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69:1 (2014) 67–73 | www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my | eISSN 2180–3722 |
Full paper
Jurnal
Teknologi
Utilisation of Steel Slag as an Aggregate Replacement in Porous Asphalt
Mixtures
Mohd Rosli Hainin
a
, Gatot Rusbintardjo
b
, Mohd Anwar Sahul Hameed
a
, Norhidayah Abdul Hassan
a
, Nur Izzi Md. Yusoff
C*
a
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Construction Research Alliance, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sultan Agung Islamic University (UNISSULA), Semarang, Indonesia
c
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
*Corresponding author: izzi@eng.ukm.my
Article history
Received :24 January 2014
Received in revised form :
3 April 2014
Accepted :15 June 2014
Graphical abstract
Abstract
The utilization of porous asphalt mixtures has become increasingly important. This type of pavement has
been used in many developed countries for many years with the addition of by-products to reduce the
consumption of aggregates in road construction. Recently, the Malaysian Public Works Department (PWD)
launched specifications for specialty mixtures and surface treatments, including porous asphalt. Therefore,
this study was conducted to investigate the use of steel slag as a conventional aggregate replacement in
porous asphalt mixtures. Two porous asphalt gradations, designated as Grade A and Grade B, were used in
this study in accordance with the new specification – JKR/SPJ/2008-S4. Steel slag was chosen because its
characteristics are quite similar to those of aggregates compared with other by-products such as crumb
rubber, glass and many more. It was observed that steel slag aggregate meets all the criteria of the PWD
specification except for the water absorption test. The samples of steel slag aggregate mixtures produced
were tested for resilient modulus, rutting and permeability, which were later compared with conventional
aggregate mixtures. The results show that there is a significant difference in terms of resilient modulus
between the steel slag aggregate-based mixture and the conventional aggregate-based mixture. The same
scenario was observed in the rutting test, where the steel slag aggregate mixture possesses a higher rut
resistance. However the mixtures made from conventional aggregate had higher permeability values
compared to the steel slag mixtures. It can be concluded that the use of steel slag could performed admirably
during high traffic loading.
Keywords: Porous asphalt; steel slag; resilient modulus; rutting and permeability
Abstrak
Penggunaan campuran asfalt berliang telah menjadi semakin penting. Turapan jenis ini telah digunakan di
negara-negara maju selama bertahun-tahun lamanya dengan penambahan produk tambahan untuk
mengurangkan penggunaan agregat di dalam pembinaan jalan raya. Baru-baru ini, Jabatan Kerja Raya
Malaysia (JKR) telah melancarkan spesifikasi untuk campuran khusus dan rawatan permukaan,
termasuklah asfalt berliang. Oleh itu, kajian ini dijalankan untuk menyiasat penggunaan jermang keluli
sebagai pengganti agregat biasa di dalam campuran asfalt berliang. Dua penggredan asfalt berliang, yang
ditetapkan sebagai Gred A dan Gred B, telah digunakan dalam kajian ini berdasarkan spesifikasi baru –
JKR/SPJ/2008-S4. Jermang keluli telah dipilih kerana ciriannya agak sama dengan agregat berbanding
dengan produk-produk tambahan yang lain seperti serdak getah, kaca dan banyak lagi. Telah diperhatikan
bahawa agregat jermang keluli memenuhi semua kriteria spesifikasi JKR kecuali ujian penyerapan air.
Sampel campuran agregat jermang keluli yang dihasilkan telah diuji terhadap modulus kebingkasan,
pengeluman dan kebolehtelapan, yang kemudiannya dibandingkan dengan campuran agregat biasa.
Keputusan menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan yang ketara dari segi modulus kebingkasan di antara
campuran berasaskan agregat jermang keluli dan campuran berasaskan agregat biasa. Senario yang sama
diperhatikan di dalam ujian pengeluman, di mana campuran agregat jermang keluli mempunyai rintangan
pengeluman yang lebih tinggi. Walau bagaimanapun, campuran yang diperbuat daripada agregat biasa
mempunyai nilai kebolehtelapan yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan campuran jermang keluli. Dapat
disimpulkan bahawa penggunaan jermang keluli dapat menanggung bebanan trafik yang tinggi dengan
jayanya.
