry Policy and technical guides for agroforestry at both the farm and landscape levels should be launched together to approach the market-based productions of cash crops and agricultural circular economic development in Vietnam and tropical regions.
... This is a cross-sectional study and comprised a non-probabilistic sample of Brazilian MSM living with HIV. The snowball method [31] was used to determine the sample composition. This method is useful because the data collection involves a sensitive and intimate topic regarding the disclosure of HIV diagnoses and mental health variables, and people may be less likely to come forward without the recommendation of others who have participated in the study. ...
Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a complex and multi-determined process that is influenced by psychosocial variables. Although international studies have pointed to the adverse impact of HIV stigma, sexual stigma, and depression on ART adherence among men who have sex with men (MSM) with HIV, less is known about this association among Brazilians. We aimed to (a) evaluate indicators of depression, stigma related to HIV and homosexuality, and adherence to ART in a sample of Brazilian MSM living with HIV; (b) assess possible correlations between the variables analyzed, and (c) assess the impact of HIV and sexual stigma and depression on ART adherence. This cross-sectional study comprised 138 Brazilian MSM living with HIV as participants. Scales used included: a sociodemographic/clinical questionnaire, the questionnaire for assessment of adherence to antiretroviral therapy (CEAT-HIV), the Beck depression inventory (BDI-II), the internalized homo-phobia scale, and the HIV stigmatization scale. The mean adherence score was relatively high (78.83, within a range of 17-89 points). However, we observed inadequate ART adherence (CEAT-HIV < 75) in 28 (20.2%) respondents. Participants reported high scores for internalized sexual stigma, perceived sexual stigma in the community, and HIV stigma. Symptoms of depression were identified in 48.47% of participants. We found negative correlations between depression, HIV stigma, and treatment adherence, but not between sexual stigma and ART adherence. HIV-related stigma and sexual stigma were positively correlated with depression. Our regression analysis indicated that each year of age at diagnosis of HIV increased adherence by 0.22 points, on average. Each additional BDI-II score reduced adherence to ART by 0.20 points. The high prevalence of depression, HIV stigma, and sexual stigma, and their adverse effects on ART adherence and mental health, point to the need to implement evidence-based interventions to reduce sexual and serological stigma in the general population, as well as to mitigate the negative impacts of stigma on MSM living in HIV in Brazil. They also highlight the importance of periodically screening for these variables among MSM treated in Brazilian public health services, especially among those with inadequate adherence to ART.
... To ensure comprehensive coverage of the information gathered in the interviews, the snowball sampling strategy was adopted [97]. This technique starts with the selection of preliminary respondents, chosen by the researcher for their extensive knowledge of the phenomenon under study. ...
This study aims to analyze the actions of the Invisible Cities Project (ICP) as an example of social innovation and as a way of giving visibility to vulnerable communities. Initially, a theoretical framework was established to understand the possibilities of the visibility of isolated and poor communities located within the urban setting. This framework was established based on the literature that addresses the role of social innovation in cities. Then, participant observations were made in a community to analyze the initiatives that are part of the ICP. Finally, semi-structured interviews were conducted; these interviews reported the lived experiences of participants involved in the project through the narratives of the community members. Drawing from the specialized literature, it was found that this project carries out various aspects of social innovation, such as social visibility, empowerment, the articulation of different actors in society, social inclusion, and the improvement of the urban public space. The project also addresses a variety of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), such as eradicating poverty, promoting health and well-being, reducing inequalities, and fostering more sustainable cities and communities.
... Given the lack of publicly available data on active Fin-Tech users in India, we employed snowball sampling, following Johnson (2014) recommendation for unknown population samples. The snowball sampling technique is a non-probability sampling method that leverages social networks to identify research participants meeting specific eligibility criteria through peer referrals (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981). ...
As the number of FinTech start-ups continues to rise globally, the utilization of these services by users becomes increasingly crucial, especially considering potential risks. Various factors affect users' utilization of financial technology, with the quality of services offered by FinTech providers standing out as a significant consideration. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the quality of services offered by FinTech payment platforms and the utilization of FinTech services. We develop a novel conceptual model integrating elements from SERVQUAL and TAM (the Technology Acceptance Model) to investigate these dynamics. To gain a comprehensive understanding, we employed a mixed methods research approach. This approach included a quantitative survey analyzed using a partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM) to examine the proposed framework and the relationships between its constructs. Following the survey, a follow-up focus group discussion with industry experts and academics was conducted to delve deeper into the findings and explore the "why" behind the statistical relationships. The findings reveal a significant impact of the quality of services offered by FinTech payment service providers on the utilization of such services. It demonstrates that in the FinTech sector, perceived usefulness does not always dominate perceived ease of use. Moreover, it confirms the profound influence of perceived usefulness in shaping attitudes and subsequent behaviour related to technology use. These insights contribute to an enhanced understanding of the factors driving the utilization of FinTech services.
... To create a comprehensive dataset of guidelines for our analysis, we employed a combination of methods, including snowball sampling and consultation with experts in the field. Snowball sampling allowed us to identify relevant guidelines by starting with a set of known sources and then expanding our search based on recommendations and references provided by those sources [3]. Additionally, we utilized search engine tools to identify guidelines publicly available online. ...
... Third, in this research, we employed snowball sampling as a valuable method to access hard-to-reach populations, acknowledging its importance in reaching participants who might otherwise be challenging to include in the study (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981). However, it is essential to acknowledge the inherent limitations of this sampling approach, which could impact the study context and the generalizability of our findings. ...
