Rinderpest Global Eradication Management

Abstract

The global eradication of rinderpest in 2010 ranked as the second in history after the eradication of smallpox in humans in 1980. Rinderpest (in recent history included also among biological weapons of mass destruction) recurred throughout history causing hundreds of millions of animal deaths. It was recorded in 114 countries of all continents. After the World War II it was still reported from 66 countries in Africa and Asia. After all necessary knowledge about rinderpest virus and its circulation became available, along with excellent vaccine as well as enough experience with anti-rinderpest measures, the global eradication programme was launched in 1986 after a long preparatory period. It was composed of three new regional projects including all national anti-rinderpest programmes. The main method consisted in active search, isolation and stamping out of all outbreaks combined with mass prophylactic vaccinations and followed by years-long risk-based surveillance. The transfer of research results into practical reality required an extraordinary complex of a highly demanding system of managerial measures. It included analyses of rinderpest occurrence, identification of objectives/ deadlines and control methods, planning, ensuring necessary manpower, material and funds, organizing and implementation of coordinating programmes etc. This complex was represented by a managerial pyramid structure of inter-connected components having the basis at rinderpest affected localities and countries and its top at the Animal Health Service, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations as executive agency responsible for technical assistance and global leadership/coordination.

Full text

INTRODUCTION
The rinderpest (caused by a Morbillivirus), the most
dangerous animal infection included among biological
weapons of mass destruction, recurred throughout history1
killing hundreds of millions of bovines. It hit Europe hard
in the 18th and 19th centuries. At the beginning of the 20th
century, the disease occurred widely in Africa, Asia and
Europe and was responsible for the death of hundreds of
millions of cattle, buffaloes, yaks and wild artiodactyls, and
for the loss of people’s assets, livelihoods and ability to fend
off famines. The rinderpest (known also as “cattle plague”)
was historically registered in 114 countries of all continents.
After the World War II it was reported from the remaining
66 tropical and subtropical countries in Africa and Asia. An
enormous number of specic research results, publications,
meetings and conferences recommending rinderpest global
eradication resulted up to 1986 only in a theory with good
intentions. That year the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) as a worldwide competent
executive agency started the global eradication programme. It
was extremely difcult to select from the very rich sources of
available information that made possible to transfer them into
practice, i.e. into a realistic time-bound plan and procedures
leading to rinderpest global eradication. This required highly
complex studies, experiments, epizootiological and economic
analyses, selecting realistic control methods and ensuring
necessary inputs such as staff, material, funds and managerial
system focused on nal global eradication. In June 2011,
FAO Conference, the highest body of this United Nations’
agency adopted the “FAO Declaration on Global Freedom
from Rinderpest”. The author was present, being invited as
former Chief, Animal Health Service, FAO, temporarily
responsible for the management of global rinderpest
eradication programme. This invitation and the message
“FAO highly values your contribution towards the eradication
of rinderpest” represent the impulse to write this paper.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The documents of FAO Animal Health Service (AGAH),
responsible for executing global anti-rinderpest management
and for practical assistance to member countries, represented
35
DOI: 10.2478/ats-2013-0007 AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA, 46/2, 35-42, 2013
Original Research Article
Rinderpest Global Eradication Management
Vaclav Kouba
Department of Animal Science and Food Processing in Tropics and Subtropics,
Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
Former Chief, Animal Health Service, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
Abstract
The global eradication of rinderpest in 2010 ranked as the second in history after the eradication of smallpox in humans in 1980.