Kata kunci: Asfalt berliang; jermang keluli; modulus kebingkasan; pengeluman dan kebolehtelapan
© 2014 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved.
68 Nur Izzi Md. Yusof et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 69:1 (2014), 67–73
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The development of the highway construction industry is
increasing rapidly, and consequently the aggregate resources in
Malaysia are becoming depleted and land is being sacrificed to
obtain raw materials. Thus, it is necessary to find a recycled
material that can replace aggregates in highway construction.
Much research has been done to improve and upgrade the
materials used for preparing hot-mix asphalt (HMA). The
utilization of waste material as a replacement for aggregate in the
production of HMA could have many benefits to mankind. Waste
materials can be categorized broadly as follows: industrial waste
(e.g. cellulose waste, wood lignins, slags, bottom ash and fly ash),
municipal or domestic waste (e.g. incinerator residue, scrap
rubber, waste glass and roofing shingles) and mining waste (e.g.
coal mine refuse) [1].
Steel slag is a by-product of the steel industry, and is
reported to exhibit great potential as a replacement for natural
aggregates in road construction. Steel slag is a waste material that
can be recycled as a road construction material. Steel slag
aggregates have been reported to retain heat considerably longer
than natural aggregates. The heat retention characteristics of steel
slag aggregates can be advantageous for HMA construction, as
less gas (energy) is used during the execution of asphaltic
concrete works. Based on high frictional and abrasion resistance,
steel slag is used widely in industrial roads, intersections and
parking areas where high wear resistance is required. Nowadays,
the production of steel slag is extensive and the demand for
dumping areas on which to dispose of this material is high. Based
on the Malaysian Department of Environment (DoE) reports,
approximately 350 000 metric tons of steel slag were generated
in 1987, and the total amount increased to 620 000 metric tons in
2000 [2]. This report proves that the amount of steel slag is
increasing every year, as steel is used for many purposes. In
flexible pavement design, it can be used as an aggregate
replacement for HMA, road base and sub-base.
Steel slag is chemically stable and shows excellent binding
properties with bitumen, has a low flakiness index, good
mechanical properties and good anti-skid resistance [3]. Work
done by various researchers has found that the addition of steel
slag in HMA enhances the performance characteristics of
pavement [4-6]. Since steel slag is rough, the material improves
the skid resistance of pavement. Also, because of the high specific
gravity and angular, interlocking features of crushed steel slag,
the resulting HMA concrete is more stable and resistant to rutting
[6-8]. Recently, the use of steel slag with stone mastic asphalt
(SMA) has been further investigated. It has been observed that
the use of steel slag in SMA mixtures enhances resistance to
cracking at low temperatures. In addition, this mixture also
presents excellent performance in roughness and the British
Pendulum Number (BPN) coefficient of the surface at in-service
temperature [9].
It is well known that the biggest cause of pavement failure
is water. A high annual rainfall of more than 2,000 mm per year
is reported in Malaysia, often resulting in flooding [10]. Water
allows moisture to seep through and saturate the gravel base,
leaving the pavement vulnerable to heavier vehicles. As a result,
roads tend to deteriorate faster. Subsequently, the use of porous
asphalt mixtures becomes an alternative because of their
efficiency during poor weather, which could be very beneficial
particularly in Malaysia. Porous asphalt is described as a
bituminous-bound mixture with selected grading and high-
quality aggregates to provide a HMA with 20–25% air voids [11].
The national specifications for porous asphalt were first
introduced in Malaysia in 2008 when the Public Works
Department (PWD) launched the specifications on specialty
mixes, including porous asphalt. Two porous asphalt gradations,
designated as Grade A and Grade B in this study, are specified,
and they differ in terms of their nominal maximum aggregate
sizes, 10 mm and 14 mm respectively [11-12]. To improve the
durability of pavement, the use of additives and modifiers (e.g.
polymer) in 70/100 pen grade bitumen was introduced by the
Malaysian PWD. Based on the new standard specifications,
known as JKR/SPJ/2008-S4, this study was conducted to
determine the feasibility of steel slag as an aggregate replacement
in porous asphalt. The new porous asphalt grades were used in
this study, designated as Grade A and Grade B. The experimental
tests were conducted to evaluate the performance of these new
grades in terms of resilient modulus, rutting and permeability.
