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Risks and Benefits Associated with Genetically Modified (GM) Plants
Abstract
Genetically modified (GM) plants are those whose genomes have been modified by the introduction of foreign DNA constructs derived from bacteria, fungi, viruses, or animals. The most common genetically modified plants include soybeans, maize/corn, rapeseed mustard, potatoes, cotton, sugarcane, tomato, rice, and aspen/Populus. In this chapter, we list 16 goals of genetic engineers in developing GM plants. These are plants that manifest frost hardiness; insect and herbicide tolerance; virus resistance; altered starch, cellulose, and lignin production; altered levels and kinds of oils and proteins in seed crops; higher levels of antioxidants in edible fruits, synthesis of new metabolites like beta-carotene in rice grains and vaccines in non-edible plants; and sequestration of hazardous wastes from polluted (“brown field”) areas. The next section of this chapter includes a discussion of the purported benefits and risks of GM plants. Our goal here is to present this information in as balanced a fashion as possible. Lastly, we address important questions and answers concerning GM plants and food products.
... Genetically modified (GM) plants are those whose genomes have been modified via the introduction of foreign DNA derived from bacteria, fungi, viruses, or animals; this process has been used to verify the gene function and generate GM plants [23,24]. Up to now, two common systems have been used for gene transfer in the generation of GM plants: the Agrobacterium-mediated system and the gene-gun-mediated system [25,26]. ...
With the climate constantly changing, plants suffer more frequently from various abiotic and biotic stresses. However, they have evolved biosynthetic machinery to survive in stressful environmental conditions. Flavonoids are involved in a variety of biological activities in plants, which can protect plants from different biotic (plant-parasitic nematodes, fungi and bacteria) and abiotic stresses (salt stress, drought stress, UV, higher and lower temperatures). Flavonoids contain several subgroups, including anthocyanidins, flavonols, flavones, flavanols, flavanones, chalcones, dihydrochalcones and dihydroflavonols, which are widely distributed in various plants. As the pathway of flavonoid biosynthesis has been well studied, many researchers have applied transgenic technologies in order to explore the molecular mechanism of genes associated with flavonoid biosynthesis; as such, many transgenic plants have shown a higher stress tolerance through the regulation of flavonoid content. In the present review, the classification, molecular structure and biological biosynthesis of flavonoids were summarized, and the roles of flavonoids under various forms of biotic and abiotic stress in plants were also included. In addition, the effect of applying genes associated with flavonoid biosynthesis on the enhancement of plant tolerance under various biotic and abiotic stresses was also discussed.
... At present, Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac genes have been widely introduced into a variety of genetically modified crops, which reduce the use of pesticides and improve crop yield (Soberon et al. 2009;Betz et al. 2000;Edge et al. 2001). However, the widespread planting of genetically modified (GM) crops has also brought safety concerns about the potential risks of GM crops to human health and nature (König et al. 2004;Conway 2000;Kaufman et al. 2009). Therefore, governments have implemented GM labeling policies for GM crops and products (Marmiroli et al. 2008). ...
In the previous study, monoclonal antibody 2C12 which could specifically recognize Cry1Ab toxin and has no cross-reaction with Cry1Ac toxin was prepared by using the synthetic polypeptide T4 as immunogen. In this study, 2C12 was used as the gene source, and the single chain antibody scFv-2C12 was successfully constructed and expressed. Indirect ELISA result showed that scFv-2C12 could recognize both Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac toxins. In order to clarify the recognition mechanism of scFv-2C12 with Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac toxins, the interaction models of scFv-2C12 with Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac toxins were built and analyzed using homology modeling and molecular docking techniques. The results showed that scFv-2C12 was able to penetrate deep into Cry1Ac toxin and recognize hidden epitopes that could not recognized by conventional monoclonal antibody 2C12. The number of hydrogen bonds formed between scFv-2C12 and Cry1Ab/Ac was nine and eight, separately. The hydrophobic interactions formed between scFv-2C12 and Cry1Ab/Ac were both eight. Subsequently, based on scFv-2C12, double-antibody sandwich ELISA (DAS-ELISA) methods were developed to detect Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac toxins. The results showed that the minimum limits of detection and quantification (LOD and LOQ) for Cry1Ab were 5.014 and 20.45 ng·mL⁻¹, and 7.409 and 22.01 ng·mL⁻¹ for Cry1Ac, respectively. This study provides a basic material for the establishment of detection method for Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac toxins, and provides a new idea for the preparation of broad-spectrum antibodies.
