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Biodiesel: Source, Production, Composition, Properties and Its Benefits
Abstract
Biodiesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from domestic renewable resources i.e. vegetable oils (edible or non-edible oil) and animal fats, that runs in diesel engines-cars, buses, trucks, construction equipment, boats, generators, and oil home heating units. Biodiesel has been gaining worldwide popularity as an alternative energy source because it is non toxic, biodegradable & non flammable. Various edible and non edible oils, like rice bran oil, coconut oil, Jatropha curcas, castor oil, cottonseed oil, mahua, karanja which are either surplus and are nonedible type can be used for preparation of biodiesel. Biodiesel can be used either in the pure form or as blends on conventional petrodiesel in automobiles without any major modifications. Its biodegradability makes it eco-friendly. It may lead to a revolutionary transformation of the current economic & energy scenario with an era of economic bloom & prosperity for our society. This review paper describes the production, its properties, composition and future potential of biodiesel.
... Starch-based route and sucrose-based route both are identical but starch-based pathway consumes more energy than the sucrose-based pathway due to an additional step of converting starch to glucose [40][41][42][43][44][45]. In general, the use of starch/sucrose is a reliable technology to which few significant improvements have recently been made [30,[46][47][48][49]. ...
... It is composed of a mixture of monoalkyl esters of long chain fatty acids and technically it has been defined as a monoalkyl ester [47]. In general, biodiesel can be used in standard diesel engines, unlike vegetable oils that must be used in diesel engines converted into fuel. ...
... The production of biofuels for transport grew by 7% on an annual basis in 2019 and over the next five years an annual production growth of 3% is expected. Fig. 6 shows the analysis of biofuel production considering first, second, third, fourth generation efficiency and consumption in several leading countries [47]. Global biofuel production will continue to be supplied predominantly by traditional feedstock; sugarcane and maize for ethanol and various vegetable oils for biodiesel production. ...
Achieving circularity in the transportation sector is the strongest need of the hour and one of the pathways to achieve this is by embracing sustainable bio-energy resources. Considering this need, we investigated and reviewed the state-of-the-art readiness of the current bioresources i.e., biofuels. We provide a fresh overview of various biofuels (bioethanol, biohydrogen, biodiesel) production pathways followed by the landscape of current global production and consumption. In these discussions, we alluded to the prospects of algae-derived biofuels together with the techno-commercial aspects of biofuels toward achieving competitiveness in costs, technology and system design. The review also discussed the limitations of existing batteries over biofuel cell technology in terms of vehicle weight, storage capacity, cost and greenhouse pollution. Next, we discussed the advancement in biofuel cells (BFCs) and the challenges to the successful implantation of biofuel cells in the automotive sector. The development of a new e-biofuel cell system infrastructure was also elaborated to reduce the existing BFCs current problems and their environmental-economical sustainability was discussed. The review concluded by summarizing the current market scenario, global forecast for green energy resources and future directions in the area.
... The cetane numbers of the biodiesel is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel. It is a valuable indicator of the quality of diesel fuel [28]. A higher cetane number is desirable as fuel with a higher cetane number ignite more easily when injected into the diesel engine [29]. ...
... This is an indication that the biodiesel samples will exhibit very good ignition performances when used in an ignition compression engine. According to Bajpai and Tyagi (2006) [28], biodiesel has a higher cetane number than petrol diesel due to its higher oxygen content. This means that while using biodiesel, the engines will run more smoothly and quietly [30]. ...
... The calorific value of biodiesel lies between 39 and 41 MJ/Kg. The calorific values were higher than those obtained for algae biodiesel (41.36 MJ/kg) and cashew nut oil biodiesel (37.20 MJ/kg) as reported by [32] and [28] respectively. ...
This study investigates the effects of catalyst type and washing procedures on the oxidation stability and cold flow parameters of biodiesel produced from castor oil. Castor oil was synthesized using two different catalysts; calcium oxide on alumina support (CaO-Al2O3) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) at a temperature of 60˚C, methanol to oil molar ratio of 6:1 and catalyst loading of 1 wt% of oil for 60 min. The resulting biodiesel was purified using water washing and dry washing methods ion exchange resin. The oxidation stability and cold flow behaviour of the biodiesel produced (cloud point, pour point, cold filter plugging point, and low-temperature flow test) were determined. The findings showed that the oxidation stability and cold flow properties of biodiesel is independent of washing methods but varies with catalyst type. The heterogeneously catalyzed transesterification by CaO-Al2O3 exhibited higher oxidation stability with an induction period of 4.4 h as against 3.5 h for the potassium hydroxide (KOH) catalyzed biodiesel. However, the values obtained in this study were above the ASTM standard of 3 h minimum. With regards to cold flow properties, the KOH-catalyzed process exhibited better cold flow properties than CaO-Al2O3 catalyzed biodiesel. It can be deduced from this study that the biodiesel samples will exhibit very good ignition performances when used in ignition compression engines in the low temperate region due to their satisfactory cold flow behaviour.
... The use of LCB in the production of electricity requires a certain step of conversion into simpler substances that can easily be utilized by microorganisms in the microbial fuel cells (MFCs) [2]. It has been observed that the use of hydrolyzed LCB can is considered as an alternative way to produce electricity in MFC [3]. Cellulolytic and exoelectrogenic microbial consortia of different diverse origins are usually required in electricity generation when cellulose as a substrate is employed [4]. ...
... For instance, Miscanthus has been considered as a good source of energy grass, producing a high profitable yield, most especially when processed in its dry form. On the other hand, switchgrass contributes to the production of more energy, with less water content [3]. Similarly, the competitive analysis between food and fuel crops in the sector of renewable energy technology has gained more attention, showing that dry grasses produce more energy, and economic and environmental advantage when compares to the food crops in terms of bioenergy production [10]. ...
... The mediator-less MFC makes use of "anodophiles" which led to the formation of biofilm at the surface of the anode, hence, they are considered as the end terminal electron donor during respiration in the absence of oxygen. However, the machinery responsible for mediated electron transfer between terminal respiratory enzymes and anode surface, the microorganisms produce synthetic exogenous mediators [3], which helps in the diversion of electrons from the respiratory sequence by penetrating the outer portion of the cell membrane thereby transferring the electrons to the electrode at which they are reduced [10]. In most cases, the number of electrons and protons produced depends on the substrate composition, nature, and effective utilization by the microbial population. ...
The emergence of renewable energy technologies offers a significant advantage in the conversion of organic wastes to bioenergy. Lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) is one of the most widely generated and abundant carbon-based sources and is believed to be a rich source of energy that can be utilized by microbial consortia in a microbial fuel cell (MFC) to generate electricity. Different LCBs like, raw corn stover, rice milling, plant waste, wheat straw, etc. have been utilized in MFCs to produce a substantial amount of electric current. The MFC technology has showcased its ability in the simultaneous treatment of wastewater and converting different organic wastes including LCB into electricity. However, LCBs are known to be very complex in terms of their biodegradability within MFC, therefore, several pre-treatment and extraction techniques have been employed for efficient utilization by microorganisms. The present review article is focused on advancement in bioelectricity generation through MFC by utilizing different lignocellulosic wastes as feedstock, and integrating the treatment of waste-water, thereby creating a hygienic and pollutant-free environment. Moreover, various patents involving lignocel-lulosic biomass as MFC substrate has been described along with genetic measures for improving the MFC performance has also been illustrated.
... The use of alternative sources of inexpensive carbon, such as glycerol, acetate, and molasses, should be considered in future studies to assess their impact on the fatty acid composition and ratios of the strain S. podzolica Zwy2-3. Table 4 provides a comparison of the fatty acid composition between the lipids extracted from S. podzolica Zwy2-3 and the commonly used vegetable oils in biodiesel production [69]. It can be observed that the fatty acid composition of the lipid extracted from the strain Zwy2-3 is similar to that of vegetable oils. ...
... This similarity makes it a potential substrate for biodiesel production. [69]; b The fatty acid composition of lipid from S. podzolica Zwy2-3 under optimal fermentation conditions with hydrolysate of (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 -SE corn stover; c ND means "not detected". ...
Although Saitozyma podzolica Zwy2-3 can use the enzymatic hydrolysate of corn stalks treated with an ammonium carbonate-steam explosion (EHCS-ACSE) as a substrate for lipid accumulation, the inefficient conversion of sugars from EHCS-ACSE into lipids necessitates the further optimization of fermentation parameters. Response surface design was used to optimize the primary fermentation parameters. Under the optimized conditions of the reducing sugar concentration of 89.44 g/L, yeast extract concentration of 3.88 g/L, rotational speed of 219 rpm, and incubation time of 122 h, the maximum lipid production achieved 11.45 g/L, which was 2.28 times higher than the results of the previous study. In addition, lipid profiling showed the presence of four fatty acid methyl esters, with the highest percentage being 61.84% oleic acid, followed by 21.53% palmitic acid, 13.05% stearic acid, and 3.58% linoleic acid. It is noteworthy that the composition and relative abundance of microbial lipids remained constant under different culture conditions. The characteristics of Zwy2-3 biodiesel, such as the iodine value (62.09), cetane number (59.29), density (0.87 g/cm3), and oxidation stability (35.53), meet the international standards (ASTM D6751-02 and EN 14214) for biodiesel. The present study further demonstrated that S. podzolica Zwy2-3 can efficiently utilize EHCS-ACSE for microbial lipid accumulation, and its lipids have favorable qualities that make them suitable for biodiesel production.
... Besides this, the use of biodiesel has been established as an eco-friendly diesel fuel. There are different kinds of technologies and methods available to reduce the viscosity of the oil, viz., microemulsion, pyrolysis (thermal cracking), catalytic cracking, and transesterification (Bajpai and Tyagi 2006;Ma and Hanna 1999). The microemulsion is the mixing of the vegetable oils with alcohols such as methanol or ethanol. ...
... These include cottonseed, sunflower, rapeseed, palm, soybean, peanut, pongamia, Jatropha, mustard, jojoba, flax, hemp, and coconut from where biodiesel can be made. It is found that rapeseed oil has much potential to be used as a biodiesel, but excess use of it may affect the engines, resulting in a lot of erosion of parts and carbon buildup (Bajpai and Tyagi 2006). While vegetable oils have some disadvantages due to its high viscous nature and lower volatility (Usta et al. 2005). ...
Waste generation is increasing due to population growth coupled with rapid industrialization. The scientific disposal of the waste is highly essential, and resource recovery through eco-friendly and economically viable processes is gaining significance. In addition to this, conventional fuels are depleting at a faster rate, and hence, the development of alternate fuels is very much crucial for sustainable progress. The biochemical approach is promising and sustainable and organic solid wastes such as municipal solid wastes, including food waste, animal manure comprising, cattle manure, poultry litter, and industrial wastes such as press mud, coffee pulp, fruit juice residues, wheat straw residues, etc. are suitable resources for the generation of multiple biofuels and bio-based products through a biochemical pathway. Therefore, this book chapter discusses waste generation in India and its biofuel applications.
