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β-D-glucan content of wheat kernels after inoculation With Fusarium culmorum Sacc
Abstract
Winter wheat landraces and modern Slovak cultivars were inoculated with the pathogen Fusarium culmorum Sacc. by spraying in May 2008, in plot experiments under natural conditions in Pieany, Slovakia. The objective was to examine the responses of the tested genotypes to inoculation with F. culmorum and to determine changes in the β-D-glucan content in the kernels. The area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK) and the β-D-glucan and deoxynivalenol (DON) contents in the grains were determined using Megazyme and Ridascreen® Fast DON assay kits. Wheat landraces had lower AUDPC and FDK, and accumulated 67.4% less DON than modern cultivars. There were highly significant correlations (P < 0.01) between AUDPC and DON content, between FDK and DON, and between AUDPC and FDK. The correlation between β-D-glucan content and AUDPC was also significant (P < 0.05), but not correlations between β-D-glucan and other traits. The β-D-glucan content in the grain of wheat genotypes artificially inoculated with F. culmorum was lower than in grains without infection. The wheat landraces contained more β-D-glucan than modern cultivars and showed higher resistance to F. culmorum. The three wheat landraces had significantly lower spike and kernel infection compared to modern cultivars and could be used to breed elite cultivars with enhanced Fusarium head blight resistance.
... A possible explanation for the reduction of β-Dglucans in inoculated plants is the fact that β-glucosidase has a role in the degradation of β-D-glucans in plant cells. This enzyme is activated during several physiological processes in the plant cell, as well as during the protection of plants against pathogens [45]. ...
Adverse environmental conditions, such as various biotic and abiotic stresses, are the primary reason for decreased crop productivity. Oat, as one of the world’s major crops, is an important cereal in human nutrition. The aim of this work was to analyze the effect of inoculation with two species of the genus Fusarium on the selected qualitative parameters of oat grain intended for the food industry. Artificial inoculation caused a statistically significant decrease in the content of starch, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids in oat grains compared to the control. Moreover, artificial inoculation had no statistically significant effect on the content of β-D-glucans, total dietary fiber, total lipids, palmitic, stearic, and cis-vaccenic acids. An increase in the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in oat grains was observed after inoculation. The most important indicator of Fusarium infection was the presence of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol in the grain. The content of β-D-glucans, as a possible protective barrier in the cell wall, did not have a statistically significant effect on the inoculation manifestation in the grain.
Avenanthramides (avn) are antioxidant compounds found in oat tissues, including the grain, that are of interest from a nutritional standpoint. In this study, we have measured avenanthramide concentration in the grain of 18 oat genotypes grown in six environments. These genotypes varied widely in crown rust (Puccinia coronata) resistance. Crown rust infected two of the six environments studied. The grain avenanthramide concentrations in the crown rust environments were significantly higher than those in the uninfected environments. Avenanthramide concentrations in the crown rust infected environments was also significantly correlated with their genetic crown rust resistance, as evaluated in the field. These results suggest that avenanthramide accumulation in the grain is associated with crown rust infection and that, in most of the cultivars evaluated, the extent of their accumulation also correlated with their genetic disease resistance; avenanthramide accumulation in the grain was, with noted exceptions, highest in those cultivars showing the greatest genetic resistant to crown rust.
The mixed-linkage (1→3),(1→4)-β-D-glucans are unique to the Poales, the taxonomic order that includes the cereal grasses. (1→3), (1→4)-β-Glucans are the principal molecules associated with cellulose microfibrils during cell growth, and they are enzymatically hydrolyzed to a large extent once growth has ceased. They appear again during the developmental of the endosperm cell wall and maternal tissues surrounding them. The roles of (1→3),(1→4)-β-glucans in cell wall architecture and in cell growth are beginning to be understood. From biochemical experiments with active synthases in isolated Golgi membranes, the biochemical features and topology of synthesis are found to more closely parallel those of cellulose than those of all other noncellulosic β-linked polysaccharides. The genes that encode part of the (1→3),(1→4)-β-glucan synthases are likely to be among those of the CESA/CSL gene superfamily, but a distinct glycosyl transferase also appears to be integral in the synthetic machinery. Several genes involved in the hydrolysis of (1→3),(1→4)-β-glucan have been cloned and sequenced, and the pattern of expression is starting to unveil their function in mobilization of β-glucan reserve material and in cell growth.
