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The evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory of criminal behavior expanded
... The two components of ENA are intimately connected and conceptually represent a single underlying construct formulated at different levels of analysis (Durrant and Ward 2012). The theory makes use of the concept of competitive/victimizing behavior, which describes a continuum of competitive actions that can vary on their risk or chances of victimizing another individual (Ellis and Hoskin 2015). Actions that are competitive but do not have a victim (e.g., competitive sports, games) are not considered criminalized behaviors, but competitive actions with victims are considered criminalized (e.g., sexual assault, theft). ...
... This idea suggests that ancestral females would have been more likely to mate with males who were proficient at provisioning resources for her and her offspring, making traits that facilitate resource provisioning more and more common in males. Some of these traits would include competitiveness, status-seeking, and hunting skills, of which men across cultures tend to manifest more than women (Ellis and Hoskin 2015). Along with this observation for more resource provisioning skills in men is the accompanying selection pressure for men to fake these skills and rely on deception to mate and, if deception fails, to potentially resort to coercion. ...
... These are proposed to be (1) suboptimal arousal and (2) rightward shift in cortical functioning. These two proximal explanations of making a brain more male-like constitute a higher risk of engaging in competitive/victimizing behavior, since these mechanisms facilitate analgesic (pain-reducing), anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing), and emotion-attenuating functions (Ellis and Hoskin 2015). ...
Synonyms: Criminal behavior; Social factors and crime; The psychology of crime
Definition Criminology is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on crime and the responses to crime.
... Observer-Participant studied 16 bodybuilders in an Accra City Gym to determine if bodybuilding predisposes one to Political Party Vigilantism and consequently to election violence. Prompted by the generally known fact that some recreational and professional athletes' use Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids, AAS for performance enhancement and image improvement, the association between AAS and increased aggression and violence was reviewed (Hoskin & Ellis, 2015). The investigation appears to suggest that the national media may be justified for painting some bodybuilders as testosterone driven, thrill seekers who morph into vigilante groups with the propensity for violence (Beaver et al., 2008;Piacentico, Kotzalidis, del Casale et al., 2015). ...
... Anabolic Androgenic Steroids, AAS use has led to "evolutionary neuro-androgenic" theory, ENA (Hoskin & Ellis, 2015). ENA theorizes that "brain exposure to both prenatal and post-pubertal androgens (particularly testosterone) promotes all forms of competitiveness, including those that victimize others". ...
... ENA theorizes that "brain exposure to both prenatal and post-pubertal androgens (particularly testosterone) promotes all forms of competitiveness, including those that victimize others". Other researchers have linked exposure to fetal testosterone and other androgens prenatally may increase the probability of offending later in life (Hoskin & Ellis, 2015;Turanovic et al., 2017). Not all researchers agree with the issue of a single dose exposure to AAS leading to profound neuro-adaptive changes. ...
Abstract
In Sub-Saharan Africa, bodybuilders have been demonized as Vigilantes who
are not violence averse, and who cause election violence. The situation is
more complex and does not provide a straight forward cause and effect approach.
This is an investigation into the relationship between bodybuilding
and political party vigilantism and the role these actors play in election violence.
The author used mixed methodology of analytical literature review
and ethnographical investigative tool. Observer-Participant studied 16 bodybuilders
in an Accra City Gym to determine if bodybuilding predisposes one
to Political Party Vigilantism and consequently to election violence. Prompted
by the generally known fact that some recreational and professional athletes’
use Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids, AAS for performance enhancement
and image improvement, the association between AAS and increased aggression
and violence was reviewed (Hoskin & Ellis, 2015). The investigation appears
to suggest that the national media may be justified for painting some
bodybuilders as testosterone driven, thrill seekers who morph into vigilante
groups with the propensity for violence (Beaver et al., 2008; Piacentico, Kotzalidis,
del Casale et al., 2015). This finding was not sustained by other researchers
(Bahsin, Storer, Berman et al., 1996; Yates et al., 1999). In the national
situation, the youth appear to use bodybuilding as part of their healthseeking
needs, although there are aspects of bodybuilding that may not contribute
to overall good health, such as the injection of steroids for muscle
mass. Those recruited into Political Party Vigilante Groups join through peer
recommendation, Political Party affiliation, personal choice and direct employment
by “strongmen and financiers” in the Political Parties. A more
objective approach to reporting on, and understanding of bodybuilding and
its association with vigilantism or election violence should be adopted. Political
Party vigilantism appears to be an effect of systemic economic malaise
and under-development, which ought to be addressed by central government
through progressive investment in education and employment opportunities.
How to cite this paper: Norman, I. (2019).
Keywords
Body-Building, Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids, Vigilantism, Election
Violence
... First, the theory assumes that all humans (as well as other mammals) would be females were it not for genes located on the Y chromosome (that only males possess). These genes cause the would-be ovaries to become testes instead early in the gestation process, and it is the testes that produce large (male-typical) quantities of testosterone and other androgens, especially prenatally and postpubertally (Ellis & Hoskin, 2015a). ...
... The theory implies that if it were not for average sex differences in exposure to androgens, few sex differences in behavior would exist (Ellis, 2011a(Ellis, , 2011b. This includes sex differences in criminal behavior (Ellis & Hoskin, 2015a). ...
... ENA theory has elements beyond those just described above (see Ellis & Hoskin, 2015a& 2015bEllis 2017). Nevertheless, it is very specific in asserting that prenatal testosterone contributes to criminal behavior (and to any other behavior for which there are significant sex differences). ...
Evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory asserts that the main underlying forces behind human criminality is evolutionary (in ultimate terms) and neuroandrogenic (in proximate terms). Neuroandrogenic factors primarily refer to the influence of sex hormones on brain
functioning, especially both prenatal and post-pubertal testosterone. We recently reported evidence that supports the theory. Using a rather crude measure of prenatal testosterone exposure (known as the 2D:4D digit ratio), our two studies indicated that even within each sex, prenatal testosterone was significantly correlated with various forms of self-reported offending as theoretically predicted. Since these two studies were published, two meta-analyses have appeared that ostensibly provide little evidence that 2D:4D is actually predictive of criminality and associated behavior. However, we believe that both of these meta-analyses have deficiencies in terms of methodology and theory interpretation that can account for why some of their conclusions are subject to question. The present commentary identifies the deficiencies and shows how the meta-analytic findings most pertinent to criminality actually support the hypothesis that prenatal testosterone is a significant contributor to variations in criminal behavior.
... Researchers working within several academic fields have devoted entire careers to investigating what causes humans to break the law (or more generally, to violate social norms; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Ellis & Hoskin, 2015). The result is a glut of empirical research coupled with numerous theoretical expositions addressing the origins of criminality . ...
... With the above points in mind, we can consider the features of a unified framework for explaining crime. Above all, it would be capable of organizing several well-established lines of research (Ellis & Hoskin, 2015). First, there are consistent race differences in aggressive, violent, impulsive and criminal behaviors (Beaver, DeLisi, et al., 2013; Felson & Kreager, 2015; Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Krohn, Gibson, & Thornberry, 2013). ...
... Second, there are consistent sex differences across many measures of criminal behavior (Campbell, 1999; Moffitt, Caspi, Rutter, & Silva, 2001). Men cross-culturally display greater violence than women (Campbell, 1999; Ellis & Hoskin, 2015; Moffitt, Caspi, Rutter, & Silva, 2001; Pinker, 2002; Wilson & Daly, 1985). These differences are not disputed, yet researchers continue to debate whether, and the extent to which, biological and social processes are causal (Pinker, 2002 ). ...
Multiple scientific disciplines have weighed in with different viewpoints regarding the origins of criminal behavior among human beings. What is lacking, however, is a framework capable of uniting the theoretical viewpoints into a single overarching perspective. The current article offers such a framework. Drawing on a variety of influences, we argue that many types of crime can be understood in the evolutionary context of human life history. Along these lines, we present a framework capable of explaining different patterns of criminal offending both at the individual level as well as the macro-level. Although the current article offers only a starting point, the way forward in the study of crime should involve a multi-disciplinary, multilevel explanatory framework. The evolutionary taxonomy we propose represents a step in that direction.
... First, aggressive behavior came about as a natural part of human evolution, among males in particular (Ellis, Das, and Buker, 2008; see also Batrinos, 2012). This happened, scholars argued, as an evolutionary response to competition surrounding female mating preferences, where females generally prefer dominant males to submissive ones (Ellis, 2001(Ellis, , 2004Ellis and Hoskin, 2015b). Second, and relatedly, exposure to certain androgens-a class of hormones including testosterone-alters brain neurochemistry, especially when that exposure occurs in the prenatal environment (Carre and Olmstead, 2015;Manning et al., 2014). ...
... In its most recent incarnation, for instance, Hoskin and Ellis (2015) specified several indirect relationships surrounding genetic/prenatal factors (e.g., genes and prenatal environments), neurological characteristics (e.g., seizure susceptibility and brain hemispheric functioning), cognitive and emotional development (e.g., executive functioning and emotional volatility), and various behavior and personality dimensions (e.g., criminal and antisocial behavior, hyperactivity, and fearlessness). Thus, ENA theory lays out a set of causal processes that, once initiated by the exposure to fetal testosterone, unfold through a series of links over the course of many years (see also Ellis and Hoskin, 2015b). We do, however, argue that such complexity can essentially be boiled down to a straightforward causal sequence where exposure to prenatal testosterone leads to increased aggression and a greater propensity for risky/impulsive behavior that, in turn, ultimately leads to criminal behavior . 1 ...
As criminology has become more interdisciplinary in recent years, biosocial criminology has earned a place at the table. Although this perspective comes in many forms, one important proposition has gained increasing attention: that the 2D:4D finger digit ratio—a purported physical biomarker for exposure to fetal testosterone—is related to criminal, aggressive, and risky/impulsive behavior. Strong claims in the literature have been made for this link even though the findings seem to be inconsistent. To establish the empirical status of this relationship, we subjected this body of work to a meta-analysis. Our multilevel analyses of 660 effect size estimates drawn from 47 studies (14,244 individual cases) indicate a small overall effect size (mean r = .047). Moderator analyses indicate that this effect is rather " general " across methodological specifications—findings that are at odds with theoretical propositions that specify the importance of exposure to fetal testosterone in predicting criminal and analogous behavior later in life. We conclude with a call for exercising caution over embracing the findings from one or two studies and instead highlight the importance of systematically organizing the full body of literature on a topic before making decisions about what does, and what does not, predict criminal and analogous behavior.
... В начале ХХI века американским ученым Л. Эллисом была предложена так называемая эволюционная нейроандрогенная теория, объясняющая связь агрессивного поведения с уровнем мужского полового гормона -тестостерона. [24,25]. Рост преступности в период полового созревания мужчин данная теория объясняет с позиций эволюционизма -как необходимость внутривидовой борьбы за обладание женщиной с целью получения наиболее жизнеспособного потомства. ...
Aim to analyze the transformation of criminologists' approach to the biology of a criminal, to highlight the achievements of physiological, genetic, endocrinological, neurobiological, biochemical, ethological research in this area, to study the dynamics of the scientific views on the role of biological factors in the etiology of criminal behavior, to give a dialectic assessment of the development of the described scientific paradigm. Results. The article provides an overview of research in the field of biological criminology. The results of physiological, psychological, genetic, neurobiological, biochemical, endocrinological, ethological studies are described. The role of the positivist school of criminology is evaluated as negative for the harmful consequences of their activities. It is shown that its provisions became the starting point for the development of social Darwinism, eugenics, the ideology of fascism, racial theory, the organization of national, racial and ethnic genocide. Conclusion. The most promising and most effective is a comprehensive, multifactorial approach to the problem of criminal behavior with mathematical modelling and artificial intelligence technologies.
