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Using EEG biofeedback in karate: The relationship among anxiety, motivation and brain waves

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Background and Study Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate the comparison of anxiety, motivation and brain waves according to gender and education levels. In addition, the study also examined the relationship among anxiety, motivation and brain waves in kareteists. Material/Method: Sixty one participants voluntarily participated in the study CSAI-2 (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory), STAI (State Trait Anxiety Inventory), Sport Motivation Scale and Pro-Comp Infinity Biofeedback Device were used for data collection. The data was analyzed in SPSS 13.0 package program. Results: As a result of the study; While a significant difference between education levels was observed for the values of somatic anxiety and theta wave (p<0.05), there was no significant difference in trait anxiety, cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, self-confidence, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and a motivation (p>0.5). Pearson's correlation test revealed that there was only a significant positive correlation between the values of age and theta brainwave (r: 0.654, p<0.05), whereas, there was no significant correlation between other variables (p>0.05). Conclusions: EEG biofeedback procedure is employed for reducing anxiety and increasing motivation and self confidence. The present study helps to arrange these psychological patterns for athletes and coaches.
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Using EEG biofeedback in karate: The relationship
among anxiety, motivation and brain waves
Hakan Kolayis
Sakarya University, School of Physical Education and Sport, Sakarya, Turkey
Source of support: Departmental sources
Received: 24 June 2011; Accepted: 17 August 2011; Published online: 29 January 2012
Abstract
Background
The aim of the study was to investigate the comparison of anxiety, motivation and brain waves according to gender
and education levels. In addition, the study also examined the relationship among anxiety, motivation and brain
waves in kareteists.
Material/Method:
Sixty one participants voluntarily participated in the study. CSAI-2 (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory), STAI
(State Trait Anxiety Inventory), Sport Motivation Scale and Pro-Comp Infinity Biofeedback Device were used for
data collection. The data was analysed in SPSS 13.0 package program.
Results:
As a result of the study; While a significant difference between education levels was observed for the values of so-
matic anxiety and theta wave (p<0.05), there was no significant difference in trait anxiety, cognitive anxiety, so-
matic anxiety, self-confidence, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation (p>0.5). Pearson’s cor-
relation test revealed that there was only a significant positive correlation between the values of age and theta
brainwave (r: 0.654, p<0.05), whereas, there was no significant correlation between other variables (p>0.05).
Conclusions:
EEG biofeedback procedure is employed for reducing anxiety and increasing motivation and self confidence. The
present study helps to arrange these psychological patterns for athletes and coaches.
Key words:
anxiety • motivation • brain waves • self cofidence • karateist
Author’s address:
Hakan Kolayis; Sakarya University, School of Physical Education and Sport; Esentepe Campus, 54187, Sakarya,
Turkey; e-mail: hkolayis@sakarya.edu.tr
Background
The brain-body issue has always been a subject of hu-
man interest. Every physiological change whatsoever is
accompanied by a parallel change in mental and /or emo-
tional state [1] Green, Green and Walters (1970) have
formulated this central psychophysiological principle as
follows: “every change in the physical state is accompa-
nied by an appropriate change in the mental emotion-
al state, conscious or unconscious, and conversely ev-
ery change in the mental emotional state, conscious or
unconscious, is accompanied by an appropriate change
in the physiological state”. Essentially, this statement
reflects a very deep, firm view concerning the “eternal”
brain-body issue [2].
The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a complex bioelec-
tric signal that reflects the functional status of large
pools of cortical neurons and their modulation by sub
cortical regulatory influences. The interpretation of this
signal requires a comprehensive knowledge of both the
technical aspects of EEG recording and neurophysiolo-
gy of central nervous system. Thus, the application this
modality in the biofeedback context must be conduct-
ed or supervised by properly trained and experienced
professional [3].
The human brain produces a continuous output of min-
ute electrical signals. The magnitude of these signals is
so small that it is measured in microvolts (µv), or mil-
lionths of a volt. However, the signals can be accurate-
ly detected and recorded. To do this, the signals must
and Study Aim:
An electroencephalogram
(EEG) – is a test that
measures and records the
electrical activity of your
brain.