Fusarium head blight (FHB), predominantly caused by Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum, is one of the most destructive diseases of wheat, reducing grain yield and quality of kernels. In diseased kernels trichothecne
mycotoxins accumulate, which are harmful to human and animal health. Pathogen development and host responses to infection
by F. graminearum were investigated in wheat spikes of the resistant cv. Sumai 3 and susceptible cv. Xiaoyan 22 to infection by means of electron
microscopy and immunogold labelling techniques. The infection process of the pathogen in wheat spikes was similar in both
the resistant and susceptible cultivars, but the pathogen developed more slowly in the resistant cv. Sumai 3 compared to the
susceptible cv. Xiaoyan 22, indicating that fungal spread was restricted to the spike tissues of the resistant cultivar. The
formation of thick-layered appositions and papillae was essentially more pronounced in the infected host tissues of the resistant
cultivar than in the susceptible one. ß-1,3-glucan was detected in the appositions and papillae. Immunogold labelling studies
demonstrated that labelling densities for lignin, thionins and hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP) over the cell walls
of the infected tissues of the susceptible wheat cv. Xiaoyan 22 only slightly increased whereas these compounds intensely
accumulated in the host cell walls of the infected wheat spikes of the resistant cv. Sumai 3. The labelling densities for
the two plant hydrolases, ß -1,3-glucanase and chitinase, increased slightly in the infected wheat spike tissues of the susceptible
cv. Xiaoyan 22, whereas higher labelling densities of both enzymes were found in the infected wheat spikes from the resistant
cv. Sumai 3. Immunogold labelling of the Fusarium toxin DON in the infected wheat spike tissues showed that labelling densities
in spike tissues for DON in the resistant cv. Sumai 3 were significantly lower than those in the susceptible cv. Xiaoyan 22.
The significance of the induced morphological (e.g. thick-layered wall appositions and papillae) and chemical defence constituents
(e.g. ß -1,3-glucanase, chitinase, lignin, thionin and HRGP) in resistance to FHB as well as the possible role of DON as an
aggressiveness factor in translation of transcripts of defence response genes and spreading of F. graminearum and F. culmorum are discussed.
Species associated with Fusarium head blight are depending on the production and edaphic conditions. The differences are found
in the representation of various Fusarium spp. in the diseases, which sporadically occur all over the territory of Slovakia, in all agricultural production types.
We identified fifteen Fusarium species during ten years of investigation. Most of the mentioned species F. culmorum (W.G. Smith) Sacc., F. graminearum Schwabe, recently F. cerealis (Cooke) Sacc. (crookwellense Burgess, Nelson & Tousson) and F. sambucinum Fuckel in diseased caryopsis are seed transmitted. The significant differences among species and intra species in cultural
and pathogenicity assays in vitro and in vivo were correlated. Some of them are able to produce toxic metabolites — deoxynivalenone, which probably play a role in the
aggressiveness of the pathogen and promote disease development and pathogen colonization.
In view of the frequent occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals, a study was initiated to assess the exposure of the Hungarian adult population. Consumption data for 1360 individuals, based on a 3-day questionnaire, indicated that white bread accounted for the major intake of cereal-based products. Various cereal products were analysed for 16 mycotoxins by a LC/MS/MS multi-toxin method with LOD of 16 µg kg⁻¹ and LOQ of 50 µg kg⁻¹. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was most frequently detected, but no acetyl-deoxynivalenol was present in detectable concentrations. Consumer exposure was calculated with standard Monte Carlo probabilistic modelling and point estimates, taking into account bread consumption and DON contamination in independently taken wheat flour and wheat grain samples. Over 55% of cases the DON intake were below 15% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 µg/(kg bw)/day. However, in 5-15% of cases, the intake from bread consumption alone exceeded the PMTDI. Wheat grain data led to the higher percentage. Intakes estimated from both data sets were at or below the acute reference dose (ARfD) of 8 µg/(kg bw)/day in 99.94-99.97% of cases.