Rinderpest (in recent history included also among biological weapons of mass destruction) recurred throughout history causing
hundreds of millions of animal deaths. It was recorded in 114 countries of all continents. After the World War II it was still reported from
66 countries in Africa and Asia. After all necessary knowledge about rinderpest virus and its circulation became available, along with
excellent vaccine as well as enough experience with anti-rinderpest measures, the global eradication programme was launched in 1986
after a long preparatory period. It was composed of three new regional projects including all national anti-rinderpest programmes. The
main method consisted in active search, isolation and stamping out of all outbreaks combined with mass prophylactic vaccinations and
followed by years-long risk-based surveillance. The transfer of research results into practical reality required an extraordinary complex
of a highly demanding system of managerial measures. It included analyses of rinderpest occurrence, identication of objectives/
deadlines and control methods, planning, ensuring necessary manpower, material and funds, organizing and implementation of
coordinating programmes etc. This complex was represented by a managerial pyramid structure of inter-connected components having
the basis at rinderpest affected localities and countries and its top at the Animal Health Service, Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations as executive agency responsible for technical assistance and global leadership/coordination.
Keywords: anti-epizootic methods, anti-epizootic planning, anti-epizootic organization, biological weapons, disease-free status,
disease emergency, epizootiology, managerial pyramid, UN animal health service, nancial support.
1
Bible, The Old Testament: Exodus 9: 1-7 “The plague of the cattle” (fth plague of Egypt) - during pharaohs‘ nineteenth dynasty (around
13
th
century B. C.).
Unauthenticated
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the main source of data. The protocols from AGAH
meetings, international negotiations and expert consultations
on rinderpest eradication were of key importance. Other
information were found in the yearbooks on animal disease
occurrence in “FAO/WHO/OIE Animal Health Yearbook”2
and in “OIE World Animal Health” as well as in “OIE World
Animal Health Information Database”. Several other FAO
publications on rinderpest (1996, 1998, 2011) were used as
well.
The papers published in 2011 by Slingenberg; Chibeu
and El-Sawalhy; Kamata; Mathur; Njeumi and Roeder;
Sasaki, Rajasekhar, Raja and Hussain; Knop, Miyagishima
and Vallat in a special issue of FAO EMPRES Bulletin3
on rinderpest eradication represented important global
and continental historical data on anti-rinderpest
actions. Among many papers on rinderpest monitoring
the contribution of Mariner et al. (2003) was of major
importance.
Personal information of AGAH virologists who were in
charge of the rinderpest projects, i.e. Y. Ozawa and K. J.
Wojciechowski, represented another source of useful data.
Finally, the author’s own experience was used (Kouba, 2003
and 2012). Numeric data for global cost/benet analysis
were unfortunately not available.
History of rinderpest control
The development of rinderpest control had a long history.
A more or less passive approach consisted in stamping out
of outbreaks and cattle movement control complemented
after the World War II by specic vaccination in the areas
under specic risk. Stamping out consisted in sanitary
slaughtering of specically diseased and suspected animals.
Mass vaccination using attenuated tissue culture vaccine
developed in the 1950s by W. Plowright and R.D. Ferris
had an extraordinary role. About 3 billion doses were
administered to animals. Fixing the 2010 deadline for
global eradication of rinderpest was possible only after
having proved that its virus stops circulating among wild
animals several years after eradicating individual outbreaks
in domestic cattle and buffaloes living in the same zone.
Identifying limits of rinderpest territories, all outbreaks
and zones under specic risk required extensive clinical
and serological monitoring in domestic and wild animal
populations of susceptible species.
Global eradication of rinderpest represented a complex
of difcult-to-solve problems being multiplied by the fact
that every case was different under different conditions
requiring different application of anti-rinderpest principles.
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 46 (2) 2013
Fig. 1. Rinderpest – map of all countries affected (V. Kouba according to OIE WAHID 2009 data)
2
The author as its Editor-in-Chief was regularly evaluating rinderpest occurrence in the world and introduced reports on “Pan African
Rinderpest Campaign” and on “West Asia Rinderpest Eradication Campaign”.
3
EMPRES: “Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases”
Unauthenticated
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Not only the rinderpest territorial occurrence and spreading
tendency must be considered but also the size and space
distribution populations of susceptible of animal species.