The effort–reward imbalance (ERI) model is a theoretical model in the work context that identifies stressors and their adverse effects on health. This article attempts to apply the ERI theory to the PhD context and describes the adaptation and validation of the ERI scale for doctoral students (ERI-PhD) in a sample of 1,275 PhD students gaining a doctoral degree in Germany. We calculated item-total correlations and McDonald’s Omega to assess the internal consistency and used exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to test the theoretical and factorial structure of the scale. The factorial time invariance was tested with a 6-week follow-up design (n = 705). The relationship between ERI and different PhD groups was examined to test discriminant validity. Linear regression analyses of the ERI-PhD with mental health (Patient Health Questionnaire–4) were examined to test the criterion validity. Exploratory factor analysis using a randomized half of the sample yielded a four-factor structure solution. Using the other half of the sample, confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that the four-factor solution fitted the data the best. Also, the ERI level varied among demographic and PhD-related variables and contributed to the explanation of poor mental health. The PhD version of the ERI questionnaire is a valid and reliable new instrument for assessing the perceived social reciprocity between efforts and rewards and its effects on mental health (i.e., depression and anxiety). In light of stress-related PhD conditions (e.g., isolation, work–life conflicts) and many PhD students leaving academia, the tool can provide valuable explanations.
... Afterwards, the participants further disseminated it to individuals who had similar interests, following a technique referred to as snowball sampling. By utilizing this method, it was easier to locate and connect with individuals who had an interest in travelling amid the pandemic with limited research resources (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981;Heckathorn, 1997;Baltar & Brunet, 2012). ...
Despite occasional shocks, tourism, as one of the world’s largest industries, has undergone rapid evolution in the last decades. Nonetheless, the industry has been shocked by the recent COVID-19 outbreak, and it is still unclear how the tourist psyche has changed and what the aftermath will be. This study presents an innovative explicit-implicit approach to examine how the pandemic-induced (re)connection with nature influences travel and destination choices. Based on the findings, respondents explicitly and implicitly reported a favourable perception of natural destinations amid the pandemic. Consequently, the author can observe an increase in the popularity of natural sites, along with a corresponding surge in the frequency of nature visits, particularly among women and individuals with less committed or no relationships. Key values were identified as the driving forces behind this trend, including serenity, uniqueness, safety, closeness, and discovery, which can be considered crucial factors in shaping the future of sustainable tourism.
... Collecting additional interviews through this sampling method is well-established when working with populations that can be difficult to access. 52 Elites, such as legal professionals, have been noted as difficult participants to access. 53 Interviews were semi-structured and open-ended. ...
... The research began by interviewing a select group of prominent experts from German public institutions involved in digitalization and open innovation. To identify the interviewees, we used a snowball method [8]. In this approach, each expert interviewed was asked to recommend other professionals in their field who fit the criteria of the study. ...
The digital transformation of the public sector towards e-government brings benefits such as greater efficiency and transparency but also faces challenges, including a lag in digital innovation and a low adoption rate compared to the private sector. This gap, exacerbated by limited IT skills and outdated processes in the public sector, undermines public trust and highlights the urgent need for governments to develop the necessary skills and technological knowledge to meet citizens' needs. Co-production in public sector innovation labs with citizen participation is an effective means of developing citizen-centered services. However, existing research is limited, and these innovation labs often struggle to engage citizens and maximize the benefits of co-production in practice. To better understand these dynamics, we conducted a study of 17 expert interviews, exploring the co-production process, the measures used, and the challenges faced. Our findings discuss the critical role of innovation labs in fostering civic engagement and managing co-production and highlight the complexity of fostering innovation in the public sector. CCS CONCEPTS • Human-centered computing ! Collaborative and social computing ; Empirical studies in collaborative and social computing;; • Applied computing Computers in other domains ! Computing in government; E-government.
Bu araştırma, ebeveynlerinin boşanmasının çocuklar üzerindeki etkilerini sınıf öğretmenlerinin görüşleri aracılığıyla belirlemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Araştırma, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden olgu bilim deseni kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, 2023-2024 eğitim öğretim yılında Türkiye'nin bir şehrinde, çeşitli devlet okullarında görev yapan yirmi sekiz sınıf öğretmeni oluşturmaktadır. Katılımcılar amaçlı örnekleme yöntemi ile belirlenmiştir. Veriler, yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formları aracılığıyla toplanmış ve içerik analizi yolu ile betimlenmiştir. Araştırma bulgularına göre, ebeveynleri boşanmış öğrencilerin sınıf içindeki davranışlarında oluşan farklılıklar, ebeveynlerinin boşanmasının öğrencilerin akademik performansları üzerindeki etkisi, ebeveynlerinin boşanmasının öğrencilerin sosyal ilişkilerine etkisi, ebeveynleri boşanmış öğrencilere yönelik okulda uygulanan destek programları ve ebeveynleri boşanmış öğrenciler için faydalı olabilecek destek ve kaynaklar olmak üzere beş ana tema belirlenmiştir. Araştırma sonuçları, ebeveynlerinin boşanma sürecinden öğrencilerin sosyal, davranışsal, ekonomik ve psikolojik açılardan olumsuz olarak etkilediklerini göstermektedir. Ebeveynlerinin boşanmasının öğrenciler üzerindeki bu olumsuz etkilerini en aza indirmek amacı ile okullarda sağlanabilecek destek ve kaynakların geliştirilmesi konusunda sınıf öğretmenlerine rehberlik yapacak önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