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Materials
The materials required to produce porous asphalt samples are
steel slag aggregate, polymer modified asphalt (PG 76) and
ordinary Portland cement, which acts as a filler. The aggregates
were washed, dried and sieved into the selected range of sizes,
according to the JKR/SPJ/2008-S4. Table 1 shows the basic
properties of the crushed aggregate. This table shows that all
aggregate properties satisfy the specification. Meanwhile, Figure
1 (a and b) show the gradation limit curves for both Grade A and
Grade B of the porous asphalt mixtures. It was found that the
design gradation limits fell inside the limits of the referred
envelope. After the materials were proved to be suitable for the
experimental work, samples of both Grade A and Grade B porous
asphalt were prepared using steel aggregate as well as
conventional aggregate. The steel slag aggregate, which was
obtained from Purata Keuntungan Sdn Bhd, was sieved and
graded based on size in accordance with the porous gradation of
both Grade A and Grade B, as stated in JKR/SPJ/2008-S4. The
weight of the steel slag aggregate required to produce one
Marshall sample was 1100 g. This weight was chosen in order to
produce a sample with a thickness of around 62–65 mm. Wash
sieve analysis, specific gravity and theoretical maximum density
(TMD) tests were also conducted. Although this study uses steel
slag aggregate as a conventional aggregate replacement, samples
made with conventional aggregate were also produced for the
purpose of comparison with the steel slag aggregate-based
mixtures. The conventional aggregate was obtained from
Malaysian Rock Product (MRP) quarry; 950 g of conventional
aggregate was required to produce one Marshall sample with a
thickness of 62–65 mm.
2.2 Laboratory Compacted Specimen
Porous asphalt mixtures were compacted in the laboratory by
means of the Marshall method, in accordance with ASTM D
1559. Since 75 compaction blows tend to break down the
aggregate and do not cause a significant increase in density over
that provided by 50 blows, previous researchers have suggested
application of 50 blows per side of each mixture [13-14]. This is
also in accordance with the specification of the JKR/SPJ/2008-S4
[11].
2.3 Resilient Modulus Test
Indirect tensile test for resilient modulus of bituminous mixtures
was performed in accordance with ASTM D4123 – 82. Figure 2a
69 Nur Izzi Md. Yusof et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 69:1 (2014), 67–73
shows the resilient modulus test set-up. According to this
standard test, the specimens used should have a height of at least
51 m) and a minimum diameter of 102 mm for aggregate up to 25
mm maximum size, and a height of at least 76 mm and a
minimum diameter of 152 mm for aggregate up to 38 mm
maximum size. The specimens used in this study were Marshall
samples which have average height of 70 mm and average
diameter of 101.6 mm. Test was conducted at temperature of 25
and 40°C (± 1°C), at loading frequency of 0.5 and 1 Hz for each
test temperature as well as load duration of 0.1 second. The test
was conducted by applying compressive loads with a haversine
waveform. The load was applied vertically in the vertical
diametric plane of a cylindrical specimen. The resulting
horizontal deformation of the specimen was measured and, with
assumed Poisson’s ratio was used to calculate a resilient modulus.
For test temperature of 25 and 40°C Poisson’s ratio was assumed
0.4. The values of vertical and horizontal deformation were
measured by linear variable differential transducer (LVDTs). The
total resilient modulus was calculated using the total recoverable
deformation which includes both the instantaneous recoverable
and the time dependent continuing recoverable deformation
during the unloading and rest-period portion of one cycle.