... Besides this, the use of biodiesel has been established as an eco-friendly diesel fuel. There are different kinds of technologies and methods available to reduce the viscosity of the oil, viz., microemulsion, pyrolysis (thermal cracking), catalytic cracking, and transesterification (Bajpai and Tyagi 2006;Ma and Hanna 1999). The microemulsion is the mixing of the vegetable oils with alcohols such as methanol or ethanol. ...
... These include cottonseed, sunflower, rapeseed, palm, soybean, peanut, pongamia, Jatropha, mustard, jojoba, flax, hemp, and coconut from where biodiesel can be made. It is found that rapeseed oil has much potential to be used as a biodiesel, but excess use of it may affect the engines, resulting in a lot of erosion of parts and carbon buildup (Bajpai and Tyagi 2006). While vegetable oils have some disadvantages due to its high viscous nature and lower volatility (Usta et al. 2005). ...
The rapid depletion of fossil fuel has pushed mankind to think about alternative fuel sources for a smart future. In this direction, biofuel is the most promising source of sustainable energy because of its environment-friendly and green nature. The production of biofuels is boosted by the application of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Nanomaterials show a better performance in the processing and production of biofuel due to the high surface-to-volume ratio and related high reactivity of these materials. Nanotechnology helps in enzyme immobilization and reduces production costs by recovering and reusing the catalysts. In this chapter, the use of various nanocatalysts and nanomaterials to improve the processing and production of biofuels are discussed in detail. The current status of biofuels for controlling the energy crisis and applications of nanotechnology in the production of various types of biofuel has been put forth. Further, issues and prospects regarding the nanotechnological and economic feasibility of the biofuel production process are also discussed in this chapter.
... Biodiesel production can utilize various types of vegetable oil, animal fat, microbial oil, algal oil, and discarded oil [15]. Vegetable oils include soybean oil in the U.S., linseed and olive oil in Spain, sunflower oil in France, palm oil in Indonesia, guang pi in China, rapeseed oil in Germany, and canola oil in South Korea [16,17]. Four popular technologies can convert vegetable oil and/or animal fat to biodiesel [18]. ...
Biodiesel has received worldwide attention as a renewable energy resource that reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Unlike traditional fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, biodiesel made of vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease incurs higher production costs, so its supply chain should be managed efficiently for operational cost reduction. To this end, multiple machine learning technologies have recently been applied to estimate feedstock yield, biodiesel productivity, and biodiesel quality. This study aims to identify the machine learning technologies useful in particular areas of supply chain management by review of the scientific literature. As a result, nine machine learning algorithms, the Gaussian process model (GPM), random forest (RF), artificial neural network (ANN), support vector machine (SVM), k-nearest neighbor (KNN), AdaBoost regression, multiple linear regression (MLR), linear regression (LR). and multilayer perceptron (MLP), are used for feedstock yield estimation, biodiesel productivity prediction, and biodiesel quality prediction. Among these, RF and ANN were identified as the most appropriate algorithms, providing high prediction accuracy. This finding will help engineers and managers understand concepts of machine learning technologies so they can use appropriate technology to solve operational problems in supply chain management.
... Biodiesel has many advantages over traditional diesel fuel, like renewability, biodegradability, better combustion performance, and is non-hazardous to the environment (Orege et al., 2022; Gill rt al., 2022; Khan et al., 2009). Biodiesel also shows high cetane number, excellent lubrication, emission of sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon content near to zero, high ash point, high cloud point, and carbon neutrality (Ostadkalayeh et al., 2022;Guo et al., 2021;Kralova et al., 2010;Bajpai et al., 2006). Apart from these advantages, biodiesel can be used directly in engines without modi cation. ...
This paper deals with the biogenic synthesis of tin oxide-corn peal ash (SnO 2 /CPA) nanocomposites as a novel heterogeneous catalyst for the transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) into biodiesel.SnO 2 /CPA nanocomposites were synthesized by a green method using the leaf extract of Azadirachtaindica and ash carbon obtained from the dried peels of Zea mays at room temperature. The biomolecules present in the leaf extract act as a complexing as well as a capping agent. The morphology and chemical components of the catalyst are characterized using analytical techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The highest biodiesel yield of 86.3% was attained under the optimized reaction conditions; methanol to oil ratio of 12:1, catalyst loading of 2 wt %, and reaction time of 120 min at a temperature of 60°C. ¹ HNMR and FTIR confirmed the presence of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME). The composition of FAME was determined using Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). Investigations proved that SnO 2 /CPA nanocomposites an effective sustainable heterogeneous green catalyst for the production of biodiesel.
... Among these, biofuels have been identified to be sustainable alternative with promising long-term positive impact on the environment [4] . Large scale engagement of biofuels into the energy mix will further provide a platform for large scale job creation at both agricultural production and biofuel production sectors of industry [5,6] . Biodiesel, in particular is recognized to be greener as well as alternative to fossil diesel due to its properties such as higher cetane number, lower smoke and particulates, and lower carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon emissions than fossil diesel. ...
Response surface based on Box-Behnken design was used to investigate and optimize the reaction conditions for conversion of neem seed oil in to biodiesel. The oil was extracted from the seed using n-hexane and trans esterified using methanol and sulfated zirconia catalyst to biodiesel. The oil extracted and biodiesel produced were analyzed for physicochemical and fuel properties using ASTM methods and are in conformity with ASTM D6751. The fatty acid methyl ester was estimated using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrophotometry (GC-MS). The results obtained showed percentage oil yields of 40.64 ± 1.01%. The optimum yield of 89% was obtained at the reaction temperature, reaction time, molar oil to methanol ratio and catalyst concentration, 60 o C, 1:12, 90 minutes and 1% wt. respectively. The model obtained has good predictive power, Methanol to oil molar ratio and reaction time followed by temperature were the major parameters that determine the response output (biodiesel yield).
... Biodiesel primarily consists of monoalkyl esters with long chain fatty acids [50][51][52]. To quantify alkyl esters in the biodiesel GC-MS was used as it is highly recommended tool for monitoring organic compounds and is used specifically for the analysis of fatty acids, esters, alcohols, terpenes and aldehydes [53]. ...
The current study is focused on the lipid extract of microalgae; Pectinodesmus strain PHM3 and its general analysis in terms of chemical contents. Combinations of both chemical and mechanistic approaches were applied to obtain the maximum yield of lipids which was recorded to be 23% per gram through continuous agitation using Folch solution. The extraction methods used in this study included: Bligh and Dyers method, Continuous agitation method, Extraction using Soxhlet and Acid base extraction method. Lipid quantification of ethanol and Folch solution lipid extract was performed through gravimetric methods and qualification was done through Fourier Transmission Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas Chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS). Phytochemical analysis identified other compounds in ethanol extract and the results confirmed the presence of steroids, coumarins, tannins, phenols and carbohydrates. Transesterification of lipids showed 7% per gram dry weight yield of Pectinodesmus PHM3. GC-MS studies of extracted biodiesel suggested that 72% of biofuels was in the form of dipropyl ether, ethyl butyl ethers, methyl butyl ether and propyl butyl ether. Lipid processing of acid-base extract showed that oily nature of lipid shifted to a more precipitated form which is a common observation when mixture of lipids is converted to phosphatides.
... Moreover, waste hierarchy emerged as an important driver in Europe in 1977, where more sustainable options such as reduction, reuse, recycling, and energy recovery from waste were introduced (Wilson 2007). Environmental Protection Agency of US (EPA) established the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations for non-hazardous and hazardous waste as well as for used oil management and standards or underground storage tanks (Bajpai and Tyagi 2006). The RCRA law covers both hazardous and solid waste. ...
Global climate change and depletion of resources are crucial issues for modern societies. Moreover, population growth and rapid industrialization result in increased energy demand. To meet ongoing energy demand, developed and developing countries must adopt sustainable waste management methods. In addition to prevention and recycling, waste-to-energy technologies could certainly be beneficial. Except for heat and electricity generation, biofuels can also be produced from waste. Aviation sector is expanding and its greenhouse gas emissions account for about 2% of total global emissions. Aircraft emissions are more persistent in higher altitudes having a greater environmental impact. Hence, decarbonization of the sector is an ongoing challenge. Sustainable aviation fuels comprise a promising solution over the following years. Utilization of waste materials will contribute to the total production of biojet fuels. To date, eight pathways have been certified by the American Society for Testing Materials standards for blending limits up to 50% with conventional jet fuels. The current chapter highlights sustainable waste management methods focused on waste-to-energy conversion technologies for biojet fuel production from waste materials as feedstocks. Current conversion pathways are further analyzed and discussed toward a “greener” and more sustainable future of aviation industry. Hydrotreated esters and fatty acids pathway is the most mature and promising production method fοr oleochemical feedstocks, including waste oils. Thermochemical methods and alcohol-to-jet pathway will contribute to biojet fuel production in the following years.KeywordsWaste-to-energyBiofuelsBiojetDecarbonizationGHG emissionsSustainable aviation fuelsSustainable waste management
... Glycerol accounted for 28 to 37% of the total compound emissions for each size fraction. It can be present in biofuels as a contaminant (Bajpai and Tyagi 2006), which can explain its presence in exhaust emissions. Some other organic compounds, such as polyethylene glycols, urea, and fatty alcohols, were detected in exhaust emissions in insignificant amounts (Table S5). ...
This study assessed the emissions of gaseous pollutants and particle size distributed water-soluble organics (WSO) from a diesel vehicle fuelled with ultralow sulphur diesel (B0) and 10 (B10), 20 (B20), and 30% (B30) biodiesel blends in a chassis dynamometer tested under transient mode. Particulate emission sampling was carried out in an ultraviolet (UV) test chamber using a 10-stage impactor. Samples were grouped into three size fractions and analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Increasing the biofuel ratio up to 30% in the fuel reduced WSO emissions by 20.9% in comparison with conventional diesel. Organic acids accounted for 82–89% of WSO in all tested fuels. Dicarboxylic acids were the most abundant compound class, followed by hydroxy, aromatic, and linear alkanoic acids. Correlations between compounds demonstrated that adding biodiesel to diesel fuel reduces the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX), methane (CH4), total and nonmethane hydrocarbons (THC and NMHC), and dicarboxylic and hydroxy acids, but increases emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and alkanoic and aromatic acids. Emissions of dicarboxylic and hydroxy acids were strongly correlated with the biodiesel content. WSO emissions of coarse and fine (1.0–10 μm) particles decreased with the increasing biofuel content in fuel blend. The total share of ultrafine (0.18–1.0 μm) and nanoparticles (< 0.18 μm) increased in WSOs emissions from B20 and B30 blends, when compared with petrodiesel. The biodiesel content also affected the chemical profile of WSO size fractions.