Authors’ Contribution:
A Study Design
B Data Collection
C Statistical Analysis
D Manuscript Preparation
E Funds Collection
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first be picked up by electrodes attached to the surface
of scalp and then amplified and filtered many thousands
of times before they can be analyzed. If these amplified
signals will appear as a continuous wave of varying fre-
quency and amplitude-the EEG [4].
The number of EEG cycles occurring within a given time
internal is called its frequency and measured in hertz
(Hz) or cycles per second (CPS). The greater number of
per second, the higher the frequency. The EEG appears
to contain four major frequency bands: beta (above 13
Hz), alpha (8–13 Hz), theta (4–7 Hz), and delta (0.5–
3.5 Hz). And EEG is not useful for determining specific
brain functions, but for discerning more general states
arousal, which are identified as: delta: deep sleep; the-
ta: period of dreaming; alpha: relaxed awareness; beta:
full alertness [4–8].
Research has shown that intrinsic motivation (IM) and
extrinsic motivation (EM) are important concepts for
understanding motivational processes in sport settings
[9,10]. IM refers to “doing an activity for its inherent
satisfactions and pleasures rather than for some sepa-
rable consequence” [11]. On the other hand, EM re-
flects behaviors that are performed not for their own
sake, but to achieve some separate goal (e.g., receiving
a reward, avoiding punishment, and maintaining con-
tingent self-worth). Finally, amotivation refers to the ab-
sence of IM or EM and is considered central to under-
standing motivated behavior [9]. As such, it is perceived
that one’s actions have no control over outcomes and
that forces beyond one’s individual control determine
behavior [12]. Previous research has shown that more
self-determined motives are positively associated with
various cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes in
sport settings [10–14].
The level of the individual’s motivation gain to con-
trol over his/her psychophysiological process needs to
be considered when selecting subject for research and
when developing a research design. If the individual
lacks the motivation to engage in change, biofeedback
will be ineffective since the efficacy of such a technique
ultimately lies within the individual. For this reason,
the extent to which the individual is motivated to al-
ter his/her psychophysiological responses is a potential
confounding variable that should not be neglected. The
potential influence that an individual’s level of moti-
vation may have biofeedback research out comes led
Ancoli and Kamiya (1978) to suggest that researchers
should document (a) the exact manner of participant
recruitment, including the selected individual’s motive
for participation and criteria for rejection of other in-
dividuals; and (b) the individual’s previous experience
and knowledge of biofeedback [15].
Anxiety is defined as a negatively-valenced psycholog-
ical state which arises under threatening circumstanc-
es and it leads to affective, physiological, and cognitive
changes [16]. Anxiety is also defined as an unpleasant
emotional state and it is often accompanied by fatigue,
exhaustion and some physiological symptoms [17].
According to Martens et al. [18] anxiety is comprised
of two parts which are somatic and cognitive anxiety.
Somatic anxiety refers to physiological and affective
components of anxiety which develop directly due to
autonomic arousal and cognitive anxiety is the mental
component of anxiety which is caused by negative ex-
pectations about success [18]. Moreover, Depending
on the degree to which anxiety is experienced, it could
decrease athletes’ performance [19–21]. Moreover,
Trait anxiety involves the general tendency to experi-
ence anxiety symptoms across a wide variety of stress-
ful situations [22].
According to Moran (1996), biofeedback training in
sport psychology has been used most extensively in the
treatment of performance anxiety. High level of anxiety
can be detrimental to motor learning, performance, and
participation in completion. One way to build self con-
fidence and reduce competition anxiety is to improve
performance skill. This can be accomplished over time
by providing athletes with biofeedback on their skill im-
provement, effort and if warranted their performance
outcome. An attempt to reduce state anxiety and im-
prove balancing performance on a stabilometer was con-
ducted in a study by Teague (1976) [4].
The purpose of this study was to examine how kara-
teists’ motivation, anxiety and brain waves are affect-
ed by gender and education level. This study employed
three approaches to shed light on this issue. First, a com-
parison of sport motivation, anxiety and brain waves be-
tween male and female. Second, a comparison of sport
motivation, anxiety and brain waves between universi-
ty and high school. Third, a relationship among anxi-
ety, motivation and brain waves.