... В начале ХХI века американским ученым Л. Эллисом была предложена так называемая эволюционная нейроандрогенная теория, объясняющая связь агрессивного поведения с уровнем мужского полового гормона -тестостерона. [24,25]. Рост преступности в период полового созревания мужчин данная теория объясняет с позиций эволюционизма -как необходимость внутривидовой борьбы за обладание женщиной с целью получения наиболее жизнеспособного потомства. ...
Aim to analyze the transformation of criminologists' approach to the biology of a criminal, to highlight the achievements of physiological, genetic, endocrinological, neurobiological, biochemical, ethological research in this area, to study the dynamics of the scientific views on the role of biological factors in the etiology of criminal behavior, to give a dialectic assessment of the development of the described scientific paradigm. Results. The article provides an overview of research in the field of biological criminology. The results of physiological, psychological, genetic, neurobiological, biochemical, endocrinological, ethological studies are described. The role of the positivist school of criminology is evaluated as negative for the harmful consequences of their activities. It is shown that its provisions became the starting point for the development of social Darwinism, eugenics, the ideology of fascism, racial theory, the organization of national, racial and ethnic genocide. Conclusion. The most promising and most effective is a comprehensive, multifactorial approach to the problem of criminal behavior with mathematical modelling and artificial intelligence technologies.
... While speculative, the findings suggest that males may be more susceptible to developing behavioral features related to the egocentric facet of psychopathy due to increased exposure to testosterone in utero. Prenatal testosterone may act as a neurohormonal antecedent for behaviors that promote reproductive success (Ellis and Hoskin, 2015b;Hoskin and Ellis, 2015). Thus, males exposed to greater prenatal testosterone, indicated by lower right hand digit ratios, may be more likely to demonstrate personality characteristics that reflect the egocentric facet of psychopathy, including deceit and manipulation, to obtain their own reproductive goals despite the effect it may have on others. ...
Prior research has identified relations between prenatal testosterone exposure and various antisocial and criminal behaviors. However, less is known about the association between prenatal testosterone exposure and personality traits, such as psychopathy. This study used self-report and biometric data from a sample of undergraduates (n = 491) at a large southwestern university to examine the association between prenatal testosterone exposure (measured by the 2D:4D ratio) and three dimensions of psychopathy (i.e., callousness, egocentricity, and antisocial behavior). Analyses were stratified by sex to explore sex-specific biological underpinnings of psychopathy in young adulthood. Results showed that males scored significantly higher in psychopathic traits and reported significantly lower 2D:4D ratios, compared to females. Additionally, 2D:4D ratios were negatively associated with egocentricity in males, but not females. These findings contribute to a growing literature on the organizational effects that prenatal testosterone exposure may have on the development of different dimensions of psychopathy.
... This is because domestic adoption will likely involve the child of parents with considerable socially problematic behaviours, typically including drug addiction (Guardian, 2012), and because the heritability of such behaviours are substantial (e.g. Pinker, 2003;Ellis & Hoskin, 2015). So-called virtue signalling may be another mechanism in play, in that people of higher intelligence are better at perceiving and rationalising current social norms, so as to counter more primordial impulses (Woodley of Menie & Dunkel, 2015). ...
Patterns of adoption behaviour are starkly asymmetric across populations. To better understand this phenomenon we conducted a systematic review of transracial adoption and adoption in general. We found six quantitative studies from the USA (with representative samples comprising a total of 117,000 participants) which had examined sex, race, and SES in relation to differences in behaviours and attitudes regarding both transracial adoption and adoption in general. A secondary analysis of these data found that transracial adopting is predicted by being female, white (as opposed to black), and of higher SES. These data are consistent with group differences in Life History Strategy – the Differential K model – regarding males and females, SES differences, and white and black people, but not with the fact that both transracial adoption and adoption rates in general seem to be lower in Northeast Asian countries. The influence of cultural factors upon these patterns may be addressed by future studies.
... Nothing in the present article refutes the relevance of these variables. Rather, the present article implies that poverty, family discord, and loose bonds to school and other social institutions may themselves be influenced by high brain exposure to androgens and to low learning ability (Ellis & Hoskin, 2015b). ...
Evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory asserts that brain exposed to androgens plus the brain's ability to learn accounts for most of the sex and age variations in criminal behavior. Here, the theory is extended to explain race/ethnic variations in offending. The article documents that among seven different racial/ethnic groups, blacks have the highest and East Asians have the lowest criminal involvement. Strictly social environmental explanations for race/ethnic differences in criminality appear to be inadequate for explaining these differences. Two main elements of ENA theory are offered in the present context: (a) criminal behavior is promoted by exposing the brain to testosterone and other androgens. (b) rapid postpubertal declines in offending depend heavily on learning ability. Ten lines of evidence concerning average racial/ethnic variations in androgen exposure are reviewed, and four lines of evidence of racial/ethnic differences in learning ability are reviewed. With some exceptions and qualifications, currently-available evidence seems to support the idea that racial/ethnic variations in offending could be at least partially explained by ENA theory. Closing comments are offered to suggest that biosocial approaches to the study of racial/ethnic variations in criminal behavior can help to supplement strictly social environmental theories in criminology.