... Krisis bahan bakar minyak menyebabkan kenaikan harga minyak mentah dunia, sehingga saat ini biodiesel dijadikan sebagai sumber energi atau bahan bakar alternatif untuk komponen pencampur dalam minyak diesel ataupun sebagai bahan bakar pengganti minyak diesel. Selain karena alasan tersebut, produksi biodiesel sedang marak dilakukan oleh banyak negara, termasuk Indonesia karena biodiesel bersifat non-toksik dan biodegradable [1]. Oleh karena itu, dapat diperkirakan bahwa jika produksi biodiesel semakin meningkat, maka gliserol yang dihasilkan juga akan semakin banyak. ...
p>Telah dilakukan sintesis senyawa 2,3-dibromo propanol menggunakan bahan awal gliserol hasil isolasi produk samping pembuatan biodiesel. Peningkatan yang cepat dalam produksi biodiesel diperkirakan akan mengakibatkan surplus gliserol. Penggunaan gliserol sebagai bahan awal bertujuan meningkatkan nilai ekonomis dari gliserol itu sendiri. Gliserol dengan rendemen 88,7 % telah diisolasi dari produk samping pembuatan biodiesel melalui reaksi transesterifikasi trigliserida dalam minyak sawit menggunakan katalis basa KOH. Selanjutnya, gliserol didehidrasi dengan asam format untuk mendapatkan senyawa alil alkohol melalui metode destilasi pada 195-260 <sup>0</sup>C. Sintesis senyawa 2,3-dibromo propanol dicapai melalui brominasi alil alkohol pada -2-0 <sup>0</sup>C menggunakan pelarut khloroform. Karakterisasi struktur dilakukan menggunakan spektrometer IR, <sup>1</sup>H-NMR, dan GC-MS. Pada penelitian ini, alil alkohol yang diperoleh melalui metode destilasi memiliki rendemen sebesar 44,78 % dan reaksi brominai alil alkohol menghasilkan senyawa 2,3-dibromo propanol dengan rendemen 80,3 % yield.
Keywords : senyawa 2,3-dibromo propanol, gliserol, biodiesel</em
... Published data also revealed a total of 29 major world oil producing countries already experiencing declining oil reserves (EIA, 2007 andAlamu et al., 2007). In comparison of Biodiesel to petroleum diesel fuel has distinct advantages which include its nontoxic-high biogradable and non-flammable characteristics (Bajpai and Tyagi, 2006). It gives less exhaust emissions, cleaner-burning alternative, improved biodegradability and high cetane rating which improve performance and emissions. ...
Biodiesel is a clean burning alternative fuel derived from chemical reactors produced from palm kernel oil, is currently spreading like a wind dust in the air. It is considered as the fuel for the future without rise in global warming. It has advantages over the fossil fuel diesel as sustainability (renewable resources), ease of production, and availability of raw materials. The study examines the biodiesel produced through transesterification of palm kernel oil (1% fatty acid) with methanol using granulated sodium hydroxide as catalyst through ultrasonic method. The palm kernel oil biodiesel produced was characterized as alternative diesel fuel through standard tests (ASTM) for basic fuel properties such as viscosity, cloud point, pour point, flash point and specific gravity as well as economical feasibility for Nigeria. The result showed that 875g of palm kernel oil (1% fatty acid) with 175g of methanol using 13g of sodium hydroxide (granulated) subjected to ultrasonic method for 1 hour through transesterification process produced 96.23% of biodiesel and 16.89% of glycerol plus high excess methanol wasallowed to settle for 6 hours. Two layers were observed containing unwashed biodiesel at the top and darker layers of glycerin. After washing the biodiesel with warm water, the cleaned, biodiesel was dried by heat to remove the moisture from and allowed to settle down. A bright colour biodiesel was obtained which was within the international standard for biodiesel fuel.
... This data is based on the data mentioned in various research work carried out in the field of biodiesel production; and its performance and emissions analysis. [2] [3] As we can observe from the data above that Jatropha is the major source of biodiesel production in India. This is because it is non-edible but it is suggested that if we use waste cooking oil for biodiesel production, we can produce biodiesel in more economic ways than that of Jatropha. ...
... • In a few cases, it needs to be changed, since utilizing it as is can cause carbon. This, thusly, can harm diesel motors [109] . ...
Biofuels are fuels produced from biomass (plant or animal materials).
Although biofuels exist in solid, liquid and gaseous form, but it usually refers to
the liquid biofuels designed for usage as fuel for vehicles. It can be derived from
agricultural crops, food crops (sugarcane and palms) or special energy crops,
forestry, agricultural or even from fishery products and organic wastes in much
less time
... By this process, the branched triglycerides present in the raw oil are converted to straight chain molecules, thereby resembling diesel fuel structure. They are composed of methyl esters like stearate, linoleate, palmitate, myristate etc. [6]. These esters have different carbon to hydrogen and carbon to oxygen ratio which decides the physico-chemical properties of the fuel [7]. ...
... Biodiesel primarily consists of monoalkyl esters with long chain fatty acids [52]. To quantify alkyl esters in the biodiesel GC-MS was used as it is highly recommended tool for monitoring organic compounds and is used speci cally for the analysis of fatty acids, esters, alcohols, terpenes and aldehydes [53]. ...
The current study is focused on the lipid extract of microalgae; Pectinodesmus strain HM3 (PHM3) and its general analysis in terms of chemical contents. Combinations of both chemical and mechanistic approaches were applied to obtain the maximum yield of lipids which was recorded to be 23% per gram through continuous agitation using Folch solution. The extraction methods used in this study included: Bligh and Dyers method, Continuous agitation method, Extraction using Soxhlet and Acid base extraction method. Lipid quantification of ethanol and Folch solution lipid extract was performed through gravimetric methods and qualification was done through Fourier Transmission Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas Chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Phytochemical analysis identified other compounds in ethanol extract and the results confirmed the presence of steroids, coumarins, tannins, phenols and carbohydrates. Transesterification of lipids showed 7% per gram dry weight yield of Pectinodesmus PHM3. GC-MS studies of extracted biodiesel suggested that 72% of biofuels was in the form of dipropyl ether, ethyl butyl ethers, methyl butyl ether and propyl butyl ether. Lipid processing of acid-base extract showed that oily nature of lipid shifted to a more precipitated form which is a common observation when mixture of lipids is converted to phosphatides.
... Jatropha vegetable oil is one of the prime non edible sources available in India. The vegetable oil used for biodiesel production might contain free fatty acids which will enhance saponification reaction as side reaction during the trans-esterification process, [3]. ...
This paper presents the design and fabrication of Jatropha oil extractor. Jatropha seeds have been identified as one of the best sources of oil for biodiesel production, hence the need to mechanize the process. The aim of this research to develop a machine that can efficiently extract oil from Jatropha seeds, so as to remove the drudgery involved in traditional manual extraction operation. In carrying out this project, physio-mechanical properties of Jatropha seed were determined to assist in the design of the machine. The prototype of jatropha oil extractor was designed and fabricated at central workshop of faculty of Engineering, Niger Delta University, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. The cost of the entire research was about ₦198,000, including pre-design investigations.
... However, kinematic viscosity of biodiesel produced from the control medium did not comply with the European standards [65], as it showed high viscosity due to the recorded high saturation degree. Therefore, it showed higher cetane number, Fig. 8 Growth curve, biomass productivity (BP) and lipid production of Tetraselmis elliptica grown in typical SWES medium (control) and the optimized medium as longer fatty acid carbon chains and higher saturation result in higher cetane number [66,67]. It is one of the main factors influencing biodiesel quality, as it relates to fuel ignition delay time [68]. ...
This study aimed to optimize growth medium composition for enhanced lipid and fatty acid production by the green halophilic chlorophyte Tetraselmis elliptica. The impact of different ratios of natural seawater, nitrogen source/concentration, carbon source/concentration, and trace metals on the growth, biomolecules, lipid accumulation, and lipid productivity was studied. In addition, fatty acid profile of the optimized growth medium was compared with that of the typical medium as a control, and biodiesel production as well as essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were evaluated. Among all studied factors, 0.1 g L⁻¹ KNO3, 0.01 g L⁻¹ glycerol, and 7.0 mg L⁻¹ FeSO4·7H2O significantly enhanced the lipid productivity of T. elliptica, and were used further to evaluate the impact of their combination. Cultivation of T. elliptica in the optimized medium showed enhancement of growth up to 16 days, which resulted in 30.9% and 17% increase in biomass and lipid productivities, respectively. Moreover, optimization of growth medium enhanced PUFAs proportion to 15.05% due to de novo synthesis of arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acids which represented 4.17% and 10.88%, respectively, of total fatty acids. Biodiesel characteristics of the optimized medium showed compliance of all studied parameters with the US standards. The present study provides new insights for commercial utilization of marine microalgae cultivated in optimized growth medium for dual purpose of ω-fatty acids and biodiesel production through biorefinery approach.
Graphical abstract
... In addition to its usage in transportation, biodiesel also finds application as a substitute fuel to operate generators for electricity generation where power is provided by generators operating on petro-diesel (Rouhany and Montgomery, 2019;Nedayali and Shirneshan, 2016). Biodiesel is also used for generating heat in oil home heating systems (Bajpai and Tyagi, 2006;Roy et al., 2016). Further, it is a favorable candidate to be used in construction machinery and military tanks as an alternative fuel (Aydın, 2020). ...
The rising energy demand of the world due to rapidly expanding population and accelerated industrialization is primarily satisfied by non-renewable fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are depleting at a faster rate and their overexploitation has raised serious environmental concerns which necessitate switching to alternative sustainable energy resources. Biodiesel has caught substantial interest as a viable and adaptable fuel substitute to the currently employed nonrenewable fuels due to its renewability, biodegradability and environmentally benign nature. Biodiesel can be derived from multiple sources by different production processes among which transesterification is the most widely exploited process. This article reviews different feedstocks for biodiesel production and strategies to improve lipid content in microalgae for enhanced biodiesel production. This review further describes biodiesel production methods, types of catalyst used in transesterification process, and assesses the recent critical challenges along with technical solutions for sustainable biodiesel production.
... Different usages of Rapeseed include biodiesel production, maintaining soil fertility, producing compound animal feed, forage for cattle, etc. In Europe, more than 80% of biodiesel production is done from rapeseed [3]. Canada, producing approximately one-fourth of the total rapeseed worldwide, is the largest rapeseed producer [4]. ...
Recent advances in the field of genomic trait prediction has paved the way for developing futuristic plant breeding programs. The objective of our study is to predict a single or multiple traits of rapeseed (Brassica napus) based on the RNA sequence data. We analyzed 12 different traits of rapeseed and evaluated how their pair-wise correlation impact on the yield production. Further, for predicting single or multi-traits of rapeseed, four state-of-art machine learning (ML) models, namely – Lasso Regression (Lasso), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Multi-layer Perceptron (MLP) were evaluated. For both single and multi-trait predictions, our RF and SVM models performed most consistently, where the lowest mean squared error was achieved by RF (0.045 and 0.016 for the single and multi-trait prediction respectively). A comparative analysis with related works showed the potentiality of our model for future multi-modal model development. Future study in this context could comprise of evaluating our models with other transcriptome dataset from related crops or deep learning-based methods for better outcomes.
... One of the significant shortcomings that impede the widespread application of biodiesel is its poor oxidative stability. Biodiesel oxidative stability is influenced by air, light, traces of metal, biodiesel composition, especially polyunsaturated esters and storage temperature [114]. ...