Material and Methods
Participants
Sixty one participants (37 male made of 60.7% of par-
ticipants and 24 female made of 39.3% of the partici-
pants) voluntarily participated in this study. The mean
of their age was x: 18.15±2.09 year, the mean of their
training age was 7.97±2.39 year, education level of 21
of the participants (34.4%) was university and 40 of
the participants (65.6%) reported their educational lev-
el as high school.
Karateist – an athlete who
does a Japanese art of self-
defense in which sharp blows
and kicks are administered to
pressure-sensitive points on
the body of an opponent.
Motivation – is the driving
force by which humans
achieve their goals.
Anxiety – is a generalized
mood condition that can
often occur without an
identifiable triggering
stimulus.
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Measures
CSAI-2 (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory)
Competitive state anxiety inventory is used to mea-
sure cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self confi-
dence. It was formed by Martens, Burton and Vealey
in 1981 and there are 27 questions in this inventory.
CSAI-2 was translated into Turkish and validity and
reliability were reported by Koruç in 1998. Translation
reliability was for cognitive anxiety;.925, somatic anx-
iety;.928, self confidence;.950. Test retest reliability
was found to be; cognitive anxiety;.961, somatic anx-
iety;.929, cognitive anxiety;.929, self confidence;.949.
In the result of the comparison, a significant difference
was not found between STAI and CSAI-2, ANOVA
{F(26, 1)=.69;8>.05}.. This finding was received as
criterion validity. Inventory loses decision near com-
petition as construction validity. It was found for two
weeks with row,.561,.672,.541, end of two days with
row,.230,.223,.321 [23].
STAI (State Trait Anxiety Inventory)
State Trait Anxiety Inventory was developed by
Spielberger et al. (1970) and in the present study. The
inventory was adapted into Turkish in 1985 by Öner
and Le Compte. The scale determines how an individ-
ual would feel, independently of a particular situation
he was in. The inventory is made up of 20 items and
provides a four-point Likert type assessment (1 is for
almost never, 4 is for almost always) and was used for
overlap validity in the present study. Cronbach’s alpha
of the scale was between.83 and.87 and test- retest re-
liability was reported to be between 34 and.72 [24].
Sport Motivation Scale
The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS; [25]) was used
to measure the motivation from multidimensional
perspectives based on the self-determination theory.
SMS consists of seven subscales that measure three
types of Intrinsic Motivation (IM; IM to Know, IM to
Accomplish Things, and IM to Experience Stimulation),
three forms of regulation for Extrinsic Motivation
(Identified, Introjected, and External), and Amotivation.
There were four items in each subscale with a total of
28 items. The stem question for all items was “Why do
you practice your sport”. The participants responded on
a 7-point subscale ranging from 1 (does not correspond at
all) to 7 (corresponds exactly). Example items include “…
Because it allows me to be well regarded by people that
I know (Extrinsic Motivation), “… For the pleasure I
feel while improving some of my weak points (Intrinsic
Motivation)”, and “It is not clear to me anymore; I
don’t really think my place is in sport (Amotivation)”.
The reliability and validity evidences of the SMS for
Turkish sample were obtained in a study carried out by
Kazak [26] IM to Know and IM to Accomplishment
subscales combined in one factor in the Turkish version
of the scale. The alpha coefficients for the present sam-
ple ranged from 0.55 (IM to Experience Stimulation)
to 0.84 (To Know/Accomplishment).
Pro-Comp Infinity Biofeedback Device
The Pro-Comp Infiniti is a new 8 channel, multi-modal-
ity encoder (Figure 1) that has all the power and flex-
ibility you need for real-time, computerized biofeed-
back and data acquisition in any clinical setting. The
first two sensor channels provide ultimate signal fidel-
ity (2048 samples per second) for viewing RAW EEG,
EMG and EKG signals. The remaining six channels (256
samples/sec) can be used with any combination of sen-
sors (Figure 2), including EEG, EKG, RMS EMG, skin
conductance, heart rate, blood volume pulse, respira-
tion, goniometry, force, and voltage input. Pro-Comp
Infiniti™ offers internal, user-activated calibration to
ensure that you can always obtain the highest quali-
ty signal, without the costly downtime associated with
factory re-calibration. In short, the Pro-Comp Infiniti
covers the full range of objective physiological signals
used in clinical observation and biofeedback. Housed
in an ergonomically designed case and requiring only
a USB port, ProComp Infiniti can be used with any
IBM-compatible laptop or desktop PC. What’s more,
Pro-Comp Infiniti can capture data in real time by con-
necting directly to the PC via fiber-optic cable, or it can
store data on a Compact Flash memory card for upload-
ing later to the PC. ProComp Infiniti comes complete
with: 14 bit resolution, eight-channel Pro-Comp Infiniti
encoder unit. TT-USB interface unit. Fiber-optic cables
(1’and 15’). Four alkaline“AA”batteries. Sleek fabric stor-
age and carrying case.