... These efforts, however, have been fragmented by the tendency of researchers to specialize in one particular form of interpersonal aggression and develop domainspecific theories to explain them. These disconnected efforts include theories that cover the etiology of general delinquency and criminality (e.g., Capaldi & Patterson, 1996;Ellis & Hoskin, 2015;Gallup, O'Brien, & Wilson, 2011;Hunter, Figueredo, Becker, & Malamuth, 2007;Hinshaw & Lee, 2003;Rowe, Vazsonyi, & Figueredo, 1997;Watt, Howells, & Delfabbro, 2004;Wolke, Copeland, Angold, & Costello, 2013), adolescent perpetration of sexual assault (e.g., Cavanagh Johnson, 1988;Hunter & Figueredo, 2000;Varker, Devilly, Ward, & Beech, 2008), sexual coercion and offending (e.g., Camilleri & Stiver, 2014;Gladden, Sisco, & Figueredo, 2008;Rojas & Gretton, 2007;Seto, Lalumiere, & Kuban, 1999;, child physical abuse (e.g., Buss, 2005;Figueredo & McCloskey, 1993;McCloskey, Figueredo, & Koss, 1995;Peterson & Brown, 1994), and intimate partner violence (e.g., Andrews & Bonta, 1998;Barbaro & Shackelford, 2016;Buss, 2005;Buss & Duntley, 2011;Buss & Shackelford, 1997;Easton & Shackelford, 2009;Figueredo & McCloskey, 1993;Figueredo et al., 2001;Kaighobadi, Shackelford, & Goetz, 2009;McCloskey, Figueredo, & Koss, 1995;Mize, Shackelford, & Weekes-Shackelford, 2009;Mize, Shackelford, & Weekes-Shackelford, 2011). ...
We integrate life history (LH) theory with “hot/cool” systems theory of self-regulation to predict
sexually and socially coercive behaviors, including intimate partner violence (IPV) and
interpersonal aggression (IPA). LH theory predicts that a variety of traits form LH strategies:
adaptively coordinated behavioral clusters arrayed on a continuum from slow to fast. We test
various structural models examining the propositions that: (1) “hot” cognitive processes,
promoted by faster LH strategies, increase the likelihood of sexually/socially coercive behaviors
that make up IPV and IPA; (2) “cool” cognitive processes, promoted by slower LH strategies,
buffer against the likelihood of sexually/socially coercive behaviors that make up IPV and IPA.
We present single- and multi-sample structural equations models (SEMs and MSEMs) testing
hypothesized causal association of these theoretically specified predictors with IPV and IPA.
Study 1 develops a Structural Equation Model for IPV; Study 2, which extends the model to IPA
using MSEM, provides five cross-cultural constructive replications of the findings. Integrated
LH theory and hot/cool systems analysis of cognitive processes is a promising and productive
heuristic for future research on IPV and IPA perpetration and victimization.
... These findings are somewhat consistent with early versions of ENA theory, which specified rather clear (although much stronger) gender gaps in both exposure to fetal testosterone and its consequences (see, e.g., Ellis, 2003Ellis, , 2005. At the same time, these results conflict with more recent statements of the theory that emphasize how exposure to fetal testosterone among females can result in a more "masculinized" brain (Ellis & Hoskin, 2015b;, which should result in effect sizes for the 2D:4D ratio to be roughly the same for males and females. Either way, gender does appear to be one of the only significant moderators (even if inconsistently so) of the 2D:4D effect sizes. ...
The search for reliable risk factors is a staple among both scholars and policymakers concerned with structuring interventions designed to reduce aggressive and violent behavior. Within this line of work, strong claims have recently been made regarding the predictive capacity of a potential physical biomarker of criminogenic risk: the 2D:4D digit ratio, a purported indirect indicator of exposure to fetal testosterone. The results of studies assessing the link between the digit ratio and problematic behavior are, however, mixed. Accordingly, in the present study we subject this literature (N=32 studies; 361 effect size estimates) to a meta-analysis using multilevel modeling techniques. Our results reveal that the overall mean effect size of the 2D:4D digit ratio to measures of aggressive and violent behavior is weak but statistically significant (mean r=0.036, p<0.05). Moderator analyses confirm that these weak effects are generally consistent (and often non-significant) across a variety of methodological conditions (e.g., different outcome measures, different kinds of samples). We conclude with a call for caution against placing emphasis on the 2D:4D digit ratio as a reliable risk factor for aggressive and violent behavior.
... For example, income-generating activities help individuals achieve a higher status through obtaining more resources (Kanazawa & Still, 2000). Accumulation of resources increases one's chances of attracting more mates because females are more likely to choose mates with more resources, which can be utilized in maintaining the care needed for the offspring (Buss, 2007). 2 The evolved differences between males and females could be the source of the gender gap in offending (Campbell, 1999;Ellis & Hoskin, 2015). Females have little to gain from violent confrontations, but they have a lot more to lose from these behaviors (Boutwell et al., 2015). ...
According to the Savanna Principle, individuals with higher intelligence are more likely to be involved in evolutionary novel behaviors, such as drug use, and less likely to be involved in evolutionary familiar behaviors, such as violent or property crimes. In addition, individuals who are more sexually attractive are expected to be less involved in violent or property crimes, which are conceptually evolutionary familiar incidences. Results failed to fully support the Savanna Principle in terms of intelligence; however, more intelligent females were found to be more likely to avoid violence, which is in line with the fitness variance approach in evolutionary psychology. Theoretical implications are discussed.
... Links between risk-taking, psychoticism and criminality have been confirmed by nearly all empirical studies, although an association between extraversion and criminality has been largely disconfirmed (Ellis, Beaver, & Wright, 2009;Ireland & Ireland, 2011). Most importantly, Hans's proposal that neurological under-arousal is a contributor to criminality has received a great deal of empirical support (Glenn & Raine, 2014;Raine, 2002;Ellis & Hoskin, 2015;Karnik et al., 2008;Scarpa, Haden, & Tanaka, 2010). ...
Hans Eysenck influenced my professional life in important ways. Here, I will describe how those influences became interwoven with a personal friendship that we developed. This brief essay will also sketch out how I think his editorship of Personality and Individual Differences has substantially influenced the understanding of behaviour from a biological perspective, including in my own field of criminology.
... order to explain consistently observed patterns in criminal offending Ellis 1988;Ellis and Hoskin 2015;Mishra and Lalumière 2008; see also Camilleri 2012;Camilleri and Stiver 2014;Lalumière et al. 2008 for additional evolutionary treatments of chronic criminality, as well as the evolution of related phenotypes like psychopathy). At a proximal level (where most criminological theorizing has focused), Moffitt (1993Moffitt ( , 2006 offered evidence that there are at least two groups of offenders in the population: life-coursepersistent (LCP) offenders and adolescence-limited (AL) offenders. ...