The engine fuel properties of biodiesel are required for fuel quality assessment, spray and combustion modelling studies and engine optimization studies. Experimental measurement of biodiesel fuel properties over a broad range of temperatures is cost-intensive, laborious, time-consuming, and requires skilled labour. Thus, there have been sustained interests to develop models for predicting biodiesel fuel properties using various approaches for the past 50 years. The models developed for predicting fuel properties are based on various approaches that have advantages and limitations. The present review provides a critical analysis of approaches and models available in the literature to predict biodiesel properties that are important for fuel quality specifications, storage, handling, and durability of the fuel injection systems. The reliability of any empirical model depends on the number of data points considered in calibrating the model. The review articles available in the literature neither discussed the number of calibration samples nor the number of validation samples used for model development. Also, it is essential to validate the prediction models using additional data set which are not considered in calibrating the models. The present review addresses these limitations wherein the favourable features and limitations of models available to predict biodiesel properties are discussed in terms of reported deviations, validation method, model simplicity, applicable range and the number of data points used in calibrating and validating the models. Thus, the analysis provided therein helps to choose appropriate property prediction models based on the intended application. Further, poor oxidative stability is one of the significant drawbacks with biodiesel, and no literature discusses the models to predict oxidative stability of biodiesel. This limitation is also addressed in the present review. Biodiesel composition-based models are suggested to predict the calorific value provided a more comprehensive range, and the type of methyl esters are considered in the model calibration. Due to simplicity, estimating biodiesel density based on the predicted density of methyl esters and applying suitable mixing law is suggested. Accurate models to predict biodiesel flashpoint temperature and oxidative stability need to be developed considering their significance. Models involving composition-based indicators are recommended to predict biodiesel cold filter plugging point and kinematic viscosity due to model simplicity and better accuracy.
... Compared with petrol diesel, it has a higher cetane number, higher combustion efficiency, and lower emission of pollutants such as carbon dioxide and particulates. [1][2][3][4][5] According to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards, BDF is defined as the mono alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats, for use in compression-ignition (diesel) engines. 6 It is produced by the transesterification of triglycerides (TG) with a primary alcohol in the presence of a catalyst. ...
Previously, we have conducted the transesterification using isopropanol (IPA) as a co-solvent for biodiesel fuel (BDF) production in the homogeneous condition (a single fatty acid methyl ester [FAME] phase). In this report, we investigated the transesterification kinetics by varying IPA amount and the optimum conditions for BDF production with 10 wt% IPA. In the IPA amount of 5 to 25 wt%, the transesterification proceeded in a heterogeneous condition (FAME and glycerol [GL] phases) as the GL phase was formed and separated from the FAME phase. The transesterification rate increased with the increase of IPA amount, and the correlation coefficient (r) between the rate constant and IPA amount was 0.97 (P < 0.05). The optimal conditions of transesterification for biodiesel production from canola oil with 10 wt% IPA were as follows: 1.0 wt% KOH, MeOH/oil molar ratio of 6:1, and a reaction temperature of 30°C. The quality of biodiesel satisfied the JIS K2390 and EN 14214 standards. Transesterification using 10 wt% IPA co-solvent could facilitate the phase separation after the reaction, and the amount of waste was reduced. The recovery of IPA from FAME phase was >96%, hence IPA could be reused. These results indicated that IPA was a superior co-solvent for the BDF production from plant oil feedstocks.
Novelty statement
• Isopropanol as a co-solvent for biodiesel production from canola oil was examined.
• Kinetic parameter of reaction rate was estimated.
• The transesterification proceeded rapidly with increase of isopropanol.
• The transesterification conditions were optimized for biodiesel production with 10 wt% of isopropanol.
... Among the most important properties of this biofuel are kinematic viscosity, specific gravity, cold flow, flash point, cetane number, iodine value, lubricity, oxidative stability. In addition, the content of water and sediments, total ash, total glycerin, ester, phosphorus, and sulfur contents are important [17]. ...
The current situation and the prospects for an increase in the biodiesel market share in Ecuador were analyzed. The substitution of up to 15% of diesel (4.88 million barrels) would be possible using the surplus of African palm oil and the pinion crop expansion (1000 times). This would decrease the emitted CO 2 (611,303 tons/year). Despite in Ecuador the biodiesel cost is 53% higher than diesel cost, the social and economic co-benefits at the pinion producer level must also be considered. To reduce the pinion oil costs, it is necessary to improve its performance (use sophisticated technologies). The use of other raw materials (e.g. lignocellulosic waste) could be another alternative.
Synthetic biology’s application to metabolic engineering allows the production of biomolecules of interest for applications for the chemical, agri-food, and pharmaceutical industries. Since its first implementation on a plant with the production of Vitamin A in rice, numerous examples of plant metabolic engineering have arisen, encompassing modifications of vegetable oil yield and composition. Thus, it is feasible to modify the chain length, number, and position of unsaturations of fatty acids, along with incorporating potential additional functional groups, to enhance the oil quality tailored for a specific use. Modifying plant metabolism is often an iterative approach. Its success lies in an in-depth understanding of the metabolic pathway to be modified and of its endogenous regulation, as well as in efficient phenotyping and cloning techniques (e.g., Golden Braid system). While successfully modifying the expression of one single gene is a routine in labs, manipulating several genes at a glance for rerouting plant metabolisms remains a major challenge. The present chapter describes emblematic examples of works in this field (production of biodiesel, bio-based plastics, and fatty fish oil using camelina), which illustrate both the scientific and technical advances, as well as the constraints to be overcome.
Petroleum is a non-renewable energy source that is limited and eventually runs out if it is used continuously. In order to produce bio-diesel, plant seeds are processed and used as a feedstock. This process is made possible by both the storage of resources and the rise in the price of gasoline. In terms of sulphate content, flash point, and biodegradability, biodiesel is superior to petroleum diesel. In this work, an effort has been made to prepare biodiesel manufactured from trans-esterified pongamia pinnata, mahualongifolia, and rice bran. It doesn't include sulphur aromatic compounds. It is biodegradable and harmless. The trans-esterification reaction that produces biodiesel is catalysed by an acid, alkali, or enzymatic catalyst.
PurposeThis work discusses the effect of nanoparticles (already functionalized SiO2 nanoparticles) on the production of biodiesel from used cottonseed oil (UCSO) for ester-filled power equipment. Three properties of the used cotton seed oil methyl ester-based nanofluid; loss tangent, AC conductivity, and DC breakdown strength were examined.Methods
The functionalized SiO2 nanoparticles were dispersed in the used cotton seed oil methyl ester (ECSO) to alter the stability of the mixture. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Electron Dispersive X-ray EDX) analysis was done on the SiO2 nanoparticles to know their morphology and elemental composition. The dispersion method was used to prepare the nanofluids at various percentages by weight ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 wt% of SiO2 nanoparticles in the synthesized ECSO.ResultsIt was discovered that adding SiO2 nanoparticles to the synthesized ECSO decreases its loss tangent and AC conductivity. Results from the breakdown strength, Weibull statistical analysis, show that the dispersion of SiO2 nanoparticles into the ester-based fluids (i.e., ECSO) enhances their characteristic breakdown strength, with performance reaching its peak with a characteristic breakdown strength of 27.30 kV/mm at 0.5 wt%.Conclusion
Thus, from the electrical properties of the nanofluids analyzed, it can serve as an alternative insulation material for an oil-filled transformer equipment.
Given the speed of sound as one of the most important
property affecting the performance and characteristics of compression
ignition engines (CI), the present work aimed to study the influence of
temperature and pressure on the speed of sound of waste cooking oil
biodiesel mixed with isobutanol. Speed of sound data of such mixtures have
been measured over the entire composition range at temperatures from 303
to 333 K and pressures from 0.1 to 25 MPa, with a combined uncertainty of
1.4 m s−1, using an acoustical cell developed for that purpose. The sound
speed data of biodiesel, isobutanol, and of each isobutanol + biodiesel
mixture were correlated using polynomial equations, resulting in average
absolute relative deviations usually less than 0.08%. The speed of sound of
the studied mixtures was successfully correlated with an equation proposed
recently for biodiesel which was found to be appropriate to describe the data
in the pressure, temperature, and composition ranges with an AARD % = 0.2.
The current study focuses on how a thermal barrier coated piston affects the diesel engine's efficiency and emission criteria. The top surface of the piston crown was completely coated with three varying configurations of thermal barrier coatings (TBC) materials, including 7% YSZ (LHR1), 2% Gd2O3 + YSZ (LHR 2), and 5% Gd2O3 + YSZ (LHR 3), all of which had a thickness of 0.25 mm. In addition, for all three combinations, the bond coat NiCrAlY, which was applied to the sample substrate using plasma spray method. An experimental performance investigation was carried out on a four-stroke, one-cylinder diesel engine fuelled with diesel and mahua bio diesel under various loading situations. A qualitative study was performed to establish the optimal condition using Taguchi's method in order to save time and money.
With the necessity to mitigate climate change, fossil fuels have been replaced by biofuels. Currently, biodiesel, which is basically a mixture of esters used with diesel as a blend, is the most popular biofuel. As an advantage, biodiesel has lower and less harmful pollutant emissions compared to diesel, besides being renewable and biodegradable. However, its applicability at low temperatures requires caution due to crystallization. To measure biodiesel operability at low temperatures, cold flow properties (CFPs) such as cloud point (CP), pour point (PP), and cold filter plugging point (CFPP) are monitored. CFPs can be calculated based on physical properties or ester composition. Therefore, exploratory analyses were applied to investigate the influence of some esters on CFPs to develop new predictive methods with relevant esters. Also, existing methods that predict CFPs were assessed and their accuracy was compared by using the parameter Average Absolute Deviation (AAD). The accuracy of CFPs prediction was highly dependent on the biodiesel type and the suitable method. The most precise method for CP, PP, and CFPP prediction achieved AAD = 1.34 %, 1.22 %, and 1.16 %, respectively. For biodiesel-diesel blends new methods for CFP’s prediction were developed with AAD inferior to 1 %, similar to existing methods.
https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1gzxa7tDQ9OZWQ
One of the greatest challenges of the 21st century is to obtain an ecological source of transport fuels. The production of biofuels based on feedstock obtained through the exploitation of arable land translates into an increase in food prices and progressive degradation of the environment. Unlike traditional agricultural raw materials, algae are a neutral alternative in many respects. They can even be obtained as waste from polluted water reservoirs. One of the manifestations of the deterioration of surface waters is the eutrophication of water reservoirs, which leads to an increase in the number of algae. Algae reaching the shores of water reservoirs can be used as a raw material for the production of biofuels, including biogas, bioethanol and biodiesel. However, it should be remembered that water blooms are a periodic phenomenon, appearing in the summer months. Therefore, in order to ensure the continuity of obtaining energy from biomass, it is necessary to conduct algae cultivation in artificial open tanks or photobioreactors. Accordingly, this review first briefly discusses the properties and possible applications of different species of algae in various industrial areas, and then describes the process of eutrophication and the presence of algae in eutrophicated reservoirs. Technologies of algal cultivation in various systems and technologies of algal biomass pretreatment were critically discussed. Various methods of obtaining biomass from algae were also reviewed, and the process conditions were summarized. Biofuels of various generations and raw materials from which they are obtained are presented in order to determine the possible future directions of development in this field. Parameters affecting the selection of algae species for the production of biofuels were also examined and presented. Overall, algal biofuels still face many challenges in replacing traditional fossil fuels. Future work should focus on maximizing the yield and quality of algae-derived biofuels while increasing their economic viability.