Inuencing factors such as ecological, economic, social
and political conditions as well as public, government and
support of donors must be considered as well. The degree
of demandingness was multiplied by the fact that the time-
bound programme required to reach the eradication prior to
the deadline. This was much more difcult than the previous
practice without a xed global nal term. A complex system
approach when applying action-oriented epizootiological
principles was of extraordinary importance. International
management of global eradication programme had different
work/resources/time consuming phases.
Global preparatory phase consisted in: rinderpest
aetiology, immunology and epizootiology research; eld
investigations to identify all outbreaks and threatened
territories; identication of control/eradication strategy and
methodology (including laboratory diagnosis procedures);
identication of specic objectives; high quality vaccine
development, production and control; creation of necessary
conditions (manpower, material, funds, transport;
information and logistics systems; public, legislation and
political support, etc.); strengthening animal health services;
education and training; establishing international rinderpest
reference laboratories4 for conrmatory diagnosis; attraction
of donors; clearance procedures, etc.
Global pilot phase. Initially the eradication efforts took
place largely on an individual country basis facilitating to
accumulate national experience with the tested methods.
Mass vaccination proved its effectiveness. Major campaigns
in Asia throughout the 1960s brought the disease largely
under control. At the beginning of the 1960s, a programme
called JP 15 (Joint Campaign against Rinderpest in Africa)
attempted to vaccinate all cattle in participating countries.
This programme supported by German government brought
signicant improvements in the years 1962-1976. However,
its premature termination (due to economic reasons) led
to a are and spread of this infection from the residual
“pockets” in Sudan to the north up to Egypt, to the west up
to Senegal, to the east up to Djibouti and to the south up to
Zambia killing millions of cattle, as well as wildlife. In Asia
the rinderpest spread to the west up to Turkey.
Global attack phase, combined with protective measures
including mass vaccination, internationally organized as
“FAO g l o b a l rinderpest eradication programme” was
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 46 (2) 2013
Fig. 2. Rinderpest – map of global eradication programme in 1986 (FAO archive)
4
Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright Laboratory, United Kingdom; Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Muguga Laboratory, Nairobi;
Institute sénégalais agricole, Laboratoire nationale de l´élevage et de recherches vétérinaire, Dakar and Plum Island Animal Disease
Center, New York, USA.
Unauthenticated
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launched in 1986. The AGAH, under the leadership of
Dr Y. Ozawa, after rinderpest global situation analysis,
could nally set a realistic deadline for its eradication –
“Horizon 2010” thus creating an attractive motivation for
all participants and donors. Time-bound strategy gave a new
important impulse to global rinderpest eradication campaign
at all levels resulting in the intensication of control/
eradication measures aiming at the nal common objective.
At that time the AGAH created, merged and technically
backstopped three new regional projects: “The Pan African
Rinderpest Campaign (PARC)”– (FAO Project GCP/
RAF/218/JPN), “The South Asia Rinderpest Eradication
Campaign (SAREC)” - (FAO Project RAS/86/023) and “The
West Asia Rinderpest Eradication Campaign Coordination
(WARECC)” - (FAO Project RAB/86/024) including all
existing and new national anti-rinderpest programmes in the
affected countries. The campaign required to interlink local,
national, regional and global programmes thus creating
a worldwide management structure “pyramid” with its top
at FAO HQs in Rome.
In 1994, the nal eradication phase started with the
goal to terminate the eradication programmes in remaining
rinderpest countries. The FAO Council approved the
establishment of EMPRES within the FAO Animal Health
Service. Under EMPRES a special unit was established
- GREP (“Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme”) as
a programme aimed at the evidence-based global eradication
of rinderpest virus by 2010. A scientic verication that the
virus was no longer circulating in the wild was necessary.
The foundation of the GREP represented a new very
important impulse for the programme. The last conrmed
case of rinderpest was registered in a wild buffalo population
in Kenya in 2001.