Figure 1 Gradation limits for (a) Grade A and (b) Grade B porous asphalts
2.4 Wheel Tracking Test (Rutting)
This test is conducted to evaluate the potential of rutting appear
on the porous asphalt sample after they are loaded under moving
wheel in order to simulate the moving traffic loads. Samples for
this test were prepared for the steel slag samples with which the
result obtained were compared to the conventional asphalt mixes
as a control sample. Wessex S867 Wheel Tracking Machine was
used to measure the rutting resistance (Figure 2b). This
computerized machine met the requirements of both BS 598 and
BS EN 12697-22 1999. Two samples for each mix were prepared
for wheel tracking test. Before conducting the test, each sample
was compacted using compaction hammer until the surface layer
of the sample reach the desired level. The compacted sample was
cooled at room temperature and extracted from the mould. Then
percentage of air voids was checked within 22 ± 1% (ASTM D
3023) on each sample. If the sample achieve the target air voids,
then it is dried first before proceed with wheel tracking test.
2.5 Permeability Test
Permeability, as shown in Figure 2c, is one of the most important
characteristics of porous mixtures. This is because permeability
is the most significant characteristic to differentiate porous
asphalt from other types of mixture such as stone mastic asphalt
and asphaltic concrete. Research by Hainin and Cooley [15]
found that permeability is very much related with air void density.
More air voids result in higher permeability. Although there is no
specific permeability value provided in JKR/SPJ/2008-S4, it is
recommended that the mixture should possess permeability
greater than 0.116 cm sec
-1
(100 m day
-1
) to ensure the
permeability of mixture [11]. In this study, a permeability test
was performed with a falling head water permeameter.
70 Nur Izzi Md. Yusof et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 69:1 (2014), 67–73
Figure 2 (a) resilent modulus test, (b) wheel tracker test and (c) permeability test
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Determination of Steel Slag Characteristic
The quality of the material is very much related to its
characteristics; hence, in this study, conventional aggregate and
steel slag aggregate were subjected to several tests, as shown in
Table 1. The reason behind these tests was to ensure the
feasibility of using steel slag as a conventional aggregate
replacement in porous asphalt mixtures. Based on the results,
steel slag meets all the requirements established by the PWD
except for water absorption. The water absorption of the steel was
found to be more than 2%. This phenomenon could be attributed
to the fact that steel slag aggregates possess many pores
(honeycomb), which allow the water to fill the voids. To ensure
that water absorption does not affect the degree of coating
between the asphalt and steel slag aggregate, a stripping test was
conducted and showed a satisfying result.
Table 1 Steel slag aggregate testing results
Testing
Procedures
Conventional Aggregate
Steel Slag
Specification
JKR/SPJ/2008
Aggregate Crushing
Value
BS 812 Part 110: 1990
23%
23 %
< 30 %
Los Angeles Abrasion
ASTM C 131 - 1981
26%
24 %
<25 %
Aggregate Impact Value
BS 812: Part 112:1990
24%
23 %
-
Flakiness
(Coarse, 28 mm)
BS812: Section 105.1: 1989
8%
3 %
<25 %
Flakiness
(Coarse, 20 mm)
BS812: Section 105.1: 1989
8%
2 %
<25 %
Flakiness
(Coarse, 14 mm)
BS812: Section 105.1: 1989
9%
3 %
<25 %
Soundness
AASHTO: T 104-86
1.07%
2.07 %
<18 %
Polished Stone Value
BS 812: Part 14: 1989
50
54
>40
Absorption
Grade A/Grade B
BS 812: Part 2: 1975
1.35
5.227
/5.088
< 2%
Stripping
AASHTO: T 182
>95
> 95
> 95
(b)
(c)
(a)
71 Nur Izzi Md. Yusof et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 69:1 (2014), 67–73
3.2 Washed Sieve Analysis
Washed sieve analysis was carried out to determine the quantity
of filler (material passing through 75 μm) that should be used in
the preparation of the Marshall sample. Ordinary Portland cement
that passed through a 75 μm sieve was used as the filler. Details
of the procedures used in this test can be found in ASTM C 117-
90. Thus, only ordinary Portland cement was used as the filler.
Table 2 shows the amount of dust after conducting the wash sieve
analysis for the Marshall sample.