Petroleum-based fuels are well-established products that have served industry and consumers for more than one hundred years. However petroleum, once considered inexhaustible, is now being depleted at a rapid rate. As the amount of available petroleum decreases, the need for alternative technologies to produce liquid fuels that could potentially help prolong the liquid fuels culture and mitigate the forthcoming effects of the shortage of transportation fuels is being sought. The dynamics are now coming into place for the establishment of a synthetic fuels industry; the processes for recovery of raw materials and processing options have to change to increase the efficiency of oil production and it is up to various levels of government not only to promote the establishment of such an industry but to recognise the need for available and variable technology. This timely handbook is written to assist the reader in understanding the options that available for the production of synthetic fuel from biological sources. Each chapter contains tables of the chemical and physical properties of the fuels and fuel sources. It is essential that the properties of such materials be presented in order to assist the researcher to understand the nature of the feedstocks as well as the nature of the products. If a product cannot be employed for its hope-for-use, it is not a desirable product and must be changed accordingly. Such plans can only be made when the properties of the original product are understood. The fuels considered include conventional and unconventional fuel sources; the production and properties of fuels from biomass, crops, wood, domestic and industrial waste and landfill gas.
The purpose of this present study is to demonstrate the potentialities of the alga Chlorella pyrenoidosa as a source of energy of third generation, based on the increase of biomass yield, by the use of systems of culture developed, these latter are doped by are doped with optically active molecules, allowing for shifting the light to the area of photosynthesis adapted to the alga, what increasing the maximum biomass concentration compared to the neutral system (non-doped) chosen as a reference by a factor of 2 from 3 th days of culture. We have also, realized a simple extraction of the oil of cultivated alga, the yield acquired is interesting, it is of the order of 40.17%, this oil undergoes a conversion to a biodiesel by the reaction of transesterification, which gives us a yield of 92.56%. In effect, based on the results above, this work leads to the conclusion that, the alga Chlorella pyrenoidosa rich in lipids ,constitutes a choice dilicate for the operate as raw material for the production of energy that is sustainable and renouvlabe.
This work resume the potential of some native species of arid zones of Mexico for the use to biofuel; the cetane number is calculated and compared with the international standars, like a form to measure the potential. The cetane number range was 45 to 64, this indicate are good to produce biofuel.
Biodiesel (methyl esters) has been produced using numerous catalysts to enhance its quality and related productivity. Generally, the raw materials for biodiesel production and its catalysts significantly impact the produced biodiesel’s quality. In addition, the heterogeneous catalysts are promising as catalysts in the transesterification for biodiesel production and can be used continuously during this production. In particular, these catalysts are essential for green biodiesel production because of their high activity, thermal stability, and reusability. Hence, several homogeneous and heterogeneous (acidic and alkaline) catalysts for biodiesel production, particularly the naturally derived heterogeneous catalysts, are reviewed in this article. Further, the different heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production have been studied extensively as replacements for the respective homogeneous catalyst. Specifically, this replacement is aimed at the simultaneous esterification and transesterification of the nonedible and low-cost biomasses under moderate conditions producing biodiesel. Moreover, this study analyzes biodiesel’s impact and long-term performance in various applications. Finally, it also reports the advancements in biodiesel production in terms of the catalysts used in it and its processes to aid further developments in biodiesel production.
Petrochemicals are the primary source of energy due to their high energy density and accessibility of their established energy conversion technologies. Nevertheless, the sources of fossil fuels and oil reserves are getting exhausted due to their extensive exploration and usage. To reduce the reliance on hydrocarbon-based fossil fuels, the search for a suitable fuel substitute to upgrade the energy conversion efficiency has become crucial. In this context, liquid biofuels are suitable alternatives to petroleum products that offer a range of attractive qualities such as high energy density and reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This chapter starts with a brief outline of biofuels, the need for biofuels in the current scenario, and their environmental impact. This chapter primarily focuses on the classification and different generations of liquid biofuels. A brief synopsis of the biochemical liquid fuels is also discussed. Further, we attempt to evaluate and summarize the future of biofuel production and conclude with a discussion on challenges, opportunities, and barriers for the future advancement of liquid biofuels from a bio-economy perspective.
In this present investigation, a locally isolated green alga, Tetradesmus obliquus (Turp.) Kütz., grown in 16,000 L optimized culture volume in raceway ponds, was explored for the development of a rapid algal drying protocol using a self-designed tray-dryer. The biphasic nitrogen starved cultures were subjected to drying with 5, 7.5, and 10 mm algal slurry thickness at three different temperatures viz. 60, 80, and 100 °C. The wet algal slurry with ~90% initial moisture content (MC) required 12, and 15 h of drying period at 80 °C to achieve maximum lipid yield (~425 mg/g dry algal weight) for 5, and 7.5 mm initial slurry thickness, respectively. Newton's model constant (k) was calculated from the available datasets which showed that the increase in slurry thickness resulted in lower k values indicating a slower drying process with higher thickness. Partial drying up to 10% residual MC at 80 °C showed 93% lipid recovery in comparison to complete drying at the same temperature. The drying period was significantly reduced to only 6–8.5 h in comparison to complete drying. The energy consumption of this tray-drying technique at 80 °C with 10% residual MC was calculated to be 10.81, and 9.93 kWh/ kg dry biomass, for 5, and 7.5 mm initial algal slurry thickness, respectively. The lipid produced from the tray-dried biomass after conversion to biodiesel, was further analyzed in GC–MS. It was found that the saturated and mono-unsaturated fatty acids constituted 90% of the total fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield in the obtained algal biodiesel. Furthermore, the characterization of various fuel properties of the produced biodiesel revealed the values were within the definite limits of Indian and international biodiesel standards, thus, demonstrating the bright possibility of producing qualitative biodiesel from T. obliquus using this rapid tray-drying technique.
The effect of temperature and catalyst concentration on transesterification of Ceiba pentandra (Silk cotton) seed oil was studies using two step, acid esterification and alkali-catalyzed transesterification process with varying catalyst concentrations (0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.0. 1.25, and1.50 % w/v) and methanol/oil ratio of 3:1, 6:1, 9:1and 12:1 at temperatures 50, 55, 60 and 65 o C for 1 hour. The results obtained showed optimal percentage oil yield of 92.9 % at 65 O C after 1 hour. The results also indicate that properties of the biodiesel: specific gravity (0.88±0.01 g/cm 3), carbon residue (0.02±0.01 %), acid value (0.10±0.01 mgKOHg-1), sulphur content (0.02±0.03 %), flash point (170±1.00 o C), pour point (25.00±0.50 o C) and viscosity (4.70±0.14 cSt) were within ranges of ASTM biodiesel standard specification. Maximum yield of biodiesel was obtained at 1.0 % catalyst concentration, hence it is recommended that 1.0 % of the catalyst be used for transesterification of Ceiba pentandra seed oil.
The amount of solid and liquid organic waste and wastewater is continuously increasing all over the world. The necessity of their reuse and recycling is, therefore, becoming more and more pressing. Furthermore, the limited fossil fuel resources, in conjunction with the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, advocate the production of renewable fuels. In this work, we analyze a sustainable second-generation process to produce biodiesel by transesterification of waste cooking oil, coupled with a third-generation process in cascade for recycling the incoming wastewater. Since this latter is rich in glycerol, it is used as a feed for microalgae, from which oil can be extracted and added to the waste cooking oil to further produce biodiesel and close the cycle. We studied the influence of different factors like temperature, catalyst load, and reactants ratio on the kinetics of transesterification of the waste oil and estimated the kinetic parameters by different kinetic schemes. The obtained values of activation energies and pre-exponential factors at chosen conditions of T = 60 °C and catalyst load of 0.6% w/w in methanol are: Ea,direct = 35,661 J mol−1, Ea,reverse = 72,989 J mol−1, k0,direct = 9.7708 [dm3 mol−1]3 min−1, and k0,reverse = 24,810 [dm3 mol−1]3 min−1 for the global fourth-order reversible reaction scheme and Ea = 67,348 J mol−1 and k0 = 2.157 × 109 min−1 for the simplified pseudo-first-order irreversible reaction scheme; both in strong agreement with literature data. Furthermore, we designed very efficient conditions for discontinuous and continuous operating mode, both at lab-scale and pilot-scale. The quality of the biodiesel produced from waste cooking sunflower oil is compared with that of biodiesel produced by different kinds of virgin vegetable oils, showing that the former possesses acceptable quality standards (Cetane number = 48 and LHV = 36,600 kJ kg−1). Finally, the recycling of wastewater rich in glycerol as a nutrient for mixotrophic microalgae nurturing is discussed, and microalgae growing kinetics are evaluated (k1 about 0.5 day−1), endorsing the possibility of algae extraction each 4–5 days in a semi-continuous operating mode. The experimental results at the pilot scale finally confirm the quality of biodiesel, and the obtained yields for a two-stage process prove the competitiveness of this sustainable process on the global market.
In the next decade, bio-alcohols may become an alternative as advanced biofuels to be blended with conventional diesel fuels, especially in the heavy-duty transport sector, where electrification is not straightforward. In high-pressure injection processes, surface tension is the property of liquid fuels that most affects the spray atomization, even more than viscosity, the quality of spray formation (penetration and angle) into the engine combustion chamber, and subsequently, the combustion performance and emissions. However, contrary to viscosity, surface tension is not limited by fuel quality standards. In addition, surface tension is one of the properties that behaves highly non-linearly after blending. The present work aims to explore which of the models proposed in the literature for the prediction of the surface tension is the most suitable for samples consisting of diesel and biodiesel-alcohol blends. Three criteria, which can be used alone or combined, have been defined to discriminate between models: best fit, minimum number of parameters and the existence of a physical basis behind the model. Among all the models tested, the Connors-Wright model is recommended for most combinations of the criteria due to its relative simplicity and accuracy for such mixtures.
L’utilisation d’additifs procétanes est indispensable pour respecter la réglementation en matière de lutte contre la pollution liée au moteur diesel. Ces molécules actives sont destinées à augmenter les performances du carburant. Aujourd’hui, l’additif procétane le plus utilisé est le 2-ethylhexyl nitrate (EHN), obtenu par nitration de l’iso-octanol (dérivé du pétrole). L’objectif de ce travail est de synthétiser un substitut biosourcé à l’EHN en réalisant la nitration d’un biodiesel. Cette étude sera complétée par une modélisation et une estimation des paramètres cinétiques et énergétiques associés à la réaction de synthèse. Ces paramètres sont déterminés grâce à une méthode inverse basée sur la reconstruction des profils de puissance mesurés par le RC1 en mode semi-batch. Afin de proposer un modèle fiable capable de reproduire de façon fine le comportement du milieu réactionnel, l’approche adoptée dans ce travail consiste à d’abord caractériser le milieu réactionnel. La caractérisation comporte une étude calorimétrique et une étude chimique qui permettent d’évaluer la stabilité thermique du milieu réactionnel, d’identifier les différentes espèces présentes dans le produit nitré et de déterminer leur sélectivité. Suite à la caractérisation, il a été possible de proposer un modèle chimique pour estimer les paramètres cinétiques de la réaction. La réaction de synthèse a été réalisée avec deux agents de nitration (le mélange sulfonitrique et le nitrate d’acétyle) sur une plage de température allant de 10 °C à 50 °C. Les performances des bioadditifs obtenus ont été évaluées grâce à un moteur CFR. La forte exothermicité de la réaction, combinée à l’instabilité de certains produits, conduit à effectuer une étude de sécurité de la réaction afin d’évaluer sa criticité.