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease of wheat worldwide. Severe infection can dramatically reduce grain yield and quality. Resistant cultivars have been identified from several countries. However, only a few sources of FHB resistance showed stable FHB resistance across environments and have been used as the major source of resistance in breeding programs. To diversify the wheat FHB-resistance gene pool, new sources of FHB-resistance are desired. Ninety-four selected wheat landraces and cultivars, mainly from China and Japan, have been evaluated for FHB severity and deoxynivalenol (DON) content. Low DON content was correlated with resistance to the FHB symptom spread within an infected spike, but not with the resistance to FHB initial infection. Two-thirds of the accessions were either resistant or moderately resistant to FHB. Among them, 26 highly resistant accessions mainly originated from China and Japan. Fifteen of them had less than 2 mg kg-1 DON in harvested grain, six of which showed all three types of resistance. Most of these resistant accessions lack known pedigree relations to Sumai 3, suggesting that some of them may carry genes for resistance to FHB and DON accumulation different from those in Sumai 3.
The plant cell wall is a highly organized composite that may contain many different polysaccharides, proteins, and aromatic substances. These complex matrices define the features of individual cells within the plant body. Ultimately, the plant wall functions as the determinant of plant morphology. The importance of the plant cell wall is revealed in the shear number of genes that are likely to be involved in cell wall biogenesis, assembly, and modification. For example, over 17% of the 25498 Arabidopsis genes have signal peptides, and over 400 proteins have been identified that reside in the wall (Arabidopsis Genome Initiative, 2000). If just one-half of the proteins with signal peptides function in the biosynthesis, assembly, and modification of the walls, then well over 2000 genes are likely to participate in wall biogenesis during plant development. This number is considerably larger if all the cytosolic proteins that function in substrate generation are included. Beyond this, some integral membrane-associated proteins, such as cellulose synthase, obviously function in cell wall bio genesis but do not contain signal peptides. Thus, it is likely that some 15% of the Arabidopsis genome is dedicated to cell wall biogenesis and modification. Of these, only small subsets have been characterized.
The major products of the trichothecene mycotoxin biosynthetic pathway produced in a species- and sometimes isolate-specific manner by cereal-pathogenic Fusarium fungi include T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, deoxynivalenol and nivalenol. This paper briefly reviews the major effects of such trichothecenes on the gross morphology, cytology and molecular signalling within eukaryotic cells. The gross toxic effects of select trichothecenes on animals include growth retardation, reduced ovarian function and reproductive disorders, immuno-compromization, feed refusal and vomiting. The phytotoxic effects of deoxynivalenol on plants can be summarized as growth retardation, inhibition of seedling and green plant regeneration. Trichothecenes are now recognized as having multiple inhibitory effects on eukaryote cells, including inhibition of protein, DNA and RNA synthesis, inhibition of mitochondrial function, effects on cell division and membrane effects. In animal cells, they induce apoptosis, a programmed cell death response. Current knowledge about the eukaryotic signal transduction cascades and downstream gene products activated by trichothecenes is limited, especially in plants. In mammalian cells, certain trichothecenes trigger a ribotoxic stress response and activate mitogen-activated protein kinases. DON mediates the inflammatory response by modulating the binding activities of specific transcription factors and subsequently inducing cytokine gene expression. Several genes are up-regulated in wheat in response to trichothecene mycotoxins; the significance, if any, of these genes in the host response to trichothecenes has yet to be elucidated.
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is one of the most important fungal wheat diseases worldwide. Understanding the genetics of FHB resistance is key to facilitate the introgression of different FHB resistance genes into adapted wheat. The objective of this project was to study the FHB resistance QTL on chromosome 6B, quantify the phenotypic variation, and qualitatively map the resistance gene as a Mendelian factor. The FHB resistant parent BW278 (AC Domain*2/Sumai 3) was used as the source of the resistance allele. A large recombinant inbred line (RIL) mapping population was developed from the cross BW278/AC Foremost. The population segregated for three known FHB resistance QTL located on chromosomes 3BSc, 5A, and 6B. Molecular markers on chromosome 6B (WMC104, WMC397, GWM219), 5A (GWM154, GWM304, WMC415), and 3BS (WMC78, GWM566, WMC527) were amplified on approximately 1,440 F2:7 RILs. The marker information was used to select 89 RILs that were fixed homozygous susceptible for the 3BSc and 5A FHB QTLs and were recombinant in the 6B interval. Disease response was evaluated on 89 RILs and parental checks in the greenhouse and field nurseries. Dual floret injection (DFI) was used in greenhouse trials to evaluate disease severity (DS). Macroconidial spray inoculations were used in field nurseries conducted at two locations in southern Manitoba (Carman and Glenlea) over two years 2003 and 2004, to evaluate disease incidence, disease severity, visual rating index, and Fusarium-damaged kernels. The phenotypic distribution for all five-disease infection measurements was bimodal, with lines resembling either the resistant or susceptible checks and parents. All of the four field traits for FHB resistance mapped qualitatively to a coincident position on chromosome 6BS, flanked by GWM133 and GWM644, and is named Fhb2. The greenhouse-DS trait mapped 2 cM distal to Fhb2. Qualitative mapping of Fhb2 in wheat provides tightly linked markers that can reduce linkage drag associated with marker assisted selection of Fhb2 and aid the pyramiding of different resistance loci for wheat improvement.