تهدف الدراسة إلى استقصاء تأثير العوامل الجوهرية المكونة للاختلالات السلوكية للمدقق الواجب تقليلها على بناء إستراتيجية التدقيق لدى مكاتب التدقيق في الجزائر، بالإضافة الى التحقق من الأثر المباشر لبيئة التدقيق وغير المباشر عن طريق علاقة الاختلالات السلوكية باستراتيجية التدقيق. كما تهدف الدراسة الى اختبار أثر المتغير المعدل المتمثل في المتابعة من قبل الجهات الوصية على العلاقة بين الاختلالات السلوكية واستراتيجية التدقيق. ولتحقيق غرض الدراسة، تم تصميم أداة استبانه وتوزيعها على عينة من مجتمع الدراسة التي بلغت (204) مهني مدقق ناشط في ممارسة مهنة الخبرة المحاسبية ومحافظة الحسابات في الجزائر، حيث تم الحرص على أن وحدة المعاينة تكون مكونة من الاشخاص ذوي الصلة المهنية بإجراء عمليات التدقيق على مستوى المكاتب المتضمنة في عينة الدراسة وتحليل البيانات المستقاة من أداة الدراسة عن طرق استخدام نمذجة المعادلات البنائية بتقنية المربعات الصغرى الجزئية. خلصت الدراسة إلى أن تقليل الاختلالات السلوكية الجوهرية عند المدقق تؤثر بصورة جوهرية على بناء إستراتيجية التدقيق، لاسيما الاختلالات المرتبطة بالميزانية الزمنية والمرتبطة بالإطار القانوني، كما أن هناك أثر مباشر جوهري لبيئة التدقيق على كل من تقليل الاختلالات السلوكية للمدقق وبناء استراتيجية التدقيق المناسبة. ومن جهة أخرى فقد خلصت الدراسة الى تلعب هناك دور الوساطة للاختلالات السلوكية للمدقق في العلاقة بين بيئة التدقيق وإستراتيجية التدقيق. كما ان المتابعة من الجهات الوصية تعدل بشكل جوهري العلاقة بين الاختلالات السلوكية واستراتيجية التدقيق. توصي الدراسة بالتركيز على الجانب السلوكي للمهنيين المدققين وما يتضمنه من فرص لكسب المعارف لتطوير المهنة وزيادة كفاءه المهنيين في الميدان. كما توصي الدراسة بضرورة الأخذ بعين الإعتبار واقع بيئة التدقيق بكل جوانبها الاجتماعية والاقتصادية والمؤسساتية وحتى الجوانب الشخصية والنفسية للمدققين في الجزائر من أجل فهم كيفيات التعامل مع الضغوط المولدة للاختلالات السلوكية وتخفيفها من أجل أداء عمليات تدقيق وفق استراتيجات مناسبة في الظروف. كما تقترح الدراسة العمل على تطوير سياسات فعالة من قبل الجهات الوصية من أجل الخروج بإجراءات متابعة واشراف تتمتع بالشمول وبالقوة وبالفعالية والكفاءة من أجل ضبط الممارسات المهنية ودفع المهنيين الى تطوير استراتيجيات تدقيق مناسبة لمكاتب التدقيق في الجزائر.
Abstrait:
L'étude vise à étudier l'effet du comportement d'un auditeur dysfonctionnel sur l'élaboration d'une stratégie d'audit en Algérie. En outre, l'étude tente de vérifier l'effet direct de l'environnement d'audit ainsi que l'effet indirect en réduisant le comportement de l'auditeur dysfonctionnel en tant que médiateur vers la construction. La stratégie d’audit. L’étude examine également l’effet de la variable modératrice représentée par le processus de surveillance sur la relation entre la réduction du comportement dysfonctionnel de l’auditeur et la stratégie d’audit. Pour atteindre l'objectif de l'étude, un outil de questionnaire a été conçu et distribué à un échantillon de 204 auditeurs en Algérie. En exploitant la modélisation d'équations structurelles utilisant la technique des moindres carrés partiels dans le but d'analyser les données extraites de l'enquête par questionnaire, l'étude a conclu que la réduction du comportement des auditeurs dysfonctionnels affecte de manière significative le développement positif de la stratégie d'audit, en particulier les dysfonctionnements liés au budget temps et au cadre juridique, En outre, il existe un impact direct et significatif de l'environnement d'audit sur chacune des catégories de comportement et sur la stratégie d'audit de l'auditeur dysfonctionnel. D’autre part, l’étude conclut que le comportement des auditeurs dysfonctionnels joue un rôle médiateur dans la relation entre l’environnement d’audit et la stratégie d’audit en développement. En outre, la variable de surveillance modère considérablement la relation entre la réduction du comportement dysfonctionnement de l’auditeur et l’élaboration d’une stratégie d’audit.
Abstract:
The study aims to investigate the effect of dysfunctional auditor’s behavior on developing audit strategy in Algeria, in addition, the study attempts to verify the direct effect of the audit environment as well as the indirect effect path through reducing dysfunctional auditor’s behavior as a mediator toward building the audit strategy. The study also examines the effect of the moderator variable represented by monitoring process on the relationship between reducing dysfunctional auditor’s behavior and the audit strategy. To achieve the purpose of the study, a questionnaire tool was designed and distributed to a sample of 204 auditors in Algeria. By exploiting structural equation modeling using the partial least squares technique for the purpose of analyzing extracted data from the questionnaire survey, the study concluded that reducing dysfunctionals auditor’s behavior significantly affect positively developing audit strategy, especially Dysfonctions related to the time budget and the legal framework, in Addition there is a direct and significant impact of the audit environment on each of dysfunctional auditor’s behaviour categories and audit strategy. On the other hand, the study concluds that dysfunctionals auditor’s behavior play a mediating role in the relationship between audit environment and the developing audit strategy. Also, monitoring variable significantly moderates the relationship between reducing dysfunctionals auditor’s behavior and developing audit strategy.