Life-course-persistent (LCP) offending has been intensely studied over the last several decades resulting in an impressive amount of evidence linking chronic offending with a host of negative outcomes including violence, impulsiveness, and sexual promiscuity. Although much evidence also exists regarding the origins of LCP offending, emergent work is attempting to unify this knowledge under the umbrella of evolutionary biology using life history theory. The current study draws on this work—specifically, the Evolutionary Taxonomy—in order to further probe the etiology of chronic antisocial behavior. Using quantitative genetic methods and data from a national sample of twins, the current study examines whether LCP offending and the life history trait of sexual promiscuity might be linked at an underlying genetic level. Analyses of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) data suggest that a shared genetic scaffold might be responsible for some of the covariation of LCP offending with the life history trait of sexual promiscuity. Specifically, the current analyses revealed evidence that overlapping genetic factors influenced both sexual involvement and LCP offender classification. Our results offer insight regarding the evolution of the traits that distinguish LCP offenders from the rest of the population. LCP offending may represent a set of life history traits that, over the course of human evolution, clustered together in small segments of the population. The findings lend support for the Evolutionary Taxonomy proposed to explain the ultimate origins of criminal offending.
Purpose: Criminology has produced more than a century of informative research on the social correlates of criminal behavior. Recently, a growing body of theoretical and empirical work has begun to apply evolutionary principles, particularly from Life History Theory, to the study of crime. As this body of research continues to grow, it is important that theory synthesizes evolutionary principles with the decades of sociological research on the correlates of crime.
Design: The current paper reviews the brief history of research applying Life History concepts to criminology, providing an overview of the underlying framework, exploring examples of empirically testable and tested hypotheses that have been derived from the theory, discussing cautions and criticisms of Life History research, and discussing how this area of research can be integrated with existing theory.
Findings: A growing body of research has, with relative consistency, associated indicators of a faster Life History strategy with aggression and violence in humans and across the animal kingdom. Research into these associations is still vulnerable to genetic confounding and more research with genetically sensitive designs is needed. The use of hypotheses informed by evolutionary insight and tested with genetically sensitive designs provides the best option for understanding how environmental factors can have an impact on violent and criminal behavior.
Value: The current paper provides an updated review of the growing application of Life History Theory to the study of human behavior and acknowledges criticisms and areas of concern that need to be considered when forming hypotheses for research.
Between 1750 and 1914 the English criminal justice system was transformed. George III's England was lightly policed, and order was maintained through a draconian system of punishment which prescribed the death penalty for over 200 offences. Trials, even for capital offences, were short. The gallows were the visible means of showing justice in action and were intended to create awe among the public witnessing the death throes of a felon. However, by the time of Queen Victoria's death, public executions had been abolished, and the death penalty was confined in practice to cases of murder. The prison, that most lasting legacy of Victorian England, was the dominant site of punishment, society was more heavily policed, and court procedures had become longer, more formal and more concerned with the rights of the defendant. This book offers a comprehensive and up-to-date account of these important developments. As well as looking at the underlying causes of change in the criminal justice system, the book concludes with a consideration of the ways in which the evolution of modern society has been shaped by the developments in the criminal justice system.
The outline of the study is as follows. First it gives an overview of the research
of Sageman and its methodological framework. Next it identifies and
describes 31 cases of jihadi terrorism in Europe. This overview is then
followed by an analysis of the characteristics of the networks behind these
cases. Based on Sageman’s methodology, the study continues to investigate
the social, personal and situational variables that make up the ‘biographies’ ofthe more than 200 persons that are part of these networks. Finally, the
characteristics of these European jihadi terrorists are compared with those of
the sample of Sageman’s 172 global Salafi terrorists. The aim of basing this
research on Sageman’s methodology is that it may lead to attaining valuable
observations of trends and developments in an important time frame not
considered by the original work. Given the differences in geographical scope,
comparing the samples holds the promise of identifying differences and
similarities that may raise new research questions about the context in which
individuals and groups joined the violent jihad.
A decade old theory hypothesizes that brain exposure to androgens promotes involvement in criminal behavior. General support for this hypothesis has been provided by studies of postpubertal circulating levels of testosterone, at least among males. However, the theory also predicts that for both genders, prenatal androgens will be positively correlated with persistent offending, an idea for which no evidence currently exists. The present study used an indirect measure of prenatal androgen exposure— the relative length of the second and fourth fingers of the right hand (r2D:4D)—to test the hypothesis that elevated prenatal androgens promote criminal tendencies later in life for males and females. Questionnaires were administered to 2,059 college students in Malaysia and 1,291 college students in the United States. Respondents reported their r2D:4D relative finger lengths along with involvement in 13 categories of delinquent and criminal acts. Statistically significant correlations between the commission of most types of offenses and r2D:4D ratios were found for males and females even after controlling for age. It is concluded that high exposure to androgens during prenatal development contributes to most forms of offending following the onset of puberty.
Human physique and behaviour has been shaped by the pressures of natural selection. This is received wisdom in all scientifically informed circles. Currently, the topic of crime is rarely touched upon in textbooks on evolution and the topic of evolution rarely even mentioned in criminology textbooks. This book for the first time explores how an evolution informed criminology has clear implications for enhancing our understanding of the criminal law, crime and criminal behaviour.
Gender and sexual orientation are both associated with occupational interests. In general, the interests of homosexual males (relative to heterosexual males) resemble those of heterosexual females. To a lesser extent, homosexual females express occupational preferences gravitating toward those of heterosexual males rather than heterosexual females. The present study was undertaken to explore theoretical explanations for this three-variable relationship. Two theories were considered: social role theory and evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory. While both theories lead to the expectation of gender differences in occupational interests, only ENA theory went on to predict that sexual orientation would also be associated with occupational interests. Evidence supporting these predictions was found, prompting us to test ENA theory more deeply by examining how various androgen-promoted physical traits -e.g., muscularity, physical strength, and low-deep voice - are related to occupational interests and sexual orientation. Again, consistent with theoretical expectations, in both males and females, most androgen-promoted physical traits were positively correlated with male-typical occupational interests and male-typical sexual orientation, especially for males. Overall, this study supports the view that testosterone and other androgens influence the relationships between, gender, sexual orientation, and occupational interests.