Le réchauffement climatique, dû essentiellement aux gaz à effet de serre, et l’augmentation de la demande mondiale en énergies fossiles ainsi que leur épuisement rapide, représentent des défis environnementaux et économiques mondiaux,qui ont incité la communauté mondiale à se tourner vers les énergies alternatives et renouvelables. Cette thèse s’inscrit dans cette optique de développement des énergies renouvelables. Le travail de recherche peut se résumer en deux grands axes, où le premier englobe le développement du procédé de production de biodiesel en continu avec différentes matières premières par l’intermédiaire de deux réactions (transestérification et estérification). Cet axe consiste en : une simulation sous ANSYS Fluent de l’écoulement des fluides à l’intérieur d’un mélangeur chaotique, une synthèse et purification du biodiesel, une étude cinétique du système de production de biodiesel, suivi par une étude des effets des conditions opératoires sur les réactions étudiées. Les résultats obtenus ont montré une efficacité de ce procédé dans l’intensification de production en continu du biodiesel. Le second axe a été consacré à l’étude de l’effet des propriétés physicochimiques des biodiesels sur le fonctionnement du moteur à combustion interne. Dans cette partie, plusieurs biodiesels ayant une large gamme de caractéristiques physicochimiques ont été utilisés dans un moteur diesel à injection directe (DI) et à aspiration naturelle,de puissance électrique nominale de 30,4 kW à 1500tr/min. Les performances du moteur (consommation spécifique et rendement) et les émissions polluantes (Hydrocarbures imbrûlés, NOx, CO2, CO, PM) ont été étudiées pour les différents biodiesels, utilisés seuls ou en mélange. Les résultats ont montré une faible déviation entres les différents biodiesels testés dans le moteur à l’exception des émissions des HC et des particules.
This study investigates the physical properties and combustion behavior of blends of military jet fuel JP-5 with biodiesels synthesized from methanol, potassium hydroxide, and 13 plant oils (avocado, canola, castor, coconut, corn grapeseed, linseed, neem, olive, palm, peanut, soybean, and walnuts), bacon grease, and duck fat. The biodiesels were analyzed using gas chromatography(GC)/mass spectrometry(MS) and GC/flame ionization detection(FID). The main components found were methyl esters with 13 to 18 carbon atoms, agreeing with previously reported compositions. Biodiesel densities ranged from 875.3 to 929.3 kg·m⁻³ at 15 °C, many exceeding the maximum allowable U. S. Naval diesel fuel density of 876 kg·m⁻³. Biodiesel viscosities ranged from 3.05 to 15.8 at mm²·s⁻¹ at 40 °C, half of which were higher than the maximum allowable military diesel viscosity of 4.3 mm²·s⁻¹. All biodiesel flash points were higher than the military diesel minimum requirement of 60 °C, and all the biodiesel derived cetane numbers where greater than the minimum of 42, except for castor oil, which had a DCN of 41.2. Surface tensions ranged from 28.6 to 32.4 mN·m⁻¹, which were higher than the 26.0 mN·m⁻¹ measured for JP-5. The bulk moduli ranged from 1678 to 2039 MPa, which were higher than the 1444 MPa for JP-5. Combustion experiments in a Yanmar diesel engine were conducted with JP-5, castor, soy, corn, coconut and palm oil biodiesels and 20% and 50% mixtures of the biodiesels in JP-5. The ignition delay (IGD) of the neat fuels decreased (shortened) as the DCN of the fuel increased. The maximum rate of heat release was highest for the castor oil and lowest for palm oil. The peak pressure location was similar for the biodiesels, except for castor oil biodiesel, which had later combustion phasing. There was only a modest increase in the thermal efficiencies of the biodiesels as compared to JP-5. Most mixtures of JP-5 and biodiesel had IGDs, maximum rates of heat release, and peak pressures that fell between the value for pure biodiesel and that of JP-5. Overall, the mixture of 20% biodiesel with JP-5 will have minimal impact on the combustion characteristics in a diesel engine.
With the exception of rape seed oil which is the principal raw material for biodiesel Fatty Acid Methyl Esters, (FAME) production, sunflower oil, corn oil, and olive oil, which are abundant in Southern Europe, along with some wastes, such as used frying oils, appear to be attractive candidates for biodiesel production. In this paper fuel consumption and exhaust emission measurements from a single cylinder. stationary diesel engine are described The engine was fueled with fuel blends containing four different types of biodiesel, at proportions up to 100 percent: the further impact of the usage of two specific additives was also investigated The four types of biodiesel appeared to have equal performance and irrespective of the raw material used for their production, their addition to the traditional diesel fuel improved the particulate matter emissions. The results improve further when specific additive combinations are used.
Biodiesel, a biofuel directly substitutable for petroleum-based diesel, can be derived using simple technology from locally grown oil crops in rural regions in developing countries. It can be used for decentralized micro-grid electricity generation at the village level and as a replacement for diesel fuel in small-scale applications such as irrigation pump sets. Benefits include: increased energy independence, minimal net life-cycle CO 2 emissions, increased economic activity from fuel production and utilization. This paper evaluates (a) the feasibility of local production of biodiesel, and (b) the cost of micro-grid electricity generation using biodiesel for a small representative village in southern India as an example. The Jatropha curcas (or Physic nut) plant is used in the evaluation. Results indicate that half of available agricultural land for a rural village would be required to produce enough biodiesel to provide 100% of fuel needed for modest electrification demand (80 kW), and the cost of electricity would be over twice that for the use of federally-priced petroleum-diesel. It is important to recognize the significant land requirements for biodiesel, and the high costs of such energy sources when compared to fossil fuels.
Renewable vegetable fuels are spreading rapidly throughout Europe and North America. Because biodiesel fuel has now acquired
an important market share, it is necessary to thoroughly examine aspects of its use not previously considered either at the
research stage or when overhauling the production technology. One of these aspects is its medium-term storage. The object
of the present work is to study the behavior of biodiesel under controlled storage conditions that simulate those found in
reality. Samples of biodiesel were kept in the dark, at two different temperatures (20°C and 40°C), in both glass and iron
containers. They were controlled by the parameters that indicate their state of oxidation. Another group of samples was stored
in glass and kept under the conditions described above in the presence of increasing quantities of water to determine its
influence on the formation of acidity.
This work examines low-temperature properties of triglyceride-based alternate fuels for direct-injection compression-ignition
engines. Methyl esters from transesterified soybean oil were studied as neat fuels and in blends with petroleum middle distillates
(No. 1 or No. 2 diesel fuel). Admixed methyl esters composed of 5–30 vol% tallowate methyl esters in soyate methyl esters
were also examined. Pour points, cloud points, and kinematic viscosities were measured; viscosities at cooler temperatures
were studied to evaluate effects of sustained exposure. Low-temperature filterability studies were conducted in accordance
with two standard methodologies. The North American standard was the low-temperature flow test (LTFT), and its European equivalent
was the cold-filter plugging point (CFPP). With respect to cold-flow properties, blending methyl esters with middle distillates
is limited to relatively low ester contents before the properties become preclusive. Under most conditions, cold-flow properties
were not greatly affected by admixing the methyl esters with up to 30 vol% tallowate (before blending). Least squares analysis
showed that both LTFT and CFPP of formulations containing at least 10 vol% methyl esters are linear functions of cloud point.
In addition, statistical analysis of the LTFT data showed a strong 1:1 correlation between LTFT and CP. This result may prove
crucial in efforts to improve low-temperature flow properties of alternate diesel fuels that contain methyl esters derived
from triglycerides.
The paper reviews the potential for use of various biofuels in India and issues related to their application in gasoline and diesel vehicles and the associated environmental benefits.
The reactions of interest today, mainly those producing methyl esters from rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower oils, have been studied and optimized to manufacture the high quality diesel fuel known as biodiesel. A general description of a new process, where the transesterification reaction is promoted by a completely heterogeneous catalyst, was presented. The catalyst consisted of a mixed oxide of zinc and aluminum, which promotes the transesterification reaction without catalyst loss. The reaction was performed at a higher temperature than homogeneous catalysis processes, with an excess of methanol. The desired chemical conversion was reached with two successive stages of reaction and glycerol separation to displace the equilibrium reaction. Biodiesel was recovered after final recovery of methanol by vaporization under vacuum and then purified to remove the last traces of glycerol.
A number of factors affecting the methanolysis of vegetable oils in aqueous medium by Cryptococcus spp. S-2 lipase were investigated. The crude lipase from the yeast efficiently catalyzed the methanolysis of vegetable oils (oil/methanol molar ratio of 1:1) in the presence of 40 wt.% water. The methyl ester content was high with rice bran oil at 30 °C for 96 h and further optimization studies were carried out with varying amount of enzyme, water or methanol. The enzyme was not inactivated by shaking in a mixture containing 4 Meq of methanol against the oil and 100 wt.% water by weight of the substrate and the methyl ester contents increased with increasing molar equivalents of methanol and water contents from 60 to 100 wt.%. The optimal methanolysis conditions were an oil/methanol molar ratio of 1:4, a water content of 80 wt.% by weight of the substrate containing 2000 U of crude lipase with shaking at 160 rpm for 120 h at 30 °C. Thus, the reaction was conducted in a single step to avoid the stepwise addition of methanol and the methyl ester contents reached 80.2 wt.% at 120 h. These same conditions were applied for alcoholysis of rice bran oil and primary alcohols to their respective alkyl ester derivatives which are excellent substitutes for diesel fuel.
Exhaust emission tests were conducted on rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME), rapeseed oil ethyl ester (REE) and fossil diesel fuel as well as on their mixtures. Results showed that when considering emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and smoke density, rapeseed oil ethyl ester had less negative effect on the environment in comparison with that of rapeseed oil methyl ester. When fuelled with rapeseed oil ethyl ester, the emissions of NOx showed an increase of 8.3% over those of fossil diesel fuel. When operated on 25–50% bio-ester mixed with fossil diesel fuel, NOx emissions marginally decreased. When fuelled with pure rapeseed oil ethyl ester, HC emissions decreased by 53%, CO emissions by 7.2% and smoke density 72.6% when compared with emissions when fossil diesel fuel was used. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which cause greenhouse effect, decreased by 782.87 g/kWh when rapeseed oil ethyl ester was used and by 782.26 g/kWh when rapeseed oil methyl ester was used instead of fossil diesel fuel. Rapeseed oil ethyl ester was more rapidly biodegradable in aqua environment when compared with rapeseed oil methyl ester and especially with fossil diesel fuel. During a standard 21 day period, 97.7% of rapeseed oil methyl ester, 98% of rapeseed oil ethyl ester and only 61.3% of fossil diesel fuel were biologically decomposed.