... Various strategies such as genetically modifying crops for virus resistance have been explored to minimize losses from infections caused by viruses such as Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). With the current uncertainty on genetically modified plants as a solution against viral infections67, exploring the usage of co-infecting viruses to cross-protect as an alternative solution to counter virulent plant viruses seems to be a viable alternative. Cross protection describes the phenomenon which an infection of a mild strain virus protects plants against subsequent infection from the severe strain of a closely related virus [8]. ...
Mixed virus infections in plants are common in nature and their interactions affecting host plants would depend mainly on plant species, virus strains, the order of infection and initial amount of inoculum. Hence, the prediction of outcome of virus competition in plants is not easy. In this study, we applied evolutionary game theory to model the interactions between Hibiscus latent Singapore virus (HLSV) and Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in Nicotiana benthamiana under co-infection in a plant host. The accumulation of viral RNA was quantified using qPCR at 1, 2 and 8 days post infection (dpi), and two different methods were employed to predict the dominating virus. TMV was predicted to dominate the game in the long run and this prediction was confirmed by both qRT-PCR at 8 dpi and the death of co-infected plants after 15 dpi. In addition, we validated our model by using data reported in the literature. Ten out of fourteen reported co-infection outcomes agreed with our predictions. Explanations were given for the four interactions that did not agree with our model. Hence, it serves as a valuable tool in making long term predictions using short term data obtained in virus co-infections.
Nigerian SMEs suffers greatly in terms of struggling for survival. Access to finance is seen as the root of the major constrains including; limited access to water and power supply, good and quality raw-materials as well as modern infrastructures and processing methods. This paper adopts the desk research approach to review the cause and possible solutions and alternatives that can by-pass such constraints. Biotechnology, due to its natural and broad spectrum of application is seen as the potential solution to many of the problems that paralyses performance of Nigerian SMEs. When applied responsibly, the technology has potential of providing alternative source of; sufficient and high quality raw-materials, water and power supply as well as processing methods for industries at a considerably low price, thus, enhancing environmental friendliness, besides improving opportunities for new initiatives, and also enhancing performance efficiency of existing firms.
The biotechnology industry is a relatively new a distinct field that involve using living organism to produce desired product. This industry includes firms that develop, manufacture, and market pharmaceutical products, agricultural products, environmental control product, e.t.c. based on advanced biotechnology research. Although the growth in the global biotechnology industry neared double digits the past two years, the threat of entry into the market is weak due to high barriers to entry. However, because of the ease and low-cost production using biotechnology, it has increased competition in some product. Leading European nations with strong biotech sectors such as the UK and Germany are investing heavily in regenerative medicine (RM), seeking competitive advantage in this emerging sector. However, in the broader biopharmaceutical sector the European Union (EU) is outperformed by the US on all metrics, reflecting longstanding problems: limited venture capital finance, a fragmented patent system, and relatively weak relations between academia and industry. The current global downturn has exacerbated these difficulties. The crisis comes at a time when the European Union is reframing its approach to the governance of innovation and renewing its commitment to the goal of making Europe the leading player in the global knowledge economy.
Cry1Ab toxin is commonly expressed in genetically modified crops in order to control chewing pests. At present, the detection method with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) based on monoclonal antibody cannot specifically detect Cry1Ab toxin for Cry1Ab's amino acid sequence and spatial structure are highly similar to Cry1Ac toxin. In this study, based on molecular design, a novel hapten polypeptide was synthesized and conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH). Then, through animal immunization with this antigen, a monoclonal antibody named 2C12, showing high affinity to Cry1Ab and having no cross reaction with Cry1Ac, was produced. The equilibrium dissociation constant (K D) value of Cry1Ab toxin with MAb 2C12 was 1.947 × 10(-8) M. Based on this specific monoclonal antibody, a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) was developed for the specific determination of Cry1Ab toxin and the LOD and LOQ values were determined as 0.47 ± 0.11 and 2.43 ± 0.19 ng mL(-1), respectively. The average recoveries of Cry1Ab from spiked rice leaf and rice flour samples ranged from 75 to 115%, with coefficient of variation (CV) less than 8.6% within the quantitation range (2.5-100 ng mL(-1)), showing good accuracy for the quantitative detection of Cry1Ab toxin in agricultural samples. In conclusion, this study provides a new approach for the production of high specific antibody and the newly developed DAS-ELISA is a useful method for Cry1Ab monitoring in agriculture products. Graphical Abstract Establishment of a DAS-ELISA for the specific detecting of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ab toxin.