Agreement on the causes of sexual offending has eluded scholars because of an emphasis on studying proximate causes—as with crime in general, there are numerous variables that correlate with sexual offending. A more consilient view of sexual offending includes an evolutionary approach that attempts to answer ultimately why such behavior exists. To guide this research, Camilleri (The Oxford handbook of evolutionary perspectives on violence, homicide, and war, New York, 173–196) proposed a typology of sexual offenders that classifies offending based on two dimensions: (1) whether the behavior is an adaptation, by-product, or disorder and (2) if the mechanism is obligate or facultative. Categories resulting from this typology seem to capture the variability of sexual offending behavior. This chapter mostly reviews evidence of how sexual offending could function as an adaptation, draws links from nonhuman behavior literature, and briefly reviews alternative explanations, including by-products and disorders.
Etiological theories of criminal behavior are reviewed, compared, and contrasted, stemming from both standard social science and from evolutionary social science. The etiological theories stemming from standard social science we review include classical theories, positivist theories, functionalist theories, cultural, sub-cultural, and social learning theories, control theories, cognitive theories, and traditional personality theories. The etiological theories stemming from evolutionary social science we review include behavioral genetic theories, reactive heritability and epigenetic theories, sexual selection theories, differential parental investment theories, competitive disadvantage theories, frequency-dependent selection theories, pathogen stress theories, and life history theories. We propose that most of these theories are only mutually contradictory to a minimal degree, mostly differing on matters of detail as well as in the conflation of proximate and ultimate levels of causation. As an alternative to this chaotic state of affairs, we propose a cross-disciplinary integration based on the inclusive framework provided by Life History Theory. A wide array of empirical evidence is provided in support of this view as the most inclusive and integrative framework currently available, as well as the most useful framework for helping to explain many of the previous findings within an evolutionary context.
This article considers the recent research carried out to assign responsibility to the importance of genetics as compared with environmental influences and other aspects such as neurological damage to an individual, which makes them susceptible to criminal type behaviour. While there is currently no gene directly linked to criminality, there are genes that are responsible for such functions as aggressiveness and impulsiveness to some degree. The area is currently undergoing considerable influence and investigation with research being carried out in seeking to deal with such diseases as cancer and a variety of mental illnesses.
Infanticide, the killing of conspecific young, has been documented in numerous species of mammals and is considered an adaptive behavioral strategy to enhance the reproductive success of the perpetrator. The potential benefits of committing infanticide for males are obtaining nutritional gain and mating partners, and for females are acquiring access to resources such as food and nest sites. Some costs are associated with committing infanticide such as additional energy expenditure, risk of injury, and exposure to predation. However, the major costs associated with infanticide are borne by the victim female and the sire male in loss of fitness. In response to this selection, males and females use a variety of counter-strategies to protect their young from infanticide. We summarize the published accounts and theory associated with infanticide and the occurrence of counter-strategies in a variety of mammalian groups in order to explain how infanticide may influence individual behavior as well as the social systems of mammals. We focus on the behavioral strategies used, primarily by females, to deter major losses in reproductive success. These strategies include aggression, female choice of dominant males, and promiscuity to confuse paternity as defense against males, and territoriality, association with kin, reproductive suppression, and reproductive synchrony as defenses against females. Male counter-strategies are less well known, but intrasexual territoriality may in part function as defense against infanticide. The costs associated with the different male and female counter-strategies are likely to vary, but may include increased energy expenditure, exposure to predators and injury for both sexes, as well as increased competition for resources, limited mate choice, and postponed reproduction for females. We propose that the occurrence of infanticide does not only have the potential to affect the behavior of individuals (e.g. aggression, spacing and mate choice), but may also have consequences for the shaping of mammalian mating systems.
A systematic and comparative analysis of youth gangs and the youth gang problem in the United States, this book deals with hands-on issues of policy and programs, describing the strategies and techniques for dealing with gangs employed by criminal justice organizations, social agencies, schools, employment programs, and grass-roots organizations. Spergel combines empirical research, first-hand experience, and a solid theoretical base to expose the causes of the gang problem. He recommends strategies that deal with gangs at a community level, using both local and national interests and resources to provide gang members with structured social and economic opportunities.
Despite more than a century of interest and extensive literature on tattoos and crime, the potential relationship between inmate tattoos and in-prison violence and post-prison recidivism for violent crimes has been largely ignored in prior criminological research. The present study responds to this research void by providing a comprehensive empirical assessment of inmate tattoos and in-prison violence and post-prison recidivism for violent crimes. The study employs a cohort of 79,749 adult inmates in Florida prisons between 1995 and 2001 and follows the cohort both while incarcerated and over a three year post-release period to determine any potential relationship between tattoos and in-prison violence and post-prison recidivism for violent crimes. Among the findings are that inmates with at least one tattoo, and particularly those inmates with numerous tattoos, are more likely to commit in-prison infractions for violent behaviors and post-prison recidivism for violent crimes. The study concludes with a summary and discussion of the findings in relation to theory and policy. Keywords: Inmates, tattoos, violence, recidivism. Language: en
The goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of the existing literature pertaining to evolutionary behavioral genetics and violent criminal behaviors. In doing so, we provide an introduction to the methodologies that are used to estimate the heritability of violent crime, and we review studies that have estimated the heritability of violent crime. We then offer some background information related to molecular genetics and also examine research that has attempted to isolate the specific genetic polymorphisms that might relate to violent criminal involvement. Finally, we explore the potential role of gene–environment interactions as they relate to the development of violent criminal tendencies and discuss the various explanatory perspectives that are used to explain gene–environment interactions as they relate to crime and violence.