Continuing to emit greenhouse gases (GHGs) moves our planet closer to crossing critical tipping points, making ongoing development of fossil fuels an act of climate injustice. Yet, the United States has doubled down on unconventional oil and gas (UOG), becoming the top global producer of hydrocarbons. Significant segments of the public resist UOG drilling, mobilizing to limit or stop production due to intersecting climate, environmental, and public health concerns. However, regulatory conflicts complicate the power of public resistance and problematize the role of the state in facilitating industry. UOG production has rapidly expanded with little capacity for public participation in decision-making. We contend this is a climate injustice—where procedural injustices across levels of governance make it difficult for the public to prevent fossil fuel extraction. We examine these injustices across state legislative, judicial, and executive governance processes in Colorado where residents have actively resisted UOG production. We demonstrate how the public consistently faces procedural inequities and power disadvantages across multiple sites and levels of decision-making, resulting in multilevel disempowerment. In this high-stakes context, our policy ethnography illustrates how these multilevel procedural injustices can facilitate rapid expansion of UOG production, where state-sanctioned activities also constitute broader acts of climate violence and injustice.
Bu araştırma, oturarak voleybol sporcularının oturarak voleybol kavramına yönelik metaforik algılarını ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Katılımcılara kartopu örnekleme yöntemiyle ulaşılmıştır. Araştırma grubunu oturarak voleybol süper liginde oynayan 2 kadın, 47 erkek olmak üzere toplamda 49 sporcu oluşturmaktadır. Verileri toplamak amacıyla her katılımcıya ‘‘Oturarak voleybol ___________ gibidir, çünkü _________ ” cümlesini içeren bir form ve demografik bilgilerini içeren kişisel bilgi formu sunulmuştur. Bu araştırmada nitel araştırma desenlerinden olgu bilim deseni kullanılmıştır. Metaforun konusuyla alakalı olmayan iki form analiz dışı bırakılmıştır. İçerik analizi yapılmış ve benzer özellikteki metaforlar için kategoriler oluşturulmuştur. Yüzdelik ve frekans analizi yapmak için SPSS 24 programından yararlanılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre oturarak voleybol sporcuları 39 adet geçerli metafor üretmişlerdir. Üretilen metaforlar beş kategoride toplanmıştır. Bunlar “Sağlık Unsuru, Psikoloji Unsuru, Sosyalleşme Unsuru, Engelleri Aşma Unsuru, Mutluluk Unsuru” şeklindedir. İncelenen tüm metaforlar olumludur. İstenmeyen veya olumsuz hiçbir metaforun olmadığı söylenebilir. Araştırmada oturarak voleybol kavramına yönelik en fazla “hayat” metaforunun üretildiği tespit edilmiştir.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, 1974 Kıbrıs Savaşı'ndan sağ kurtulanların, günümüzdeki genç yetişkinlerin ebeveynleri olduğu gerçeğine dayanarak bu çalışmada savaşla ilgili ikinci ve üçüncü kuşak Kıbrıslı Türklerde aktarılan psikolojik travma, kaygı ve obsesif-kompulsif bozukluğun incelenmesidir. Aktarılan Psikolojik Travma Ölçeği, Beck Anksiyete Ölçeği, DSM-5 Yineleyici Düşünce ve Davranışlar Ölçeği ve Kısa Psikolojik Sağlamlık Ölçeği ve Demografik Bilgi Formu ile toplanan veriler SPSS 27. Aracılığıyla Bağımsız Örneklemler t-test ve ANOVA testleri ile analiz edilmiştir. Betimsel araştırma modelinin kullanıldığı bu araştırma 1974 savaşında savaş deneyimi yaşayan bireylerden sonraki ikinci ve üçüncü kuşak bireylerden 195 kadın ve 110 erkek olarak toplam 305 kişi ile yapılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre katılımcıların aktarılan psikolojik travma ve alt boyutları cinsiyete göre farklılaşmamaktadır. Ayrıca anneleri savaş sürecinde karma köyden göç eden katılımcıların aktarılan psikolojik travma, psikolojik sağlamlık düzeyleri anneleri diğer bölgelerden göç eden katılımcılara göre farklılaşmaktadır. Ancak, anneleri Türk köyünden göç edenlerin aile işlevselliği ve kaygı düzeyleri diğerlerine göre anlamlı düzeyde farklılık göstermektedir. Ancak katılımcıların psikolojik sağlamlık düzeyleri ile aktarılan psikolojik travmanın alt boyutu olan duygu-davranış düzenleme ve aile işlevselliği annenin göç değişkeninde anlamlı bir farklılık gösterirken, babanın psikolojik sağlamlık düzeyleri ise göç değişkeninde farklılaşmamaktadır. Diğer taraftan aktarılan psikolojik travmada katılımcıların annelerinin savaşta sürecinde aktif olarak yer alması farklılık göstermezken, katılımcıların babalarının aktif çatışmada yer alması anlamlı düzeyde bir farklılık göstermektedir. Bu çalışmanın bulguları ele alındığında gelecek çalışmalarda benzer bir örneklem ile aktarılan psikolojik travma ve kaygı değişkenlerine ek olarak biriktiricilik davranışının eklenmesi önerilmektedir.