Anti-rinderpest actions managed by the FAO Animal
Health Service consisted in global initiative, organization,
international coordination, gaining necessary external
support and in providing technical assistance to member
countries according to their requirements. This assistance
usually consisted in: identication of rinderpest situation;
elaboration of anti-rinderpest strategy and contingency
plans; realization of specic protective, control/eradication
measures and risk-based surveillance (e.g., serological
monitoring of rinderpest situation, conrmation of
rinderpest-free status and post-eradication control);
rinderpest diagnosis (establishing and strengthening
diagnostic laboratories including equipment and experts);
provision of methodologies (including manuals); production
and control of anti-rinderpest vaccines5, establishing cold
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 46 (2) 2013
5
PANVAC – African Union Pan-African Veterinary Vaccine
Center in Debre Zeit (Ethiopia) and Dakar (Senegal). Introduction
of thermo-stable vaccine signicantly reduced dependency on
a cold chain system.
Table 1: Examples of anti-rinderpest activities of Animal Health
Service, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FIELD REGIONAL PROJECTS BACKSTOPPED BY THE
ANIMAL HEALTH SERVICE IN 1990
Technical support to Pan-African Rinderpest Eradication
Campaign (PARC)
PARC: Communication and Training (OAU Countries)
PARC: Training on National Communication Ofcers (OAU
Countries)
Veterinary Vaccine Production and Quality Control in Africa
Technical Support for National Mass Communication Activities
(PARC)
Improvement of Vaccine Production in Eastern, Central and
Southern Africa
Communication Coordination (PARC)
Program regional de serosurveillance de la peste bovine
Western Asia Rinderpest Eradication Campaign Coordination
(WARECC)
South Asia Rinderpest Eradication Campaign (SAREC)
RINDERPEST CONTROL MEETINGS ORGANIZED BY
THE ANIMAL HEALTH SERVICE
1981: Joint FAO/OAU/OIE Meeting on Rinderpest Eradication
in Africa
1983: Second Informal Meeting on the Pan-African Rinderpest
Campaign
1984: Expert Consultation on Rinderpest Diagnosis and
Vaccine Production/Control
1987: Expert Consultation on Global Strategy for Control and
Eradication of Rinderpest
1992: Expert Consultation on Strategy for Global Rinderpest
Eradication
1995: Emergency Preparedness and Contingency Planning for
Rinderpest in Africa
1995: Emergency preparedness and contingency planning for
Rinderpest and other diseases emergencies
1996: Technical Consultation on the Global Rinderpest
Eradication Programme “The Word without rinderpest”
1998: Technical Consultation on the GREP “The challenge
ahead”
2000: Verication of rinderpest freedom
2002: Consultation on the Global Rinderpest Eradication
“Maintaining momentum and commitment”
2007: GREP Ad Hoc Group Workshop
2009: GREP Experts Consultation Meeting “Will rinderpest
virus ever die? What lies beyond 2010?”
2009: GREP Experts Consultation Meetings “Rinderpest virus
and vaccines sequestration”
2010: FAO workshop on post-eradication activities with
participation of OIE
2010: GREP Symposium and High Level Meeting “Lessons
learnt from the eradication of rinderpest for
controlling other transboundary animal diseases”
FAO PUBLICATIONS AND DOCUMENTS ON
RINDERPEST CONTROL
1967: Diagnostic of Rinderpest (author: D.R. Scott)
1985: A Practical Guide for Rinderpest Campaign Field
Personnel
1986: Manual on the Diagnosis of Rinderpest
1994: Quality Control Testing of Rinderpest Cell Culture
Vaccine
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chain; strengthening veterinary services; providing means
of transportation and communication; capacity building;
education and training, legislation etc.
FAO anti-rinderpest projects budget structure usually
consisted of the following components: personnel
(professional, non-professional and administrative support),
travel, sub-contracts (specifying types of goods and services),
training (fellowship, study tours, group training, in-service
training, etc.), equipment (expendable, non-expendable),
premises and miscellaneous (operation and maintenance, cost
of equipment, reporting costs etc.).