Genetically modified (GM) rice expressing Bt toxins is at the edge of commercial release in China. However, little information is available concerning the impact of Bt rice on aquatic organisms which are abundant in paddy field. A two-year study was conducted to assess the effects of two GM rice lines expressing a fusion protein Cry1Ab/1Ac (Bt rice) on three groups of zooplankton, rotifers, cladocerans and copepods in field conditions. Multi-factor ANOVA revealed that the population densities of rotifers, cladocerans and copepods in paddy field varied significantly between years and rice developmental stages, but did not differ significantly between Bt and non-Bt rice treatments. In all the field investigations, only one significant difference was found on copepods in the tillering stage of 2009, but the difference was not related to the presence of the Cry toxin. Under open-air conditions, we simulated the farming practice of straw mulch, using Bt rice straw as a food source for the water flea Daphnia hyalina. After one and two months of culture, the density of D. hyalina did not differ between Bt rice treatments and non-Bt rice treatments. A laboratory experiment found that purified Bt toxins Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac had no toxic effect on D. hyalina even in the treatment in which the Bt toxin concentration was as high as 2500ng/ml. Those above results indicate that the two Bt rice lines have no negative effect on the three groups of zooplankton. However, further studies are needed to compare the effects of Bt rice and non-Bt rice on the paddy zooplankton community in the context of integrated pest management which includes the use of pesticides.
I find myself in full sympathy with Gordon Conway's analysis and prescriptions (Conway 2000).I especially agree with his call for a new culture, with appropriate systems and ongoing institutional support, that provides careful monitoring, open reporting and transparency, and above all, a place for public participation about the impact of plant biotechnology on the environment, human health, and the viability and sustainability of the food system. We need not only the transnational corporations, such as Monsanto to which Conway's remarks were addressed, but also governments of the developed and the developing world, and the scientific establishment, to promote the emergence of such a new culture.
This report was prepared for the Public Affairs Committee of the Ecological Society of America and represents the contributions of many members. Although the group supports the use of biotechnology for the development of environmentally sound products, they state that these developments should occur within the context of a scientifically based regulatory policy that encourages innovation without comprising sound environmental management.
"GM foods have the potential to provide significant benefits for developing countries. Over 800 million people are chronically undernourished, and 180 million children are severely underweight for their age. By 2020, there will be an extra two billion mouths to feed. Ecological approaches that underpin sustainable agriculture (e.g., integrated pest management) and participatory approaches that strengthen farmers' own experimentation and decision making are key. Biotechnology will be an essential partner, if yield ceilings are to be raised, if crops are to be grown without excessive reliance on pesticides, and if farmers on less favored lands are to be provided with crops that are resistant to drought and salinity, and that can use nitrogen and other nutrients more efficiently. "Over the past 10 years, in addition supporting ecological approaches, the Rockefeller Foundation has funded the training of some 400 developing-country scientists in the techniques of biotechnology. Most of the new crop varieties are the result of tissue culture and marker-aided selection. The Foundation also supports the production of genetically engineered rices, including a new rice engineered for beta carotene (the precursor of Vitamin A) in the grain. "Some specific steps can be taken by Monsanto that would improve acceptance of plant biotechnology in both the developing and the industrialized worlds: label; disavow gene protection (terminator) systems; phase out the use of antibiotic resistance markers; agree (with big seed companies) to use the plant variety protection system, rather than patents, in developing countries; establish an independently administered fellowship program to train developing-country scientists in crop biotechnology, biosafety, and intellectual property; donate useful technologies to developing countries; agree to share financial rewards from intellectual property rights on varieties such as basmati or jasmine rice with the countries of origin; and finally, develop a global public dialogue that treats developing-country participants as equal partners."
Dr. Gordon Conway's timely address to Monsanto, published in Conservation Ecology (Conway 2000), provides a sound perspective of the promise and risks of genetically modified crops. This commentary serves to supplement his paper, and focuses primarily on genetically modified crops, or biotechnology in agroecosystems. According to the World Health Organization (WHO 1996), more than 3 billion humans are currently malnourished worldwide. Conway reports that only 800 million people are undernourished, but he does not indicate that this number represents only people who are calorie-malnourished. The WHO estimate of 3 billion malnourished includes people who are calorie-, protein-, vitamin-, iron-, and iodine-malnourished. As the human population continues to increase, the number of malnourished could conceivably reach more than 5 billion in future decades. Several recent facts provide evidence for this trend of increasing numbers of malnourished humans worldwide. For instance, the Food and Agricultural Organization states that per capita availability of world cereal grains, which make up 80-90% of the world's food supply, has been declining since 1983 (FAO 1998). Per capita declines during the past decade in cropland (20%), irrigation (15%), fertilizers (23%), and fish production (10%) contribute to this decline in global food availability (Pimentel et al. 1999).