The case study delves into the concept of criminal conformance deviance within the realm of economic crime, using the example of the Norwegian housing company Obos. Despite legal compliance, Obos faced criticism and labeled economic crime due to deviations from its social housing mission, causing a member revolt. The company’s actions violated its social license to operate, as stakeholders perceived the developments as illegitimate, lacking credibility, and breaching trust. This erosion of trust stemmed from management decisions prioritizing profit over cooperative values and member interests, leading to calls for greater transparency and democratic processes. Efforts to regain the social license involved internal investigations, stakeholder consultations, and communication strategies. The case underscores the importance of aligning organizational actions with stakeholder expectations to maintain legitimacy and trust.
O presente artigo utiliza a construção social de problemas ambientais como proposta para discutir os problemas ambientais que são socialmente construídos no município de Três Rios-RJ. Com isso, o objetivo do estudo foi identificar as principais reivindicações ambientais dos moradores do bairro Rua Direita, em Três Rios, que é um bairro periférico que contém em seu território diversas fontes potenciais de poluição ambiental, incluindo diversas indústrias, o antigo lixão municipal e o novo aterro sanitário. Buscou-se verificar como a população interpreta a espacialidade desses problemas ambientais e avaliar a produção de injustiça espacial no local. Para isso, foram feitas entrevistas semiestruturadas com os moradores do bairro. Doze entrevistas foram realizadas e o principal problema ambiental identificado foi o aterro sanitário. A partir da operação do aterro, foi identificada a geração de chorume e o seu lançamento nos corpos hídricos do bairro. A população está exposta aos impactos ambientais do chorume. A decisão locacional de concentrar diversas atividades poluidoras no mesmo bairro revela a produção de uma zona de sacrifício dentro do município de Três Rios. O aterro sanitário, então, aparece como um promotor de injustiça espacial e ambiental com anuência do poder público.
RESUMO Diante da relevância do marketing digital para os negócios, o presente estudo objetiva identificar os usos deste tipo de marketing feito por pequenos agricultores e propor um framework que auxilie na adoção de estratégias de marketing digital para esse público. Por meio de uma abordagem qualitativa e descritiva, o estudo coletou informações sobre o uso do marketing digital com 20 pequenos agricultores do Estado de Minas Gerais, no intuito de diagnosticar como estes têm utilizado este recurso. Para isso, foi desenvolvido um questionário com informações sociodemográficas e com questões versando sobre recursos de marketing digital utilizados entre produtores rurais. Ao todo foram obtidas 20 respostas, onde se notou o baixo uso e conhecimento de recursos de marketing digital entre os produtores, quadro esse que se justifica por limitações macroestruturais, como as deficiências de infraestrutura, falta de capacitação e também de aprimoramento das práticas de gestão. A partir dos resultados do presente estudo, espera-se que o framework proposto possa servir de referência para o planejamento estratégico de marketing digital para pequenos produtores rurais. Palavras-chave: Agricultura Familiar. Internet. Marketing. Mídias Sociais. Minas Gerais.
A healthy lifestyle is a crucial step in disease prevention and management, as well as a significant predictor of health promotion. Yet, despite an increase in chronic morbidity among Bedouin women in southern Israel, little research has been conducted on their health behaviors. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine barriers to adopting a healthy lifestyle and health promotion among ethnic minority Bedouin women in southern Israel.
This qualitative study was based on data collected through focus groups during June and July 2021. Participants included 44 Bedouin women aged 18–55. Focus groups were recorded and transcribed. Transcriptions were thematically analyzed and coded using the ecological model.
We found multiple barriers at various levels that prevent Bedouin women from adopting a healthy lifestyle and health promotion. At the individual level, such factors included the impact of financial limitations on healthful nutrition, as well as a lack of awareness or knowledge regarding healthy lifestyle and health promotion. At the organizational level, barriers include a lack of clinics, accessibility, and availability of health services and cultural incompatibility of the health services. At the community level, impediments to a healthy lifestyle include inaccessibility to sports facilities and suppression of physical activity. At the public policy level, participants, especially those living in unrecognized villages, described difficult living conditions related to environmental and social neglect as affecting their health status and ability to maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Study findings emphasize the need for policymaking and a systemic approach to address health disparities and ensure equal health promotion for the Bedouin population.
Social commerce (s-commerce) is increasing in importance in electronic commerce (e-commerce), as new platforms emerge that combine social media features with the attributes of traditional commerce to optimize consumers' purchase experiences and social interaction. However, privacy and trust issues in the online environment are rising and have become increasingly important, due to the huge amount of user-generated content (UGC) and the lack of face-to-face interactions. Therefore, understanding how the security factors of online reviews could impact on s-commerce decision making is a critical need. Drawing upon the task–technology fit (TTF) model, institution-based trust, and the heuristic–systematic model (HSM), this research established a research framework to better understand online review factors, trust, and privacy concern and how they affect consumers' behavioral intention to use s-commerce sites. In total, 486 online survey responses were collected from s-commerce users. This research used structural equation modeling (SEM) and artificial neural network (ANN) analysis to analyze the data and to confirm the hypotheses proposed in the research model. The empirical findings revealed that source credibility, information quality, and influencer endorsement positively and significantly impacted on trust in s-commerce sites. However, the results showed that reviews did not significantly impact on trust in s-commerce sites. Privacy concern was also revealed to negatively affect both trust in s-commerce sites and behavioral intention. The results also showed that trust in s-commerce sites and task–technology fit (TTF) have a significant impact on behavioral intention. Finally, this research discussed its theoretical, practical, and social contributions, as well as its limitations, and suggested directions for future research.