The aim of this study was to optimize analytical methods for determination of ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins B1 and B2 (FB1, FB2), zearalenone (ZON), and deoxynivalenol (DON) in cereals and cereal-based food products. The chromatographic separation was performed by reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection (FLD) and ultraviolet-diode array detection (UV-DAD). Optimized sample preparation methods utilizing extraction with solvent and clean-up on immunoaffinity column (IAC) were used. The procedures were validated in accordance with single laboratory validation principles. The limit of detection (LOD) for OTA, FB1, FB2 and ZON was 0.081, 50, 40 and 12 μg·kg-1, respectively, whereas the limit of quantification (LOQ) for DON was 45 μg·kg-1 for processed cereals (group A) and 85 μg·kg-1 for unprocessed cereals (group B). Average recoveries varied, in the range of 92-94% for OTA, 93-87% for FB1, 83-96% for FB2, 89-103% for ZON, and 97-87% for DON at defined spiking levels. The accuracy was additionally estimated for OTA, ZON and fumonisins using a certified reference material (CRM). All methods showed good sensitivity, accuracy and precision comparable to those published recently. The methods were successfully applied to the determination of mycotoxins in cereals at examination of occurrence and content of these toxins.
A number of old Hungarian wheat varieties are maintained in the institute gene bank. The analysis of lines developed from these populations has shown that, like landraces, the old varieties were genetically heterogeneous. It has been observed that line BKT9086, developed from the variety Bankuti 1201, has Fusarium resistance vying with that of known resistance sources, though the genetic background of this resistance differs from that described for Sumai 3 and its derivatives. In this study it proved possible to identify the presence of as yet unknown genetic factors.
Five genotypes of wheat were artificially infected with Fusarium culmorum using the point method. The beta-D-glucan, deoxynivalenol content, and Fusarium protein value were measured after 72 hours, 15, and 25 days after spike inoculation. The beta-D-glucan content was stable during disease progress in spikes of those genotypes which had both the lowest Fusurium protein value and the lowest deoxynivalenol content. A significant reduction of beta-D-glucan content was found in genotypes which cumulated both high deoxynivalenol and Fusarium protein value.
This review covers the physiology and molecular biology of the plant β-glucanases possessing either endo-1,3-β-D-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.39) or endo-1,3;1,4-β-D-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.73) activity. These β-glucanases are structurally related enzymes that are believed to be involved in many important aspects of plant physiology and development, such as germination, growth, defense against pathogens, flowering, cellular and tissue development and differentiation, and probably other roles. They also are regulated by numerous plant hormones, biotic and abiotic elicitors and stresses, and they exhibit complex tissue- and developmental-specific gene expression.
The contamination level of grain samples by Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol in the grains of wheat grown in different growing areas of Slovakia between 2004 and 2006 was investigated. DON content was analysed in 139 wheat samples from the maize, sugar beet and potato growing areas. The highest mean DON content was found in the potato growing area and lowest in the maize growing area. There was a positive correlation between DON content and rainfall in the growing areas. A negative correlation was found between the content of DON and temperature. The limit specified by the EU 1.25 mg kg-1 DON content exceeded 9.3% of the samples from the maize growing area, 5% from the sugar beet growing area and 14.3% from the potato growing area. The results show the tendency of increasing toxin contamination of wheat grown from the maize and potato growing areas and also the need for more information on the problem about the distribution of Fusarium mycotoxins in wheat grown in Slovakia.