Figure 1. Pro-Comp Innity Encoder.
Figure 2. EEG sensors.
Kolayis H – Using EEG biofeedback in karate: The relationship among…
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Data collection
The questionnaires were collected form participants before
daily training. Athletes, who received standardized verbal
instructions, were assisted by the researcher. They were en-
couraged to answer honestly and were assured that their
responses were confidential. The brain waves were mea-
sured in a dressing room by researcher. EEG biofeedback
involves the measurement of brainwave activity. EEG ac-
tivity was recorded at the scalp. Participation was volun-
tary, and relevant permissions were obtained from athletes.
Data analysis
In this study, descriptive statistical techniques and in-
dependent simple t test were used. The simple correla-
tions among anxiety, motivation, and brain waves were
tested by Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The
data were analyzed using SPSS statistical program. An
Alpha level of.05 was used all statistical tests.
results
Significant difference between education levels was ob-
served for the values of somatic anxiety and theta wave
(p<0.05), there was no significant difference in trait anx-
iety, cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, self-confidence,
intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotiva-
tion (p>0.5) (Table 1).
A significant difference between males and females
was not observed for the values of trait anxiety, cog-
nitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, self-confidence, intrin-
sic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation
(p>0.05) (Table 2).
Pearson’s correlation test revealed that there was only
a significant positive correlation between the values of
age and theta wave (r: 0.654, p<0.05), whereas, there
was no significant correlation between others variables
(p>0.05) (Table 3).
discussion
The present study examined the comparison of anxiety,
motivation and brain waves according to gender and edu-
cation levels. In addition, the study also examined the re-
lationship among anxiety, motivation and brain waves in
karateists. First hypothesis; anxiety, motivation and brain
waves difference were dependent on kareteists’ education
Variables Education level N Mean SD p
Cognitive anxiety
University 21 21.384 5.04
0.965
high school 40 21.33 4.54
Somatic anxiety
University 21 18.05 4.07
0.049*
high school 40 16.00 3.84
Self condence
University 21 26.76 6.09
0.994
high school 40 26.75 5.49
Trait anxiety
University 21 45.81 8.17
0.542
high school 40 46.93 5.89
Theta wave (µv)
University 21 19.26 5.65
0.08
high school 40 22.73 9.77
Alfa wave (µv)
University 21 20.99 9.54
0.409
high school 40 22.92 8.09
Beta wave (µv)
University 21 6.07 1.69
0.001*
high school 40 8.35 3.45
Intrinsic motivation
University 21 4.13 1.23
0.079
high school 40 4.75 1.39
Extrinsic motivation
University 21 4.29 1.15
0.883
high school 40 4.25 1.14
Amotivation
University 21 3.55 0.98
0.293
high school 40 3.91 1.38
Table 1. The dierence between education levels according to anxiety, motivation and brain waves.
*p<0.05.
Self-confidence – is the
expected probability that a
person will achieve a goal in
a certain situation.
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level. Results of the present investigation indicated that
any difference was not found in anxiety, motivation and
brain waves between high school and university level ex-
cept somatic anxiety and beta wave (Table 1). According
to Tenenbaum et al. [14] research in sport not to mention
relationship psychology and education but Kolayiş & Sari
[23] supported the findings of this research. The differ-
ence of somatic anxiety between high school and univer-
sity could be interpreted as that athletes with university
degree feel the pressure over them to accomplish certain
things due to the expectations from significant others. This
could be the reason of why athletes with university degree
reported significantly higher somatic anxiety. Another re-
sult of this study showed that there was a significant dif-
ference of beta brain-wave between education levels. In
the current study, athletes with university degree reported
significantly higher beta brain-wave. Higher beta brain-
waves were activated by listening, thinking, solving ana-
lytical problems, making a decision. If it is thought that
people with university level have these cognitive process-
es, the present study supported this information.