O artigo aborda a competência das serventias extrajudiciais na atuação da mediação e conciliação como garantia do princípio constitucional do acesso à justiça de forma efetiva, justa e tempestiva, com a finalidade de evitar a hiperjudicialização decorrente da cultura do litígio. Há um percentual alto de demandas cuja natureza é disponível ou indisponível transacionável que pode ser solucionado através dos meios consensuais de resolução de conflitos utilizando de forma otimizada os potenciais físico e humano já existentes nos Cartórios. Diante desse cenário, analisa-se o microssistema normativo de autocomposição para efetivação permanente de novos espaços de promoção do direito a partir do exame de experiências exitosas. Além disso, foi desenvolvida uma pesquisa online entre os delegatórios do Estado do Ceará com o objetivo de mapear como as serventias extrajudiciais utilizam a mediação e conciliação no Estado. Com o objetivo de implantar políticas públicas para resolução consensual de conflitos no Tribunal de Justiça do Ceará em parceria com as serventias extrajudiciais, apresentam-se sugestões e resultados esperados factuais no cenário cearense.
Nowadays, many companies design and develop their software systems as a set of loosely coupled microservices that communicate via their Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). While the loose coupling improves maintainability, scalability, and fault tolerance, it poses new challenges to the API evolution process. Related works identified communication and integration as major API evolution challenges but did not provide the underlying reasons and research directions to mitigate them. In this paper, we aim to identify microservice API evolution strategies and challenges in practice and gain a broader perspective of their relationships. We conducted 17 semi-structured interviews with developers, architects, and managers in 11 companies and analyzed the interviews with open coding used in grounded theory. In total, we identified six strategies and six challenges for REpresentational State Transfer (REST) and event-driven communication via message brokers. The strategies mainly focus on API backward compatibility, versioning, and close collaboration between teams. The challenges include change impact analysis efforts, ineffective communication of changes, and consumer reliance on outdated versions, leading to API design degradation. We defined two important problems in microservice API evolution resulting from the challenges and their coping strategies: tight organizational coupling and consumer lock-in. To mitigate these two problems, we propose automating the change impact analysis and investigating effective communication of changes as open research directions.
Contrary to expectations, a global survey of recent graduates found no direct link between participation in continuing Professional Development (CPD) and their self-determination or motivation. Despite diverse backgrounds and consistently high intrinsic motivation, the study challenges traditional assumptions about motivation being solely driven by CPD. This highlights the inherent value individuals place on professional development, potentially driven by personal growth aspirations or intellectual curiosity. The lack of a direct CPDmotivation link suggests a crucial shift towards more holistic development strategies. Beyond just technical skills, incorporating soft skills training, leadership development, and emotional intelligence workshops could create well-rounded professionals equipped for the modern workplace. Consistent self-determination levels across diverse groups imply a receptiveness to guidance and support. Exploring the potential of mentorship programs could be highly beneficial, offering personalized advice, career guidance, and role models, potentially boosting intrinsic motivation and career satisfaction. This study paves the way for a more effective professional development framework that prioritizes intrinsic motivation, fosters a love for learning, and offers flexible learning avenues catering to individual preferences and styles. Incorporating technical skill development, soft skills training, mentorship opportunities, and tracking progress holistically, organizations and individuals can move beyond a transactional view of CPD and unlock its true potential: fostering not just technically skilled professionals, but also self-determined, intrinsically motivated individuals ready to thrive in the ever-evolving workplace.
An $s$ stage $k$ name snowball sampling procedure is defined as follows: A random sample of individuals is drawn from a given finite population. (The kind of random sample will be discussed later in this section.) Each individual in the sample is asked to name $k$ different individuals in the population, where $k$ is a specified integer; for example, each individual may be asked to name his "$k$ best friends," or the "$k$ individuals with whom he most frequently associates," or the "$k$ individuals whose opinions he most frequently seeks," etc. (For the sake of simplicity, we assume throughout that an individual cannot include himself in his list of $k$ individuals.) The individuals who were not in the random sample but were named by individuals in it form the first stage. Each of the individuals in the first stage is then asked to name $k$ different individuals. (We assume that the question asked of the individuals in the random sample and of those in each stage is the same and that $k$ is the same.) The individuals who were not in the random sample nor in the first stage but were named by individuals who were in the first stage form the second stage. Each of the individuals in the second stage is then asked to name $k$ different individuals. The individuals who were not in the random sample nor in the first or second stages but were named by individuals who were in the second stage form the third stage. Each of the individuals in the third stage is then asked to name $k$ different individuals. This procedure is continued until each of the individuals in the $s$th stage has been asked to name $k$ different individuals. The data obtained using an $s$ stage $k$ name snowball sampling procedure can be utilized to make statistical inferences about various aspects of the relationships present in the population. The relationships present, in the hypothetical situation where each individual in the population is asked to name $k$ different individuals, can be described by a matrix with rows and columns corresponding to the members of the population, rows for the individuals naming and columns for the individuals named, where the entry $\theta_{ij}$ in the $i$th row and $j$th column is 1 if the $i$th individual in the population includes the $j$th individual among the $k$ individuals he would name, and it is 0 otherwise. While the matrix of the $\theta$'s cannot be known in general unless every individual in the population is interviewed (i.e., asked to name $k$ different individuals), it will be possible to make statistical inferences about various aspects of this matrix from the data obtained using an $s$ stage $k$ name snowball sampling procedure. For