The programme required close collaboration with
different global partners such as the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) that was helping through “Joint
FAO/IAEA Division on Nuclear Techniques in Food and
Agriculture” with rinderpest diagnosis using Enzyme-
Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA) and Polymerase
Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques. The most important
was the International Ofce of Epizootics (OIE) providing
information on rinderpest occurrence, standards for diagnostic
tests and vaccines, guidelines for anti-rinderpest measures,
guidelines for rinderpest virus sequestration, pathway and
basic information for declaration of individual countries
as well as of the whole world as rinderpest-free. From the
regional partners at least the African Union’s Inter-African
Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR) managing the
PARC programme (1986-1998) succeeded by the Pan African
Programme for the Control of Epizootics (PACE) must be
mentioned. Among important participating partners belonged
also the French Centre de Coopération Internationale en
Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD).
Close collaboration with rinderpest country governments
represented a key prerequisite.
FAO rinderpest global eradication eld projects were
supported from different nancial sources: FAO Technical
Cooperation Programmes (TCP) were funded from the
own Regular Programme budget of the organization.
Among other nancial sources belonged United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), Trust Funds (TF), FAO/
Government Cooperative Programme (GCP), Unilateral
Trust Funds (UTF) etc. Financial support was obtained
also from other donors such as several governments (Japan,
United Kingdom, France, USA, Italy, Canada, Germany,
Ireland, etc.), numerous donor agencies such as the
European Development Fund (EDF), Swedish International
Development Authority (SIDA) etc. and from several
international banks. It should be stressed that without such
massive nancial support the eradication programme would
not have been possible to carry out.
The rinderpest global eradication programme was
implemented or actively supported by: governments
of all affected and threatened countries; hundreds of
participating institutions: for national and international
research, for rinderpest vaccine production and control, for
laboratory diagnostics, etc. The people of many generations
behind the eradication included: incalculable numbers
of veterinarians, animal health assistants and laboratory
technicians of public and private animal health services;
veterinary researchers; teachers and students of veterinary
schools; livestock specialists, cattle/buffalo farmers and
pastoralists; community, regional and national authority
ofcers and countless other collaborators. They all deserve
respect and recognition because without their hard work and
enthusiasm it would not have been possible to achieve the
global eradication.
FAO Animal Health Service (supported by FAO
leadership and relevant FAO HQs units such as the
Operation Division) having the responsibility for the
management of global rinderpest eradication programme
played a principal role as initiator, promoter, organizer, co-
ordinator and executor of concrete assistance to rinderpest
affected and threatened member countries. At that time all
its Chiefs were responsible for the anti-rinderpest global
programme implementation and results during a particular
period. Special responsibilities within the FAO Animal
Health Service were those of the Infection Diseases Group
and from 1994 the EMPRES group with a special GREP
unit and their rinderpest virologists. The Chiefs, Animal
Health Service, FAO were also supervising and coordinating
FAO Regional Animal Health Ofcers responsible for anti-
rinderpest programme within the given regions.
RESULTS
Global issues
The rst major global impulse was given in 1985
(remaining 39 rinderpest countries) by identifying the nal
deadline - 2010. In 1986, the proper g l o b a l rinderpest
eradication programme was started merging three new
regional programmes. The second major impulse was
given in 1994 (remaining 19 rinderpest countries) by the
establishment of the EMPRES/GREP unit. The numbers of
countries reporting their last case of rinderpest in individual
decades were as follows: during the 1940s – 5, during the
1950s – 5, during the 1960s – 7, during the 1970s – 3,
during the 1980s – 26, during the 1990s – 18 and during
the 2010s – 2 and thus nalizing successfully the global
eradication process. Somali ecosystem in Kenya was the
last place where rinderpest had been diagnosed in 2001.
The nal vaccinations were stopped in 2006 allowing the
investigators to disclose eventual reservoirs of rinderpest
virus. The last targeting surveillance operations took place
in 2009, failing to nd any evidence of the disease. FAO
halted all eld anti-rinderpest operations in October 2010.