Risk factors for general delinquency have been examined in numerous studies, but fewer studies have sought to identify factors specifically related to youth violence and an even smaller number of studies have focused upon youths' gang involvement or comparing patterns by sex. Comparison of findings from studies of violence risk factors to studies of gang risk factors suggests that a number of the same factors underlie both, but the extent of overlap has not often been examined in the same study. If the two behaviors share a common set of factors, more general prevention efforts may prove fruitful in reducing youths' involvement in both behaviors, while more specific programs or components may be necessary if more unique than shared predictors are found. In this study, we therefore examine the extent to which youths' early-adolescent onset of involvement in gangs and in violent behavior are related to the same proximal risk factors and the extent to which risk factors for these behaviors are shared between the sexes. Consistent with prior studies, our bivariate analyses show that a large number of risk factors were predictive of youths' onset of involvement in both violence and gangs, with some factors unique to each behavior; patterns were similar by sex. These findings suggest that early-adolescence programs targeting these common factors may reduce youths' likelihood of involvement in both gangs and violence, and that some additional behavior-specific or sex-specific components may also be helpful. Given the scant research on these issues, these findings are only suggestive, and further research is required for validation. © 2015 Midwestern Criminal Justice Association. All rights reserved.
Relative finger lengths, especially the second-to-fourth finger length ratio, have been proposed as useful markers for prenatal testosterone action. This claim partly depends on an association of relative finger lengths in adults with related sex differences in children and infants. This paper reports the results of a study using serial radiographs to test for both sex differences in the fingers of infants and children and for a relationship between sex differences in the children and infant finger and adult finger length ratios. This is the first study using long-term serial data to evaluate the validity of finger length ratios as markers. We found not only that sex differences in finger length ratios arise prior to puberty, but that sex differences in the fingers of children are highly correlated with adult finger length ratios. Our results strongly encourage the further use of finger length ratios as markers of perinatal testosterone action.
In this chapter we address two of the most significant methodological problems hampering predictions of criminal and violent behaviors: the lack of theoretically relevant predictor variables and weak criterion variables (Monahan & Steadman, 1994). To address the limitation of atheoretical predictor variables, we summarize the association between the construct of psychopathy and recidivism. Consistent with current clinical and research practice, our operational definition of psychopathy is the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL; Hare 1980); its revision, the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 1991); a version of the PCL-R modified for use with adolescents (Forth, Hart, & Hare, 1990; Forth, Kosson, & Hare, in press); and a French translation of the PCL-R (Hare, 1996a). We also compare the predictive utility of the PCL/PCL-R with key demographic and criminal history variables, personality disorder diagnoses, and actuarial risk scales. To address the limitation of weak criterion variables, we describe two methods of measuring and analyzing criminal behaviors: survival analyses and Criminal Career Profiles (CCPs; Templeman, 1995; Wong, Templeman, Gu, Andre, & Leis, 1997). We emphasize the strengths of the newly developed CCP methodology for providing an overall measure of criminal behaviors. To illustrate the benefits of the CCP methodology for conceptualizing, coding, analyzing, and presenting criminal behaviors, we present 10-year outcome data from a random sample of federal offenders.
Modern stereological methods provide precise and reliable estimates of the number of neurons in specific regions of the brain. We decided to estimate the total number of neocortical neurons in the normal human brain and to analyze it with respect to the major macro- and microscopical structural components, to study the internal relationships of these components, and to quantitate the influence of important physiological variables on brain structure. The 94 brains reported represent a consecutive collection of brains from the general Danish population. The average numbers of neocortical neurons were 19 billion in female brains and 23 billion in male brains, a 16% difference. In our study, which covered the age range from 20 years to 90 years, approximately 10% of all neocortical neurons are lost over the life span in both sexes. Sex and age were the main determinants of the total number of neurons in the human neocortex, whereas body size, per se, had no influence on neuron number. Some of the data presented have been analyzed by using new mathematical designs. An equation predicting the total neocortical neuron number in any individual in which sex and age are known is provided.
In recent years, the lifecourse perspective has become a popular theoretical orientation toward crime. Yet despite its growing importance in the field of criminology, most textbooks give it only cursory treatment. Crime and the Lifecourse: An Introduction by Michael L. Benson provides a comprehensive overview of contemporary research and theory on the life-course approach to crime. The book emphasizes a conceptual understanding of this approach. A special feature is the integration of qualitative and quantitative research on criminal life histories. This book:.
This paper describes gender-related behaviors in a colony of stumptail macaques observed over a 3-year period. Information about dominance positions, proximity preferences, sexual behaviors, aggression, social and solitary play, and social grooming of male and female monkeys at different ages is included.
Among 898 young offenders held in South Australian secure care centres, 17% of males and 30% of females reported having tattoos. These were significantly higher incidences than in a local high school student sample and were higher than national general population rates. Significant correlations were found between tattooed status and responses to items relating to aggression (temper, fighting, deliberate self-injury) and substance use, though these were not strong. Neither tattooed status nor the desire (among those with tattoos) to have tattoos removed were significantly related to 6-month post-release recidivism status among either male or female young offenders. At the crude level of whether an offender has tattoos or not, tattooed status cannot be used as a predictor of recidivism risk. It is suggested that for some offenders the act of removing conspicuous tattoos can signal prosocial changes in both projected image and self-concept. Research is needed into whether particular aspects of being tattooed (e.g., size, number, design) are related to criminality and whether tattoo removal is related to reduced recidivism.
The purpose of this article is to develop a model of life history theory that
incorporates environmental influences, contextual influences, and heritable
variation. I argue that physically or psychologically stressful environments
delay maturation and the onset of reproductive competence. The
social context is also important, and here I concentrate on the opportunity
for upward social mobility as a contextual influence that results in delaying
reproduction and lowering fertility in the interest of increasing investment
in children. I also review evidence that variation in life history
strategies is influenced by genetic variation as well. Finally, I show that
cultural shifts in the social control of sexual behavior have had differential
effects on individuals predisposed to high- versus low-investment
reproductive strategies.