The btodegradability of various biodiesel fuels including Neat Rapeseed oil (NR) and Neat Soybean oil (NS) as well as their modified products Rape Ethyl Ester (REE), Rape Methyl Ester @ME), Soyate Ethyl Ester (SEE), and Soyate Methyl Ester (SME), and the blends of REE/diesel at different volumetric ratios in the aquatic environment was determined by the standard CO2 evolution method (EPA 560/6-82-003) and calibrated by gas chromatography (GC) analysis. The results were compared to those of Phillips 2-D reference diesel. The biodegradation rates of REE at varying concentrations were also tested by both methods. The results demonstrate that all the biodiesel fuels are readily biodegradable compounds. Moreover, cometabolism was observed in the biodegradation of the mixture fuel. In the presence of REE, the degradation rate of diesel increased three times that of diesel alone as the sole carbon source. The biodegradation pattern in the mixture is discussed; the reasons why biodiesel is more readily degradable than diesel is discussed; and the results from both CO2 evolution and GC methods are compared.
The current specifications for petroleum fuels have evolved over the history of the petroleum industry and the development of the internal combustion engine. Present day fuel specifications are based on a wealth of empirical data and practical experience. A similar data base is only now being developed for the specification of vegetable oil fuels for diesel engines. Four different types of vegetable oil (soy, sunflower, cottonseed and peanut) have been obtained, each in at least three different stages of processing. All of the oils (14) have been characterized with respect to their physical and chemical properties. The spray characteristics of five of the oils have been determined at a variety of fuel temperatures using a high-pressure, high-temperature injection bomb and high-speed motion picture camera. These same oils have been tested in a direct injection farm tractor engine. The engine data consists of the normal performance measurements as well as the determination of heat release rates from cylinder pressure data. 3 figures, 7 tables.
Twelve typical farm tractors representing three manufacturers were operated on North Dakota farms during the 1981 crop season. The two fuels that were used were blends of 50% sunflower oil - 50% diesel fuel and 25% sunflower oil - 75% diesel fuel. The fuel handling characteristics of the blends and the durability effect on the engies were evaluated. There were no particular problems with fuel handling or engine performance while the tractors accumulated 6300 total hours. Engine inspection did reveal excess carbon deposits on several engine components. Engines with rectangular style compression rings were more prone to ring sticking problems which accelerated liner wear. 6 figures, 2 tables.
Experiemntal fuels made up of cottonseed oil, transesterified cottonseed oil (methyl ester) and No. 2 diesel fuel have been compared to a baseline No. 2 diesel fuel in a turbocharged, open chamber diesel engine. All fuel blends were analyzed and their properties compared to those of typical No. 2 diesel fuels. Test results include data on performance, gaseous emissions and limited (200-hour) cyclic durability. Crankcase oil samples were withdrawn at regular intervals during durability tests and analyzed for indications of fuel-lubricant compatibility. The paper presents data obtained and discusses effects of fuel properties and engine operating conditions on the short and long-term response of existing diesels. 9 figures.
The paper presents the results of a research project to evaluate performance and durability of direct injection turbocharged diesel engines using sunflower oil and blends thereof. Alcaline refined sunflower oil and three different blends of sunflower oil and diesel fuel were comparatively tested against No. 2 diesel fuel for: physical and chemical characteristics, fuel injection system performance, short term engine performance, propensity to nozzle deposits buildup, limited durability operation and low temperature starting capability. Results are presented for the various phases of the project and correlations between the fuel characteristics and engine accept-ability are discussed. 19 figures, 2 tables.
Spectral characteristics and association constants for dichloromethane solutions of 11 1:1 complexes of phenyl derivatives of C, Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb with TCNE are reported. Trends in values of Δv 1/2, λ max, and K eq, for TCNE complexes of PhCH 3, Ph 2CH 2, Ph 3CH, and Ph 4C are interpreted in terms of hyperconjugative, inductive, and steric effects. Striking similarities in the spectra of TCNE complexes of Ph 4C, Ph 4Si, Ph 4Ge, Ph 4Sn, and Ph 4Pb indicate that there is no appreciable pπ → dπ bonding between the phenyl groups and central atoms and that the energies of the phenyl π orbitals are unaffected by the size or electronegativities of the central atoms. Spectral characteristics and association constants for dichloromethane solutions of 10 1:1 complexes of arylamines with TCNE in dichloromethane are reported. These complexes generally exhibit two absorbance bands. The low wavelength maxima, λ 1, (385-415 nm), arise from phenyl a 2 orbitals. The high wavelength maxima, λ 2 (580-820 nm), arise from b 1 orbitals, which are strongly conjugated with the unbonded electron pair of the central atom. Di- and triarylamines form stable complexes with TCNE, whereas monoarylamines react irreversibly with TCNE. Ph 3P reacts rapidly with TCNE in dichloromethane to yield a 1:2 adduct. TCNE also reacts rapidly with 2-, 3-, and 4-Tol 3P but forms a 1:1 complex with Ms 3P which has λ max 416 nm. Ph 3As, Ph 3Sb, and Ph 3Bi form 1:1 complexes with TCNE which have two overlapping absorbance bands. The low wavelength bands, λ 1 (385-405 nm), arise from a 2 orbitals, whereas the high wavelength bands, λ 2 (515-545 nm), arise from n orbitals energized by pπ → dπ conjugation.
A study was made of the reaction of transesterification of Cynara cardunculus L. oil by means of methanol, using sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and sodium methoxide as catalysts. The objective of the work was to characterize the methyl esters for use as biodiesels in internal combustion motors. The operation variables used were methanol concentration (5−21 wt %), catalyst concentration (0.1−1 wt %), and temperature (25−60 °C). The evolution of the process was followed by gas chromatography, determining the concentration of the methyl esters at different reaction times. The biodiesel was characterized by determining its density, viscosity, high heating value, cetane index, cloud and pour points, Ramsbottom carbon residue, characteristics of distillation, and flash and combustion points according to ISO norms. The biodiesel with the best properties was obtained using 15% methanol, sodium methoxide as catalyst (1%), and 60 °C temperature. This biodiesel has very similar properties to those of diesel no. 2.
Alkyl esters of long chain fatty acid are called biodiesel. These esters can be obtained from vegetable oils by transesterification with methanol/ethanol. The transesterification can be carried out chemically or enzymatically. In the present work three different lipases (Chromobacterium viscosum, Candida rugosa, and Porcine pancreas) were screened for a transesterification reaction of Jatropha oil in a solvent-free system to produce biodiesel; only lipase from Chromobacterium viscosum was found to give appreciable yield. Immobilization of lipase (Chromobacterium viscosum) on Celite-545 enhanced the biodiesel yield to 71% from 62% yield obtained by using free tuned enzyme preparation with a process time of 8 h at 40 °C. Further addition of water to the free (1%, w v-1) and immobilized (0.5%, w v-1) enzyme preparations enhanced the yields to 73 and 92%, respectively. Immobilized Chromobacterium viscosum lipase can be used for ethanolysis of oil. It was seen that immobilization of lipases and optimization of transesterification conditions resulted in adequate yield of biodiesel in the case of the enzyme-based process.
The reaction of rapeseed oil with methanol catalyzed by KOH is described by a model consisting of two sequences of consecutive competitive reactions. The first sequence expresses the methanolysis of rapeseed oil to methyl esters (biodiesel) whereas the second sequence describes the always present side reaction-saponification of glycerides and methyl esters by KOH. The proposed chemical model is described (after rational simplifications) by a system of differential kinetic equations which are solved numerically by two independent computing methods. The thus obtained theoretical kinetic and equilibrium results are compared numerically and/or graphically with the experimental parameters. The latter were obtained by the determination of the relevant components in the actual reaction mixture by analytical methods. According to the experimental results, the proposed reaction scheme is fulfilled with the probability of ca. 78%. The optimal average rate constants and equilibrium constants of individual reaction steps of the discussed scheme are introduced. The limitations of the proposed reaction model are discussed.
The enumeration of the analytical methods used in the production of biodiesel from rapeseed oil and methanol catalyzed by KOH and published till 1997 is given. Some of our original methods for individual or simultaneous determination of the main components in the reaction mixture are described. All these methods can be also used to analyse the non-equilibrium complex and heterogeneous mixture.Biodiesel aus Rapsöl, Methanol und KOH. Analysemethoden für Forschung und ProduktionDie Analysemethoden, die für die Herstellung von Biodiesel aus Rapsöl und Methanol mit KOH als Katalysator verwendet werden und die bis 1997 publiziert wurden, werden aufgelistet. Einige unserer Originalmethoden zur individuellen und zur gleichzeitigen Bestimmung der Hauptkomponenten im Reaktionsgemisch werden beschrieben. Diese Methoden können auch für die Analyse des Nicht-Gleichgewicht-Komplexes und des heterogenen Gemischs eingesetzt werden.
Methyl soyate, made from typical soybean varieties, has a crystallization onset temperature (T
co) of 3.7°C and, as a biodiesel fuel, is prone to crystallization of its high-melting saturated methyl esters at cold operating
temperatures. Removal of saturated esters by winterization was assessed as a means of reducing theT
co of methyl soyate. Winterizing neat methyl esters of typical soybean oil produced aT
co of −7.1°C, but this was not an efficient way of removing saturated methyl esters because of the low yield (26%) of the separated
liquid fraction. However, aT
co of −6.5°C with 86% yield was obtained by winterizing the neat methyl esters of a low-palmitate soybean oil; aT
co of −5.8°C with 77% yield was obtained by winterizing methyl esters of normal soybean oil diluted with hexane.
Kinematic viscosities at 20C, 40C and at 70C have been measured for methyl oleate, linoleate, linolenate, erucate, and for
the saturated fatty acid methyl esters acetate through nonadecanoate. Using a recently developed dynamic viscosity-temperature
criterion, log (1.200+log η)=A−S log (1+t/135), the viscosity-temperature behavior of the saturated compounds could be characterized
by one single parameter.
Data for viscosity as a function of temperature from 24 to 110°C (75 to 230°F) have been measured for a number of vegetable
oils (crambe, rapeseed, corn, soybean, milk-weed, coconut, lesquerella) and eight fatty acids in the range from C9 to C22. The viscosity measurements were performed according to ASTM test methods D 445 and D 446. Several correlations were fitted
to the experimental data. Correlation constants for the best fit are presented. The range of temperature in which the correlations
are valid is from 24°C (75°F), or the melting point of the substance, to 110°C (230°F). The correlation constants are valuable
for designing or evaluating such chemical process equipment as heat exchangers, reactors, distillation columns, mixing vessels
and process piping.
The effects of using blends of methyl and isopropyl esters of soybean oil with No. 2 diesel fuel were studied at several steady-state
operating conditions in a four-cylinder turbocharged diesel engine. Fuel blends that contained 20, 50, and 70% methyl soyate
and 20 and 50% isopropyl soyate were tested. Fuel properties, such as cetane number, also were investigated. Both methyl and
isopropyl esters provided significant reductions in particulate emissions compared with No. 2 diesel fuel. A blend of 50%
methyl ester and 50% No. 2 diesel fuel provided a reduction of 37% in the carbon portion of the particulates and 25% in the
total particulates. The 50% blend of isopropyl ester and 50% No. 2 diesel fuel gave a 55% reduction in carbon and a 28% reduction
in total particulate emissions. Emissions of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons also were reduced significantly. Oxides
of nitrogen increased by 12%.