This review covers the physiology and molecular biology of the plant beta-glucanases possessing either endo-1,3-beta-D-giucanase (EC 3.2.1.39) or endo-1,3;1,4-beta-D-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.73) activity. These beta-glucanases are structurally related enzymes that are believed to be involved in many important aspects of plant physiology and development, such as germination, growth, defense against pathogens, flowering, cellular and tissue development and differentiation, and probably other roles. They also are regulated by numerous plant hormones, biotic and abiotic elicitors and stresses, and they exhibit complex tissue- and developmental-specific gene expression.
Monocotyledon families can be divided into two groups depending on the presence (Group A) or absence (Group B) of ferulic acid ester-linked to their unlignified cell walls. The two groups also differ in the major types of non-cellulosic polysaccharides in their unlignified cell walls: in Group A they are glucuronoarabinoxylans (GAXs), and in Group B they are pectic polysaccharides. Previous studies suggested that among the Group A families, the Poaceae (grasses and cereals) was the only family with unlignified cell walls containing (1→3,1→4)-β-d-glucans. Moreover, the unlignified cell walls of the Poaceae contain a smaller proportion of pectic rhamnogalacturonans than those of the other Group A families. However, these studies did not include other families in the order Poales. We examined the polysaccharide compositions of unlignified cell walls from species of six Poales families: Anarthriaceae, Centrolepidaceae, Ecdeiocoleaceae, Flagellariaceae, Poaceae, and Restionaceae. The cell walls of all the species examined contained (1→3,1→4)-β-glucans with the exception of two Restionaceae species; these cell walls also contained similar, small proportions of pectic rhamnogalacturonans. Glucuronoarabinoxylans were a major component of these cell walls and smaller amounts of xyloglucans and glucomannans or galactoglucomannans were also present. We found the polysaccharide compositions of the lignified cell walls were similar and differed in similar ways from the polysaccharide compositions of unlignified cell walls from the same species. Our results are discussed in relation to the possible evolution of Poales families.
A commercially available enzymic method for the quantitative measurement of (1 → 3),(1 → 4)-β-glucan has been simplified to allow analysis of up to 10 grain samples in 70 min or of 100–200 samples by a single operator in a day. These improvements have been achieved with no loss in accuracy or precision and with an increase in reliability. The glucose oxidase/peroxidase reagent has been significantly improved to ensure colour stability for periods of up to 1 h after development. Some problems experienced with the original method have been addressed and resolved, and further experiments to demonstrate the quantitative nature of the assay have been designed and performed.
The Fusarium species Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum, which are responsible for Fusarium head blight (FHB) disease, reduce world-wide cereal crop yield and, as a consequence of their mycotoxin production in cereal grain, impact on both human and animal health. Their study is greatly promoted by the availability of the genomic sequence of F. graminearum and transcriptomic resources for both F. graminearum and its cereal hosts. Functional genomic, proteomic and metabolomic studies, in combination with targeted mutagenesis or transgenic studies, are unravelling the complex mechanisms involved in Fusarium infection, penetration and colonization of host tissues, and host avoidance thereof. This review illuminates and integrates emerging knowledge regarding the molecular crosstalk between Fusarium and its small-grain cereal hosts. An understanding of the complexity of the host-pathogen interactions will be instrumental in designing new efficient strategies for the control of FHB disease.
Immunogold labeling was used to study the distribution of (1-->3)-beta-glucans and (1-->3, 1-->4)-beta-glucans in the rice grain during cellularization of the endosperm. At approximately 3-5 d after pollination the syncytial endosperm is converted into a cellular tissue by three developmentally distinct types of wall. The initial free-growing anticlinal walls, which compartmentalize the syncytium into open-ended alveoli, are formed in the absence of mitosis and phragmoplasts. This stage is followed by unidirectional (centripetal) growth of the anticlinal walls mediated by adventitious phragmoplasts that form between adjacent interphase nuclei. Finally, the periclinal walls that divide the alveoli are formed in association with centripetally expanding interzonal phragmoplasts following karyokinesis. The second and third types of wall are formed alternately until the endosperm is cellular throughout. All three types of wall that cellularize the endosperm contain (1-->3)-beta-glucans but not (1-->3, 1-->4)-beta-glucans, whereas cell walls in the surrounding maternal tissues contain considerable amounts of (1-->3, 1-->4)-beta-glucans with (1-->3)-beta-glucans present only around plasmodesmata. The callosic endosperm walls remain thin and cell plate-like throughout the cellularization process, appearing to exhibit a prolonged juvenile state.