Table 2 Washed sieve analysis
Mixture
Percentage of dust (%)
Steel Slag Sample
Conventional Sample
Grade A
20.30
20.68
Grade B
18.10
18.96
3.3 Specific Gravity
In this study, the specific gravity and absorption of the aggregates
were analysed based on ASTM C 127-88 and ASTM C 128-88
for coarse and fine aggregates respectively. Table 3 shows the
specific gravity of both coarse and fine aggregates. Because steel
slag aggregate is harder and denser than conventional, obviously
the specific gravity has significant different as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Specific gravity of the materials used
Materials
Specific Gravity
Bitumen
PG 76
1.030
Fine
aggregate
Grade A
Steel slag
2.846
conventional
2.569
Grade B
Steel slag
2.815
conventional
2.576
Coarse
aggregate
Grade A
Steel slag
2.775
conventional
2.567
Grade B
Steel slag
2.791
conventional
2.573
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
3.130
3.4 Theoretical Maximum Density (TMD)
The Theoretical Maximum Density (TMD) test is performed
using the Rice Method based on the optimum bitumen content, as
mentioned earlier. Each mixture is tested twice to verify the
results obtained. The amount of the samples is determined based
on ASTM D 2041 and depends on the size of the largest particle
of aggregate in the mixtures. Table 4 summarises the results of
TMD at 5% for each type of mixture.
Table 4 Results from theoretical maximum density test
Types of mixture
SG maximum
( G
mm
)
SG effective
( G
eff
)
Grade
A
Steel Slag
2.805
3.085
Conventional
2.388
2.567
Grade
B
Steel Slag
2.782
3.056
Conventional
2.424
2.610
3.5 Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC)
The optimum bitumen content (OBC) is the most important
criterion in preparing the sample, as any error in obtaining OBC
will influence the result. The OBC values for the tested samples
are shown in Table 5. It shows that the selected OBC for each
grade met the requirement of JKR/SPJ/2008-S4. This is very
important to ensure that the samples will produce reliable results
when testing for rutting, resilient modulus and permeability.
Table 5 Optimum bitumen content (OBC)
Types of Mixture
OBC (%)
Grade A
Steel slag
5.5
Conventional
4.5
Grade B
Steel slag
5.5
Conventional
5.0
3.6 Resilient Modulus
The resilient modulus is an important parameter in determining
the performance of pavement and to analyse pavement response
to traffic loading. A resilient modulus of 1318.2 MPa for the steel
slag porous Grade A was recorded, which is almost double the
value recorded for the conventional porous Grade A at 25
o
C of
683.7 MPa. This finding indicates that the mixture made from
steel slag aggregate may perform almost twice as well as the
mixture made with conventional aggregate under traffic loading.
At 40
o
C, the trend is almost identical to the resilient modulus at
25
o
C; the resilient modulus of the mixture containing steel slag
is almost twice that of conventional aggregate at 463.0 MPa and
293.8 MPa respectively, as presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Resilient modulus of steel slag and conventional aggregate
porous Grade A
Meanwhile for porous Grade B, as shown in Figure 4, the
resilient moduli at 25
o
C are 975.2 MPa and 726.2 MPa for the
steel slag aggregate mixture and conventional mixture
respectively. The steel slag aggregate mixture still produces a
higher resilient modulus value compared to the conventional
aggregates mixture; however, the difference is not as huge as for
Grade A at the same temperature. At 40
o
C, the modified mixture
also possesses a higher resilient modulus value of 463.5 MPa
compared to 239.8 MPa for the unmodified mixture. This shows
that at the higher temperature, the strength of the steel slag
remains high.
72 Nur Izzi Md. Yusof et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 69:1 (2014), 67–73
Figure 4 Resilient modulus of steel slag and conventional aggregate
porous Grade B
Comparing both Grade A and Grade B at temperatures of 25
o
C and 40
o
C shows that steel slag has a higher resilient modulus
value. This is because steel slag is hard, dense and possesses
abrasion resistance as well as containing significant amounts of
free iron, giving the material high density and hardness [1]. The
presence of higher bitumen content and roughness of steel slag
aggregates, giving the modified mixtures higher resilience
properties. This finding was in good agreement with the previous
study done by Behnood and Ameri [14] for stone-mastic asphalt
(SMA) mixtures.