Second hypothesis was that there would be a signifi-
cant difference of anxiety, motivation and brain waves
Variables Gender N Mean SD p
Cognitive anxiety
Male 37 21.49 4.89
0.771
Female 24 21.12 4.43
Somatic anxiety
Male 37 16.32 3.91
0.361
female 24 17.29 4.15
Self condence
Male 37 27.41 5.12
0.268
female 24 25.75 6.38
Trait anxiety
Male 37 47.51 5.98
0.162
female 24 45.04 7.60
theta wave (µv)
Male 37 21.35 9.54
0.845
female 24 21.80 7.37
alfa wave (µv)
Male 37 22.06 8.65
0.821
female 24 22.57 8.67
beta wave (µv)
Male 37 7.06 2.79
0.140
female 24 8.28 3.54
Intrinsic motivation
Male 37 4.62 1.32
0.565
female 24 4.41 1.44
Extrinsic motivation
Male 37 4.33 1.21
0.566
female 24 4.16 1.02
Amotivation
Male 37 3.85 1.23
0.638
female 24 3.69 1.34
Table 2. The dierence between genders according to anxiety, motivation and brain waves.
Age
Training
age
Cognitive Somatic
Self
condence
State Trait Intrinsic Extrinsic
Amoti -
vation
anxiety anxiety motivation
Theta wave
r 0.058 –0.024 –0.18 –0.133 0.019 –0.16 –0.15 –0.03 0.09 –0.09
p 0.654* 0.857 0.175 0.308 0.884 0.208 0.259 0.798 0.49 0.483
Alfa wave
r –0.06 0.026 0.082 0.09 –0.102 –0.13 –0.19 –0.09 0.021 –0.27
p 0.675 0.843 0.528 0.491 0.433 0.331 0.149 0.469 0.87 0.036
Beta wave
r –0.15 –0.163 –0.2 –0.153 –0.02 –0.1 –0.13 0.013 –0.13 –0.05
p 0.256 0.209 0.126 0.24 0.879 0.443 0.309 0.923 0.335 0.726
Table 3. The correlation among anxiety, age, training age, motivation and brain waves.
Kolayis H – Using EEG biofeedback in karate: The relationship among…
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between males and females. Previous literature support-
ed this result and reported that there was not a signif-
icant difference between males and females according
to state anxiety, cognitive anxiety, and somatic anxiety
points [24]. However, result of some of previous studies
[25,27–30] contrasted with present results.
The last hypothesis was there would be a significant
correlation among age, training age, anxiety, motiva-
tion and brain-waves. But, according to the results of
the study there was only positive significant correlation
between age and theta wave. Theta brain waves are de-
fined as deep meditation, deep inward thought. Theta
brain waves are associated with life-like imagination,
high state of mental concentration, a magical mind, in-
ternal pictures/visualization, intuition, inner guidance,
access to unconscious material and dreaming.
conclusions
Combat sports requires optimal levels of anxiety, moti-
vation and self confidence. Combat situations in judo,
karate, taekwondo, boxing may change within extremely
short period of time: accordingly, emotional states dur-
ing combat matches are subject to extreme fluctuations.
It is often difficult for the competing athlete to attack
and to defend at the same time. Psychological prepara-
tion for combat sport should therefore be derived from
making decisions under time pressure, and being flexi-
ble in tactical movements [31]. EEG biofeedback pro-
cedure is employed for reducing anxiety and increas-
ing motivation and self confidence. The present study
helps to arrange these psychological patterns for ath-
letes and coaches.
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... El karate competitivo es un deporte que ha ido creciendo a nivel profesional con el pasar de los años y más en la modalidad de Kumite o combate, y dado que es un deporte olímpico, los investigadores priorizan estudios diversos para optimizar el rendimiento individual en un menor tiempo posible, 1-3 como es el caso de componentes de la preparación relacionados con la medicina 4 y la psicología. 5 Para el caso de la preparación psicológica del deportista, la ansiedad juega un papel primordial [6][7][8] como parte sustancial del perfil de exigencias del karate-do competitivo. 9 Según Martínez JF y García ML 10 la ansiedad es un estado emocional desagradable, caracterizado por aprensión y nerviosidad, inducido por la percepción de un peligro real o potencial que amenaza la seguridad o defensa de una actividad. ...