When the life cycle of plants is influenced by various environmental signals, the mechanical properties of the cell wall are greatly changed. These signals also modify the levels and structure of the cell wall constituents and such modifications are supposed to be the cause of the changes in the wall mechanical properties. These changes in the cell wall, the major component of the apoplast, can be recognized as the response of plants to environmental signals. The analysis of the mechanism leading to the response suggests that the apoplast is involved not only in the response but also in the perception and transduction of environmental signals in concert with the receptors of signals located on the plasma membrane. Thus, the apoplast plays a principal role in the communication of plants with the outer world and enables the plants to adapt themselves and survive in the environment full of stresses.
The cell coverings of plants have two important functions in plant life. Plant cell coverings are deeply involved in the regulation of the life cycle of plants: each stage of the life cycle, such as germination, vegetative growth, reproductive growth, and senescence, is strongly influenced by the nature of the cell coverings. Also, the apoplast, which consists of the cell coverings, is the field where plant cells first encounter the outer environment, and so becomes the major site of plant responses to the environment. In the regulation of each stage of the life cycle and the response to each environmental signal, some specific constituents of the cell coverings, such as xyloglucans in dicotyledons and 1,3,1,4-beta-glucans in Gramineae, act as the key component. The physiological functions of plant cell coverings are sustained by the metabolic turnover of these components. The components of the cell coverings are supplied from the symplast, but then they are modified or degraded in the apoplast. Thus, the metabolism of the cell coverings is regulated through the cross-talk between the symplast and the apoplast. The understanding of physiological functions of plant cell coverings will be greatly advanced by the use of genomic approaches. At the same time, we need to introduce nanobiological techniques for clarifying the minute changes in the cell coverings that occur in a small part within each cell.
Parasitic biotrophs such as mildews and rusts evolved specific mechanisms that keep host cells alive during infection. These fungi appear to absorb nutrients mainly by proton-symport-driven transporter proteins that reside in specialized feeding structures. Accumulating evidence suggests that biotrophic fungi both suppress induction of plant defense responses in physical proximity to infection sites and induce specific host genes for the establishment of biotrophy. The peculiarities of biotrophic pathogenesis likely reflect diverse types of plant disease-resistance responses. The cloning of race-specific resistance genes to powdery mildew infection and of genes required for their function provides first insights into molecular mechanisms enabling the host to recognize mildew effector components and suggests candidate mechanisms of resistance signaling. Resistance to powdery mildew fungi that result from mutations in host genes promises to shed light on mechanisms that are required for the establishment of disease susceptibility.
Cell walls are dynamic structures that represent key determinants of overall plant form, plant growth and development, and the responses of plants to environmental and pathogen-induced stresses. Walls play centrally important roles in the quality and processing of plant-based foods for both human and animal consumption, and in the production of fibres during pulp and paper manufacture. In the future, wall material that constitutes the major proportion of cereal straws and other crop residues will find increasing application as a source of renewable fuel and composite manufacture. Although the chemical structures of most wall constituents have been defined in detail, the enzymes involved in their synthesis and remodelling remain largely undefined, particularly those involved in polysaccharide biosynthesis. There have been real recent advances in our understanding of cellulose biosynthesis in plants, but, with few exceptions, the identities and modes of action of polysaccharide synthases and other glycosyltransferases that mediate the biosynthesis of the major non-cellulosic wall polysaccharides are not known. Nevertheless, emerging functional genomics and molecular genetics technologies are now allowing us to re-examine the central questions related to wall biosynthesis. The availability of the rice, Populus trichocarpa and Arabidopsis genome sequences, a variety of mutant populations, high-density genetic maps for cereals and other industrially important plants, high-throughput genome and transcript analysis systems, extensive publicly available genomics resources and an increasing armoury of analysis systems for the definition of candidate gene function will together allow us to take a systems approach to the description of wall biosynthesis in plants.
Effects of trichothecene mycotoxins on eukaryotic cells
- Rocha O.
Mixed linkage (1-3),(1-4)-beta-D-glucans of grasses
- Buckeridge M. S.