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 46 (2) 2013
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Substantial disease search and widespread serological
surveillance throughout Asia, Africa and Middle East had
been conducted without any evidence of virus circulation.
This information was based on detailed evidence provided by
all countries and territories and had been veried by the OIE
recognizing the world as free from rinderpest virus circulation.
The FAO noting the conclusions reached by the “Joint FAO/
OIE Committee on Global Rinderpest Eradication”6 adopted
during the 79th General Session, 2011 a resolution declaring
ofcially that the world had achieved freedom from rinderpest
in its natural setting: “Declaration on Global Freedom from
Rinderpest and on the Implementation of Follow-up Measures
to Maintain World Freedom from Rinderpest”. The Declaration
called upon FAO to assume its responsibility for undertaking
the measures to maintain worldwide freedom from rinderpest.
The Declaration required developing a post-eradication
strategy so as to consolidate success of eradication taking
into account the fact that the presence of virulent or attenuated
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 46 (2) 2013
GLOBAL ERADICATION OF RINDERPEST
- YEARS OF LAST REPORTED OCCURRENCE
1962 Angola
1963
1964
1965 Gambia
1966 Laos
1967 Guinea, Guinea Bissau
1968
1969 Bhutan
1970
1971
1972 Jordan
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977 Vietnam
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982 Lebanon, Syria
1983 Somalia, Central African Republic, Izrael, Palestinian Terr.
1984 Chad
1985 Bahrain, Kuwait, Djibuti
1986 Cambodia, Cameroon, Cote d`Ivoire, Mali, Niger
1987 Benin. Egypt, Nigeria, Quatar
1988 Burkina Faso, Ghana
1989 Georgia
1990 Nepal
1991
1992 Mongolia
1993
1994 Iran, Uganda, Sri Lanka
1995 Afghanistan, Ethiopia, India, Oman, Yemen
1996 Iraq, Turkey, United Arab Emirates
1997 Tanzania
1998 Russia, Sudan
1999 Saudi Arabia
2000 Pakistan
2001
2002
2003 Mauritania, Kenya
OIE WAHID International Animal Health Database, 2010
Fig. 3. Countries ofcially reporting last cases of rinderpest
(1963-2003). Source: OIE WAHID data 2009, graph made
by V. Kouba.
6 The “Joint FAO/OIE Committee on Global Rinderpest Eradication”, under the chairmanship of Dr W. Taylor, based its
conclusions on the reports of the meetings of the “OIE Scientic Commission for Animal Diseases” and on the reports of the
meetings of the “OIE ad hoc Group on Evaluation of Rinderpest Disease Status of Members”.
Unauthenticated
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rinderpest virus in laboratories constitutes a potential threat to
the global rinderpest-free status. It urged all member countries
to maintain appropriate surveillance system for rinderpest,
to destroy rinderpest virus-containing materials, to ensure
that rinderpest occupies an appropriate place in veterinary
education and training programmes and to support all
technical measures required to minimize the risk of rinderpest
re-emergence.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This extraordinary achievement, based on excellent
research results, would not have been possible without the
joint efforts and strong commitments of FAO, governments,
relevant organizations in Africa, Asia and Europe, and
without the continuous support of many international
agencies and donors. The global anti-rinderpest campaign
structure involved incalculable number of participating
persons and institutions. The rinderpest global eradication
was estimated to have had a cost of about 5 billion USD.
The largest and longest international global programme
against the most dangerous animal disease converted
successfully the research ndings into worldwide practice
and a historical result. Rinderpest is the rst animal
infection eradicated globally and not only in susceptible
species of domestic but also in wild animals. This
achievement in all the world has proved for the rst time the
feasibility of global eradication of selected animal infections
when theoretical methodology is transferred into reality due
to adequate management system under technical leadership
of a global competent executing inter-governmental agency.
Huge damage that rinderpest has caused in the past will not
be repeated. It is a great contribution to global livestock
economy development, to international trade and to poverty
reduction.