example, when $s = k = 1$, the number, $M_{11}$, of mutual relationships present in the population (i.e., the number of values $i$ with $\theta_{ij} = \theta_{ji} = 1$ for some value of $j > i$) can be estimated. The methods of statistical inference applied to the data obtained from an $s$ stage $k$ name snowball sample will of course depend on the kind of random sample drawn as the initial step. In most of the present paper, we shall suppose that a random sample (i.e., the "zero stage" in snowball sample) is drawn so that the probability, $p$, that a given individual in the population will be in the sample is independent of whether a different given individual has appeared. This kind of sampling has been called binomial sampling; the specified value of $p$ (assumed known) has been called the sampling fraction [4]. This sampling scheme might also be described by saying that a given individual is included in the sample just when a coin, which has a probability $p$ of "heads," comes up "heads," where the tosses of the coin from individual to individual are independent. (To each individual there corresponds an independent Bernoulli trial determining whether he will or will not be included in the sample.) This sampling scheme differs in some respects from the more usual models where the sample size is fixed in advance or where the ratio of the sample size to the population size (i.e., the sample size-population size ratio) is fixed. For binomial sampling, this ratio is a random variable whose expected value is $p$. (The variance of this ratio approaches zero as the population becomes infinite.) In some situations (where, for example, the variance of this ratio is near zero), mathematical results obtained for binomial sampling are sometimes quite similar to results obtained using some of the more usual sampling models (see [4], [7]; compare the variance formulas in [3] and [5]); in such cases it will often not make much difference, from a practical point of view, which sampling model is utilized. (In Section 6 of the present paper some results for snowball sampling based on an initial sample of the more usual kind are obtained and compared with results presented in the earlier sections of this paper obtained for snowball sampling based on an initial binomial sample.) For snowball sampling based on an initial binomial sample, and with $s = k = 1$, so that each individual asked names just one other individual and there is just one stage beyond the initial sample, Section 2 of this paper discusses unbiased estimation of $M_{11}$, the number of pairs of individuals in the population who would name each other. One of the unbiased estimators considered (among a certain specified class of estimators) has uniformly smallest variance when the population characteristics are unknown; this one is based on a sufficient statistic for a simplified summary of the data and is the only unbiased estimator of $M_{11}$ based on that sufficient statistic (when the population characteristics are unknown). This estimator (when $s = k = 1$) has a smaller variance than a comparable minimum variance unbiased estimator computed from a larger random sample when $s = 0$ and $k = 1$ (i.e., where only the individuals in the random sample are interviewed) even where the expected number of individuals in the larger random sample $(s = 0, k = 1)$ is equal to the maximum expected number of individuals studied when $s = k = 1$ (i.e., the sum of the expected number of individuals in the initial sample and the maximum expected number of individuals in the first stage). In fact, the variance of the estimator when $s = 0$ and $k = 1$ is at least twice as large as the variance of the comparable estimator when $s = k = 1$ even where the expected number of individuals studied when $s = 0$ and $k = 1$ is as large as the maximum expected number of individuals studied when $s = k = 1$. Thus, for estimating $M_{11}$, the sampling scheme with $s = k = 1$ is preferable to the sampling scheme with $s = 0$ and $k = 1$. Furthermore, we observe that when $s = k = 1$ the unbiased estimator based on the simplified summary of the data having minimum variance when the population characteristics are unknown can be improved upon in cases where certain population characteristics are known, or where additional data not included in the simplified summary are available. Several improved estimators are derived and discussed. Some of the results for the special case of $s = k = 1$ are generalized in Sections 3 and 4 to deal with cases where $s$ and $k$ are any specified positive integers. In Section 5, results are presented about $s$ stage $k$ name snowball sampling procedures, where each individual asked to name $k$ different individuals chooses $k$ individuals at random from the population. (Except in Section 5, the numbers $\theta_{ij}$, which form the matrix referred to earlier, are assumed to be fixed (i.e., to be population parameters); in Section 5, they are random variables. A variable response error is not considered except in so far as Section 5 deals with an extreme case of this.) For social science literature that discusses problems related to snowball sampling, see [2], [8], and the articles they cite. This literature indicates, among other things, the importance of studying "social structure and...the relations among individuals" [2].
Lindesmith and others claim that once physical dependence is established addicts do not experience euphoria. Consequently, euphoria cannot explain chronic addiction. Data are presented to show that, contrary to this view, long-term addicts experience euphoria frequently, crave it, and act to obtain it. "Lack of money" is the most important reason addicts give for not experiencing euphoria more often. Based on success in achieving euphoria, two classes of addicts are identified. The sources of income of addicts who experience euphoria most often correspond to those of types described by others as highest in prestige. Analysis suggests an addict stratification system founded on the two major psychopharmacological phenomena of opiates: withdrawal and euphoria. Addicts who barely succeed at tending to their daily need to avoid withdrawal are lowest in prestige. In the higher prestige ranges, addicts are stratified by their success in achieving euphoria. Thus, the social as well as the value system of addicts owes much to success at achieving what are universally considered, at the individual level, to be the most fundamental reinforcers. Since these reinforcers operate at the individual level, our analysis reveals the addict social system as a microcosm of broader theoretical interest, with transitions between physiological, psychological, cultural, economic, and sociological phenomena in plain view.
This paper reviews the literature in an area which has received little attention of drug researchers — spontaneous remission. The paper reviews all the research studies that have looked at the phenomena of the “natural” recovery from heroin addiction — natural in the sense that some addicts manage to stop using heroin and not become re-addicted without the help of treatment intervention. Some areas for future research are also suggested.