This paper reviews food (especially cereal) production trends and prospects for the world and its main regions. Despite fears to the contrary, in recent years we have seen continued progress toward better methods of feeding humanity. Sub-Saharan Africa is the sole major exception. Looking to the future, this paper argues that the continuation of recent cereal yield trends should be sufficient to cope with most of the demographically driven expansion of cereal demand that will occur until the year 2025. However, because of an increasing degree of mismatch between the expansion of regional demand and the potential for supply, there will be a major expansion of world cereal (and noncereal food) trade. Other consequences for global agriculture arising from demographic growth include the need to use water much more efficiently and an even greater dependence on nitrogen fertilizers (e.g., South Asia). Farming everywhere will depend more on information-intensive agricultural management procedures. Moreover, despite continued general progress, there still will be a significant number of undernourished people in 2025. Signs of heightened harvest variability, especially in North America, are of serious concern. Thus, although future general food trends are likely to be positive, in some respects we also could be entering a more volatile world.
●, Abstract ●, Introduction ● What Happened,in the UK ●, Conclusions ● Responses,to this Article ●, Acknowledgments ●, Literature,Cited KEY WORDS: BSE, GM food, consumer, genetically modified crops, risks. Published: March 27, 2000
The rapid increase of available scientific knowledge is largely due to the introduction of novel research strategies. The application of these strategies, both in fundamental and in translational scientific research, leads to bursts of technological innovations. In order to fulfill the justified public request for sustainability of technological innovations that contribute to the shaping of the future, increasing attention should be given to science-based technology and policy assessment. These requests are illustrated by benefit/risk evaluations of relevance for the use of genetic engineering as an efficient and effective research strategy. Expected benefits of a responsibly planned introduction of GM crops are outlined as a prospective example for the guiding theme “Biotechnology for sustainability of human society”.
Agricultural biotechnology has generated concern over the risk of producing new invasive species or exacerbating current weed problems. In this paper, we introduce the regulatory context for assessing invasiveness of genetically engineered organisms in the United States and review the evidence presented by companies arguing for deregulation of particular transgenic crops. The context of invasion ecology is then used to discuss the nature of acceptable evidence for a finding of ‘no risk’; we focus in particular on the role of experimental data. We review recent experiments designed to assess the risk of genetically engineered crops, including our own work with oilmodified canola Brassica napus, and offer guidelines for the design and interpretation of such experiments.
The debate about the potential risks and benefits of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has hit the headlines over the past few months. The polarization of much of the debate obscures what really constitutes ecological risk, and what methods we can apply to identify and quantify those risks. Ecological science has much to offer in this respect, including ecological theory, manipulative experiments, the application of molecular tools and the interpretation of observational data from conventional agriculture. In the current heated debate, it is perhaps belief in the scientific method, above all else, that needs to be promoted and discussed.
The facts, importance and public perception of plant biotechnology are described and discussed. The bases for public concerns are examined and the scientists' role in increasing public understanding of this key technology emphasized.
"Here, I review the motivation and science behind efforts to characterize and manage ecosystems as capital assets. I then describe some recent work to evaluate the potential for sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services in human-dominated landscapes"
The risk assessment of genetically modified (GM) crops for human nutrition and health has not been systematic. Evaluations for each GM crop or trait have been conducted using different feeding periods, animal models, and parameters. The most common result is that GM and conventional sources induce similar nutritional performance and growth in animals. However, adverse microscopic and molecular effects of some GM foods in different organs or tissues have been reported. Diversity among the methods and results of the risk assessments reflects the complexity of the subject. While there are currently no standardized methods to evaluate the safety of GM foods, attempts towards harmonization are on the way. More scientific effort is necessary in order to build confidence in the evaluation and acceptance of GM foods.
This paper reviews food (especially cereal) production trends and prospects for the world and its main regions. Despite fears to the contrary, in recent years we have seen continued progress toward better methods of feeding humanity. Sub-Saharan Africa is the sole major exception. Looking to the future, this paper argues that the continuation of recent cereal yield trends should be sufficient to cope with most of the demographically driven expansion of cereal demand that will occur until the year 2025. However, because of an increasing degree of mismatch between the expansion of regional demand and the potential for supply, there will be a major expansion of world cereal (and noncereal food) trade. Other consequences for global agriculture arising from demographic growth include the need to use water much more efficiently and an even greater dependence on nitrogen fertilizers (e.g., South Asia). Farming everywhere will depend more on information-intensive agricultural management procedures. Moreover, despite continued general progress, there still will be a significant number of undernourished people in 2025. Signs of heightened harvest variability, especially in North America, are of serious concern. Thus, although future general food trends are likely to be positive, in some respects we also could be entering a more volatile world.
GM foods in the UK between 1996 and 1999: Comments on
- J R Krebs
Krebs, J.R. 2000. GM foods in the UK between 1996 and 1999: Comments on "Genetically
modified crops: risks and promise" by Gordon Conway. Conservation Ecology 4: 11. URL:
http://www.consecol.org/vol4/iss1/art11.