REFERENCES
FAO (1996): The World without Rinderpest. FAO Animal
Production and Health Paper 129, Rome, 173 p.
FAO (1998): Rinderpest: The challenge ahead. FAO
Technical Consultation on the global rinderpest eradication
Programme. Rome, 201 p.
FAO (2011): Freedom from the World No. 1 Cattle Plague –
Rinderpest. FAO EMPRES Bulletin No. 38, 71 p.
FAO (2011): Declaration on Global Freedom from
Rinderpest and on the Implementation of Follow-up
Measures to Maintain World Freedom from Rinderpest.
Adopted by the 79th FAO General Session, Rome.
Chibeu D.M., El-Sawalhy A. (2011): Rinderpest eradication
in Africa. FAO EMPRES Bulletin No. 38: 21-25.
Kamata A. (2011): Rinderpest in East and Southeast Asia.
FAO EMPRES Bulletin No. 38: 41-42.
Knop l., Miyagishima K., Vallat B. (2011): OIE’s
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 46 (2) 2013
Table 2. List of countries affected by rinderpest and years of reporting last cases (OIE World Animal Health Information Database -
WAHID 2010)
Africa: Angola (1962), Benin (1987), Botswana (1899), Burkina Faso (1988), Burundi (1934), Cameroon (1986), Central African
Republic (1983), Chad (1984), Congo (1986), Cote d’Ivoire (1986), Djibuti (1985), Egypt (1987), Eritrea (1995), Ethiopia (1995),
Gambia (1965), Ghana (1988), Guinea (1967), Guinea Bissau (1967), Kenya (2003), Lesotho (1886), Libya (1966), Mali (1986),
Mauritania (2003), Mozambique (1896), Namibia (1907), Niger (1986), Nigeria (1987), Reunion (1902), Ruanda (1932), Senegal
(1978), Somalia (1983), South Africa (1904), Sudan (1998), Swaziland (1898), Tanzania (1997), Togo (1986), Uganda (1994),
Zambia (1896), Zimbabwe (1898).
Americas: Bermuda, Brazil (1921).
Asia: Afghanistan (1995), Armenia (1928), Azerbaijan (1929), Bahrain (1985), Bangladesh (1958), Bhutan (1969), Brunei (1950),
Cambodia (1986), China (1955), Hong-kong (1950), India (1995), Indonesia (1907), Iran (1994), Irak (1996), Izrael (1983),
Kuwait (1985), Japan (1924), Jordan (1972), Kazakhstan (1928), Korea (1931), Korea-DPR (1948), Laos (1966), Lebanon (1982),
Malayasia (1924), Mongolia (1992), Myanmar (1957), Nepal (1990), Oman (1995), Pakistan (2000), Palestian Auton. Territories
(1983), Philippines (1955), Qatar (1987), Saudi Arabia (1999), Singapur (1930), Sri Lanka (1994), Syria (1982), Taipei China (1949),
Thailand (1959), Turkey (1996), United Arab Emirates (1995), Vietnam (1977), Yemen (1995).
Europe: Albania (1924), Austria (1881), Belgium (1920), Bosnia and Herzegovina (1883), Bulgaria (1913), Croatia (1883), Czech
Republic (1881), Denmark (1782), Finland (1877), France (1870), Georgia (1989), Germany (1870), Greece (1926), Hungary
(1881), Ireland (1866), Italy (1949), Latvia (1921), Netherlands (1869), Poland (1921), Romania (1886), Russia (1998), Serbia
and Montenegro (1883), Slovakia (1881), Slovenia (1883), Sweden (1700), Switzerland (1871), U.K./Great Britain (1877), U.K.
Northern Ireland (1900).
Oceania: Australia (1923).
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Received for publication: October 8, 2012
Accepted for publication: June 17, 2013
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 46 (2) 2013
Corresponding author:
Václav Kouba
Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague
Kamýcká 129
165 21 Prague 6
Czech Republic
E-mail: vaclavkouba@cbox.cz
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