Untreated ex-addicts can be found relatively easily if the researcher has some initial contact with addicts and ex-addicts and is imaginative about places he might go to look for them. Existing institutions, such as fundamentalist churches, political reform groups and educational opportunity programs in colleges and universities are good places to start. Addicts do have resources (both individual and within the community) to give up opiates and build a new life without the need for treatment. Some do it by their own efforts while others seek assistance from the community. Some addicts may not need formal treatment to change and in some instances treatment may possibly compound the addict's problem because of the possible stigmatization and continuing association with addicts that can result from going to treatment. The successful ex-addict is one who not only moves away from drug scenes, drug users and the attendent subculture but also actively rebuilds new interests and identities or takes up earlier non-drug-using identities. This recovery almost always involves work and/or family related identities so that drug programs (both methadone maintenance and therapeutic communities) should be more deliberate about stimulating clients to train for and find meaningful work and to take up intimate relationships and/or family responsibilities.
Howard S. Becker makes the following observation regarding the inadvisability of attempting to understand deviance solely through the study of people who represent what might be termed the “extreme” cases. He states, “We should also consider those who have a more fleeting contact with deviance, whose careers lead them away from it into conventional ways of life. Thus, for example, studies of delinquents who fail to become adult criminals might teach us even more than studies of delinquents who progress in crime” (Becker, 1963, pp. 24-25).
The research presented in this paper represents a preliminary effort to gain information and insight regarding social factors which operate to explain why some individuals cease using heroin after an early juvenile involvement, while others seem to continue heroin usage more or less throughout their adult lives. Forty dual interviews with persons who had jointly indulged in early heroin usage were employed to obtain the data.
The interviews indicated that in a large percentage of cases the reasons attributed by both the continuing user, or addict, and the former user to the latter's termination of heroin usage were very often non-volitional in nature, representing the intervention of social circumstances which the individual saw as beyond his ability to control or overcome at the time. These cases, twenty-two out of forty, involved either the physical removal of the individual from his source of supply, or the failure of the existing source of supply to continue furnishing drugs. These findings would seem to underscore strongly the fact that continuance of usage, following early experience with heroin, depends heavily on social opportunity to continue usage; otherwise the “habit,” these data appear to indicate, may, in many instances, be abandoned.
There remains, of course, an important supplementary issue: to determine with more precision which individuals will abandon heroin usage in the face of adverse social conditions, and which ones will persist and succeed in surmounting the intervening barriers. That the barriers are not overcome, however, by a considerable number of individuals appears to represent a finding not adequately stressed in either the theoretical or the empirical literature on illicit drug usage.
The interviews also appear to demonstrate the inadequacy or the incorrectness of the view that symptoms of physical withdrawal will inevitably send narcotics users in inexorable search for a supply of the narcotic to alleviate their distress. In nine cases the ex-users reported that the awareness of their physical dependence was the significant factor leading to abandonment of heroin usage, even though supplies of the drug were readily available to them. This point is seemingly at odds with Lindesmith's conclusion that such awareness is inevitably followed by subsequent usage (Lindesmith. 1947, p. 69), though it must be kept in mind that Lindesmith was not analyzing initial involvement patterns of short-term users. But the point is significant. The finding that physical symptoms of addiction may lead to temporary cessation of usage, or to a conscious and deliberate diminution of usage, has been confirmed in numerous other interviews with addicts who passed through East Los Angeles Halfway House.
In addition, there is also the problem of determining whether the personality patterns generally alleged to lead individuals to become “primary” addicts as suggested by Ausubel (Ausubel, 1958, p. 41), for instance, would differ for the addicts interviewed, when compared with the ex-users interviewed. There often seemed to be quite striking personality variations between the two men interviewed simultaneously. The ex-user, for instance, appeared more self-assured than the addict, and often seemed inclined to be condescending, critical and rather intolerant of the addict with whom he was interviewed. But it cannot be said that these variations were present at the time of initial narcotics involvement and are not the product of vastly different life experiences since that time. If the personality patterns were more similar in the distant past or if both men might by virtue of their joint initial narcotics usage have been defined as “addict-prone,” then the findings presented here seem to suggest rather strongly that social circumstances can and do play an important role in determining whether or not such “addict-prone” neophyte narcotics users will persist in usage into their adult lives.
The authors present five case histories illustrating controlled use of opiates ("chipping"). Long-term chippers tend to develop consistent social use patterns that permit and also limit use. The authors conclude that controlled use of opiates is possible and that large numbers of people are involved in such use, although they are hard to locate and identify. Controlled users are differentiated from compulsive users more by their development and maintenance of social drug use rituals than by such variables as availability of the drug and personality and family background of the user.
Fifty middle-class "dealers" of illicit drugs were studied via snowball sampling techniques to define behavior characteristics and communication patterns. Findings indicated that dealers tended to be users of the drugs they sell, likely to deal for friendship or free drugs, and also that dealers of opiates or psychedelics initiated a greater number of non-users of drugs than did marijuana dealers. Friendship networks were the primary link in creating awareness about drugs, their effects, abuse, and treatment, in addition to initiating neophytes to experimentation. Information seeking behaviors among dealers, non-dealer users and non-users are compared. Implications for drug abuse information dissemination and treatment are discussed.
Formerly addicted-now-controlled opiate users
- W Harding
- N Zinberg
- S Stemack
- M Barry
Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance
- R Haberstein
A theory of narcotic abstinence
- J W Coleman
The Market Place of Speed: Violence and Compulsive Behavior
- R Smith
Young Men and Drugs: A Nationwide Survey
- J A Wdonnell
- H L Voss
- R R Clayton
- G T Slatin
- R Room
The Vietnam Drug User Returns
- L N Robins