3.7 Rutting Resistance
In porous asphalt Grade A, there is a significant difference in the
rutting depth between conventional aggregate and steel slag
aggregate. Figure 5 shows that the rutting depth of the
conventional aggregate was 6.3 mm, while a rutting depth of only
2.0 mm was recorded for the steel slag aggregate, which means
that the rutting depth of conventional aggregate is as much as
three times higher than the steel slag aggregate. The reason
behind this result is that the strength possessed by steel slag is
much higher than conventional aggregate. In addition, steel slag
aggregate also has excellent binding properties with bitumen and
a low flakiness index [16]. The increase in rutting resistance may
be attributable to the excellent angularity and friction angle of the
steel slag, and the interlocking mechanism of aggregate gradation
results in high shearing resistance [17].
Figure 5 Rutting depth (mm) of porous Grade A
Rutting depth in porous Grade B also shows the same trend
as in Grade A. The rutting depth of conventional aggregate was
higher than for steel slag aggregate (Figure 6). The rutting depth
of conventional aggregate is twice that of steel slag aggregate, at
7.2 mm and 3.6 mm respectively. A comparison between porous
Grade A and Grade B shows that the rutting in Grade A is less
than in Grade B. This result is because there is a smaller amount
of fine aggregate in Grade B than Grade A; hence, the porous
Grade B has a higher air void density. The presence of more air
voids results in further compaction during testing, and hence
increases rut depth. In general, the presence of steel slag
aggregates improves the resilience to rutting compared to the
conventional asphalt mixture. A similar finding was observed by
Wang and Wang [18]. Based on the Asphalt Pavement Analyzer
(APA) test results, the rutting resistant ability of the steel slag
mixture is better than the granite mixture.
Figure 6 Rutting depth (mm) of porous Grade B
3.8 Permeability
The coefficients of permeability (k) are summarised in Table 6.
The analysis of the results clearly shows that mixtures made with
conventional aggregates possess a higher degree of permeability
compared to those made with steel slag aggregate. Mixtures made
with conventional aggregate had a permeability of 10870.5×10
-5
cm/sec compared to 5127.6×10
-5
cm/sec for mixtures made with
Temperature, (C)
73 Nur Izzi Md. Yusof et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 69:1 (2014), 67–73
steel slag aggregate. In Grade B, the trend of the results is similar
to those of Grade A; permeability is higher for mixtures made
with conventional aggregate than for those made with steel slag
aggregate, at 11423.1×10
-5
and 5925.2×10
-5
cm/sec respectively.
The results implies that the there is a reduction in the coefficient
of permeability for both conventional and steel slag aggregates
asphalt mixtures as the binder content increases [12]. The higher
bitumen content for steel slag mixture could have caused
blockage in the interconnected voids that resulted in lesser
permeability as compared to conventional mixture.
Table 6 Coefficient of permeability
Types of mixture
Permeability, K (×10
-5
cm)
Grade A
Steel Slag
5127.6
Conventional
10870.5
Grade B
Steel Slag
5925.2
Conventional
11423.1
A comparison between Grade A and Grade B shows that
Grade B has a higher permeability value. This is because porous
Grade B has more voids due to the small amount of fine aggregate
(filler). Since the amount of fine aggregate is lower than that in
Grade A, the void inside the sample is filled less, hence allowing
the water to move much more freely.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on this study, several conclusions can be drawn:
Steel slag aggregate meets all the requirements of aggregates
that are to be used in road construction, such as in terms of
strength and shape in accordance with PWD requirements.
However, the value for water absorption of steel slag
aggregate for both porous Grade A and Grade B exceeded
the value established by PWD, which should be lower than
2.0%. This phenomenon is because steel slag possesses
more pores, enhancing its tendency to absorb water.
As for the performance evaluation, the resilient modulus test
shows that mixtures containing steel slag aggregate have a
higher value than those containing conventional aggregate.
It can be concluded that steel slag could performed
admirably during high traffic loading.
Rutting depth also shows that steel slag would make a
significant contribution to road durability. This is based on
the fact that rutting depth was significantly lower for the
steel slag-based mixture compared to the conventional
aggregates mixture.
Although the mixture containing steel slag aggregate had a
lower permeability value compared to the conventional
aggregate-based mixture, it is still possesses an acceptable
value of permeability
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