Objective:
To comprehensively and critically review the literature on gender differences in schizophrenia.
Method:
An initial search of MEDLINE abstracts (1966-1999) was conducted using the terms sex or gender and schizophrenia, followed by systematic search of all relevant articles.
Results:
Males have consistently an earlier onset, poorer premorbid functioning and different premorbid behavioral predictors. Males show more negative symptoms and cognitive deficits, with greater structural brain and neurophysiological abnormalities. Females display more affective symptoms, auditory hallucinations and persecutory delusions with more rapid and greater responsivity to antipsychotics in the premenopausal period but increased side effects. Course of illness is more favorable in females in the short- and middle-term, with less smoking and substance abuse. Families of males are more critical, and expressed emotion has a greater negative impact on males. There are no clear sex differences in family history, obstetric complications, minor physical anomalies and neurological soft signs.
Conclusion:
This review supports the presence of significant differences between schizophrenic males and females arising from the interplay of sex hormones, neurodevelopmental and psychosocial sex differences.
The authors examined the interrelationships and the independent contributions of three major constructs associated with male criminal violence (neurodevelopmental insults, antisocial parenting, and psychopathy) using structural equation modeling. Subjects were 868 violent offenders assessed or treated at a maximum security psychiatric hospital. Results indicated that neurodevelopmental insults and psychopathy are not interrelated but are both directly and independently related to criminal violence, and antisocial parenting is related to both neurodevelopmental insults and psychopathy but has no direct relationship to criminal violence. These results are not consistent with a view of psychopathy as a disorder but are consistent with the view of psychopathy as an evolved life history strategy. Criminal violence has at least two separate developmental pathways originating very early in life, one involving neurodevelopmental damage and one involving psychopathy.
Both Genes and Environment Play a Role in Antisocial Behavior - Volume 15 Issue 1 - David E. Comings
How do some people decide to commit a crime? Do they think about the benefits and the risks? Why do some people commit crimes regardless of the consequences? Why do others never commit a crime, no matter how desperate their circumstances? Throughout history people have tried to explain what causes abnormal social behavior including crime. Some recent bio-forensic studies have found that certain neurotransmitter, neurochemicals imbalances in the brain such as low serotonin, and certain hormone imbalances such as extra testosterone, are associated with some greater likelihood of committing crime. Criminal behavior has always been a focus for psychologists due to the age old debate between nature and nurture. Is it the responsibility of an individual's genetic makeup that makes them a criminal or is it the environment in which they are raised that determines their outcome? Research has been conducted regarding this debate which has resulted in a conclusion that both genes and environment do play a role in the criminality of an individual. This evidence has been generated from a number of twin, family, and adoption studies as well as laboratory experiments. Furthermore, the research has stated that it is more often an interaction between genes and the environment that predicts criminal behavior. Having a genetic predisposition for criminal behavior does not determine the actions of an individual, but if they are exposed to the right environment, then their chances are greater for engaging in criminal or anti-social behavior. Therefore, this paper will examine the different functions that genetics and the environment play in the criminal behavior of individuals.
For all that has been written about rape, its multiple causes remain insufficiently understood for law to deter it effectively. This follows, Professor Jones argues, from inadequately interdisciplinary study of rape causation. Specifically, integrating life science and social science perspectives on sexual aggression can improve law's model of rape behavior, and further our efforts to reduce its incidence. This Article first explains biobehavioral theories of sexual aggression, and offers a guide to common but avoidable errors in assessing them. It then compares a number of those theories' predictions with existing data and demonstrates how knowledge of the effects of evolutionary processes on human behavioral predispositions may help us better understand - without justifying or excusing - psychological mechanisms that contribute to patterns of rape. Because increased knowledge of causal influences may afford law increased effectiveness in deterring rape, the author then explores ways in which biobehavioral theories could affect analysis of several current legal issues, from the debate over chemical castration to the meaning of motive in rape-relevant legislation.
Two hypotheses have been offered to explain the relation between testosterone and antisocial behavior in delinquent and criminal populations. One is that testosterone leads directly to antisocial behavior. The other is that a constellation of dominance, competitiveness, and sensation seeking associated with testosterone leads to either antisocial or prosocial behavior, depending upon an individual's resources and background. Analysis of archival data from 4,462 U.S. military veterans supported the first hypothesis: Testosterone was correlated with a variety of antisocial behaviors among all individuals. However, socioeconomic status (SES) proved to be a moderating variable, with weaker testosterone-behavior relationships among high SES subjects.
This article uses the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to test the hypothesis that young adults employed in what dual
labor market theory describes as “secondary sector jobs” are more likely to engage in crime than those in more stable jobs.
The results indicate that time out of the labor force is positively related to criminal involvement, and that when workers
expect their current employment to be of longer duration, they are less likely to engage in crime. We also find that the interaction
between the amount of time that workers spend out of the labor force and the labor market participation rate of the population
in their county of residence is significantly related to criminality.
This paper is aimed at criminologists and criminal justicians seeking to understand their role in educating law enforcement and correctional personnel who must deal with the mentally ill. It is motivated by William Johnson's (2011) recent call for rethinking the interface between mental illness, criminal justice, and academia, and his call for advocacy. We concur with his concerns, and insist that this rethinking must necessarily include grounding in the etiology of mental illness (specifically, with schizophrenia) as it is currently understood by researchers in the area. Advocacy must go hand in hand with a thorough knowledge of the condition of the people for whom we are advocating. We first examine major etiological models of schizophrenia, emphasizing the neurodevelopmental model that incorporates genetics, neurological functioning, and immunological factors guided by the assumption that the typical criminologist/criminal justician has minimal acquaintance with such material. We then address the link between schizophrenia and criminal behavior, and conclude with a discussion of the implications for criminology and criminal justice.