Fuel properties of beef tallow, soybean oil, their esters, and blends with No. 2 diesel fuel and ethanol were determined.
Fuel properties tested were viscosity, specific gravity, API gravity, distillation ranges, calculated cetane index, energy
content, flash point, water content, sulfur content, carbon residue, particulate matter, acid value, copper-strip corrosion
test, ash content, melting point, cloud point, and pour point. Gas-chromatographic analyses of tallow, soybean oil, and their
esters were performed to determine their major constituents. Viscosities of soybean oil and tallow were significantly reduced
by esterification. Other fuel properties of the esters and their blends with No. 2 diesel fuel and ethanol were similar to
the properties of No. 2 diesel fuel.
Winterizing is the process of removing stearines from vegetable oils. The procedures have been developed over the past 75
years and vary according to the type of oil treated or the kind of process used such as batch, continuous systems, or whether
in the miscella stage. Dewaxing is also considered a form of winterizing.
To reduce the tendency of biodiesel to crystallize at low temperatures, branched-chain alcohols were used to esterify various
fats and oils, and the crystallization properties of the branched esters were compared with those of methyl esters by using
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), cloud point, and pour point. Compared with the methyl esters that are commonly used
in biodiesel, branched-chain esters greatly reduced the crystallization onset temperature (TCO) of neat esters and their corresponding ester diesel fuel blends. Isopropyl and 2-butyl esters of normal (∼10 wt% palmitate)
soybean oil (SBO) crystallized 7–11 and 12–14°C lower, respectively, than the corresponding methyl esters. The benefit of
the branched-chain esters in lowering TCO increased when the esters were blended with diesel fuel. Esters made from a low-palmitate (3.8%) SBO crystallized 5–6°C lower
than those of normal SBO. Isopropyl esters of lard and tallow had TCO values similar to that of methyl esters of SBO. DSC provided an accurate means of monitoring crystallization, and the DSC
results correlated with cloud and pour point measurements.
Cottonseed salad oil is normally prepared by winterization, a process whereby oil is chilled slowly to form crystals of disaturated
triglycerides, which are then removed by filtration. Hydrogenated soybean oil is similarly processed. Unhydrogenated soybean,
corn, and safflower oils do not require winterization. A recent approach is to winterize from solvent, resulting in increased
salad oil yield. The main control method is the cold test, a measure of the time required for the oil to cloud in an ice bath.
Crystal inhibitors, such as oxystearin or polyglycerol esters, are used to lengthen the cold test.
Three fatty materials, soy-bean oil, used frying oil and tallow, were transformed into two different types of biodiesel, by transesterification and amidation reactions with methanol and diethylamine respectively. The ignition properties of these types of biodiesel were evaluated calculating the cetane index of the transesterification products, and the blending cetane number of the amide biodiesel blended with conventional diesel. Amide biodiesel enhances the ignition properties of the petrochemical diesel fuel, and it could account for the 5% market share that should be secured to biofuels by 2005.
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) seed oil was extracted, and its physical and chemical characteristics determined. The crude oil was bleached and the ester-fuel (methyl-ester) was prepared by trans-esterification with 6-molar excess of methanol using sodium hydroxide as a catalyst. Methyl ester yield and fuel properties of the oil (crude and bleached) and its methyl ester were determined and compared to that of commercial diesel fuel. The analysis of the properties in comparison to commercial diesel fuel showed that trans-methylation improved the fuel properties of the oil. The viscosity was substantially reduced from 37.85 to 6.29 cSt. Calculated cetane index (increased from 34.00 to 44.81), other fuel properties were also found to improved. The results supports the choice of monosters, in place of straight rubber seed oil, as having better potential for use as alternative diesel fuel. However, oxidative stability was reduced by trans-methylation.
The world is confronted with the twin crises of fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation. The indiscriminate extraction and consumption of fossil fuels have led to a reduction in petroleum reserves. Alternative fuels, energy conservation and management, energy efficiency and environmental protection have become important in recent years. The increasing import bill has necessitated the search for liquid fuels as an alternative to diesel, which is being used in large quantities in transport, agriculture, industrial, commercial and domestic sectors. Biodiesel obtained from vegetable oils has been considered a promising option.In this paper, an attempt has been made to review the work done on biodiesel production and utilization, resources available, process(es) developed/being developed, performance in existing engines, environmental considerations, the economic aspect, and advantages in and barriers to the use of biodiesel.
The cetane number, a widely used diesel fuel quality parameter related to the ignition delay time (and combustion quality) of a fuel, has been applied to alternative diesel fuels such as biodiesel and its components. In this work, the cetane numbers of 29 samples of straight-chain and branched C1–C4 esters as well as 2-ethylhexyl esters of various common fatty acids were determined. The cetane numbers of these esters are not significantly affected by branching in the alcohol moiety. Therefore, branched esters, which improve the cold-flow properties of biodiesel, can be employed without greatly influencing ignition properties compared to the more common methyl esters. Unsaturation in the fatty acid chain was again the most significant factor causing lower cetane numbers. Cetane numbers were determined in an ignition quality tester (IQT) which is a newly developed, automated rapid method using only small amounts of material. The IQT is as applicable to biodiesel and its components as previous cetane-testing methods.
In this article, the status of fat and oil derived diesel fuels with respect to fuel properties, engine performance, and emissions is reviewed. The fuels considered are primarily the methyl esters of fatty acids derived from a variety of vegetable oils and animal fats, and referred to as biodiesel. The major obstacle to widespread use of biodiesel is the high cost relative to petroleum. Economics of biodiesel production are discussed, and it is concluded that the price of the feedstock fat or oil is the major factor determining biodiesel price.Biodiesel is completely miscible with petroleum diesel fuel, and is generally tested as a blend. The use of biodiesel in neat or blended form has no effect on the energy based engine fuel economy. The lubricity of these fuels is superior to conventional diesel, and this property is imparted to blends at levels above 20 vol%. Emissions of PM can be reduced dramatically through use of biodiesel in engines that are not high lube oil emitters. Emissions of NOx increase significantly for both neat and blended fuels in both two- and four-stroke engines. The increase may be lower in newer, lower NOx emitting four-strokes, but additional data are needed to confirm this conclusion. A discussion of available data on unregulated air toxins is presented, and it is concluded that definitive studies have yet to be performed in this area. A detailed discussion of important biodiesel properties and recommendations for future research is presented. Among the most important recommendations is the need for all future studies to employ biodiesel of well-known composition and purity, and to report detailed analyses. The purity levels necessary for achieving adequate engine endurance, compatibility with coatings and elastomers, cold flow properties, stability, and emissions performance must be better defined.
A review of 12 economic feasibility studies shows that the projected costs for biodiesel from oilseed or animal fats have a range US$0.30–0.69/l, including meal and glycerin credits and the assumption of reduced capital investment costs by having the crushing and/or esterification facility added onto an existing grain or tallow facility. Rough projections of the cost of biodiesel from vegetable oil and waste grease are, respectively, US$0.54–0.62/l and US$0.34–0.42/l. With pre-tax diesel priced at US$0.18/l in the US and US$0.20–0.24/l in some European countries, biodiesel is thus currently not economically feasible, and more research and technological development will be needed. Economic analysis of a farmers' biodiesel cooperative near Vienna, Austria, shows that government subsidies enable the farmers to produce the canola on set-aside land for biodiesel and by-product meal cake at almost no net cost to the farmers.
Efforts are under way in many countries, including India, to search for suitable alternative diesel fuels that are environment friendly. The need to search for these fuels arises mainly from the standpoint of preserving the global environment and the concern about long-term supplies of conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels. Among the different possible sources, diesel fuels derived from triglycerides (vegetable oils/animal fats) present a promising alternative to substitute diesel fuels. Although triglycerides can fuel diesel engines, their high viscosities, low volatilities and poor cold flow properties have led to the investigation of various derivatives. Fatty acid methyl esters, known as biodiesel, derived from triglycerides by transesterification with methanol have received the most attention. The main advantages of using biodiesel are its renewability, better-quality exhaust gas emissions, its biodegradability and given that all the organic carbon present is photosynthetic in origin, it does not contribute to a rise in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and consequently to the greenhouse effect.
Diesel engine exhaust particles (DEP) contribute substantially to ambient air pollution. They cause acute and chronic adverse health effects in humans. Biodiesel (rapeseed oil methyl ester, RME) is used as a "green fuel" in several countries. For a preliminary assessment of environmental and health effects of RME, the particulate-associated emissions from the DEP of RME and common fossil diesel fuel (DF) and their in vitro cytotoxic and mutagenic effects were compared. A test tractor was fuelled with RME and DF and driven in a European standard test cycle (ECE R49) on an engine dynamometer. Particle numbers and size distributions of the exhausts were determined at the load modes "idling" and "rated power". Filter-sampled particles were extracted and their cytotoxic properties tested using the neutral red assay. Mutagenicity was tested using the Salmonella
typhimurium/microsome assay. Despite higher total particle emissions, solid particulate matter (soot) in the emissions from RME was lower than in the emissions from DF. While the size distributions and the numbers of emitted particles at "rated power" were nearly identical for the two fuels, at "idling" DF emitted substantially higher numbers of smaller particles than RME. The RME extracts caused fourfold stronger toxic effects on mouse fibroblasts at "idling" but not at "rated power" than DF extracts. The extracts at both load modes were significantly mutagenic in TA98 and TA100. However, extracts of DF showed a fourfold higher mutagenic effect in TA98 (and twofold in TA100) than extracts of RME. These results indicate benefits as well as disadvantages for humans and the environment from the use of RME as a fuel for tractors. The lower mutagenic potency of DEP from RME compared to DEP from DF is probably due to lower emissions of polycyclic aromatic compounds. The higher toxicity is probably caused by carbonyl compounds and unburned fuel, and reduces the benefits of the lower emissions of solid particulate matter and mutagens from RME.
The economic feasibilities of four continuous processes to produce biodiesel, including both alkali- and acid-catalyzed processes, using waste cooking oil and the 'standard' process using virgin vegetable oil as the raw material, were assessed. Although the alkali-catalyzed process using virgin vegetable oil had the lowest fixed capital cost, the acid-catalyzed process using waste cooking oil was more economically feasible overall, providing a lower total manufacturing cost, a more attractive after-tax rate of return and a lower biodiesel break-even price. On the basis of these economic calculations, sensitivity analyses for these processes were carried out. Plant capacity and prices of feedstock oils and biodiesel were found to be the most significant factors affecting the economic viability of biodiesel manufacture.
The effects of temperature, oil/alcohol molar ratio and by-product glycerol were studied during Lipozyme TL IM-catalysed continuous batch operation when short-chain alcohols were used as the acyl acceptor. In non-continuous batch operation, the optimal oil/alcohol ratio and temperature were 1:4 and 40-50 degrees C; however, during the continuous batch operation, the optimal oil/alcohol ratio and temperature were 1:1 and 30 degrees C; 95% of enzymic activity remained after 10 batches when isopropanol was adopted to remove by-product glycerol during repeated use of the lipase.
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