... 34 Por último, en los resultados de autoconfianza-autoestima existe un desequilibrio en deportistas novatos con un (49,12 %), en deportistas amateur un (49,20 %) y en deportistas de alto rendimiento existe un numero mayoritario de (56,24), demostrando que a comparación de los otros grupos los de alto rendimiento superan los niveles base dado la impulsividad característica de este estrato social; por lo cual al aplicar la teoría de Meichenbaum se pudiera disminuir la ansiedad cognitiva al elevar la autoestima, 12 desmintiendo para el caso de estudio que a través de la ansiedad existe una autoestima baja, tanto es así que deportistas de este nivel piensan que no podrán lograr sus objetivos por factores personales y externos; por lo tanto, se deduce que el nivel de ansiedad está basado principalmente en la ansiedad cognitiva, y de ella depende la autoestima y la ansiedad somática o fisiológica que en este punto sería algo mucho más secundario o controlable en cierta magnitud. 5 En ese sentido, una comparación entre los tres grupos independientes estudiados para determinar la existencia o no de diferencias significativas en términos de ansiedad cognitiva, concluyó la existencia de una significación asintótica diferente (p= 0,008) entre los grupos estudiados según estableció la Prueba de Kruskal-Wallis, obteniendo un mayor rango promedio el grupo de novatos (12,5), seguido del grupo de alto rendimiento (7,7) y el amateur (3,7) respectivamente. Por lo que, las variables que sustentan los niveles de ansiedad influyen de distintas maneras en las muestras estudiadas, 17 lo cual implicaría diferentes acciones de intervención. ...
... 34 Por último, en los resultados de autoconfianza-autoestima existe un desequilibrio en deportistas novatos con un (49,12 %), en deportistas amateur un (49,20 %) y en deportistas de alto rendimiento existe un numero mayoritario de (56,24), demostrando que a comparación de los otros grupos los de alto rendimiento superan los niveles base dado la impulsividad característica de este estrato social; por lo cual al aplicar la teoría de Meichenbaum se pudiera disminuir la ansiedad cognitiva al elevar la autoestima, 12 desmintiendo para el caso de estudio que a través de la ansiedad existe una autoestima baja, tanto es así que deportistas de este nivel piensan que no podrán lograr sus objetivos por factores personales y externos; por lo tanto, se deduce que el nivel de ansiedad está basado principalmente en la ansiedad cognitiva, y de ella depende la autoestima y la ansiedad somática o fisiológica que en este punto sería algo mucho más secundario o controlable en cierta magnitud. 5 En ese sentido, una comparación entre los tres grupos independientes estudiados para determinar la existencia o no de diferencias significativas en términos de ansiedad cognitiva, concluyó la existencia de una significación asintótica diferente (p= 0,008) entre los grupos estudiados según estableció la Prueba de Kruskal-Wallis, obteniendo un mayor rango promedio el grupo de novatos (12,5), seguido del grupo de alto rendimiento (7,7) y el amateur (3,7) respectivamente. Por lo que, las variables que sustentan los niveles de ansiedad influyen de distintas maneras en las muestras estudiadas, 17 lo cual implicaría diferentes acciones de intervención. ...
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... El Karate competitivo es un deporte que ha ido creciendo a nivel profesional con el pasar de los años y más en la modalidad de Kumite o combate, y dado que es un deporte olímpico, los investigadores priorizan estudios diversos para optimizar el rendimiento individual en un menor tiempo posible (1,2,3), como es el caso de componentes de la preparación relacionados con la medicina (4) y la psicología (5). ...
... Por otro lado, la ansiedad somática representa un nivel muy elevado en novatos con un (45,54%), amateur un (43,56%) y de alto rendimiento (38,48%), demostrándose que a nivel fisiológico estos últimos deportistas poseen niveles más bajos; por tanto tienen mejores condiciones físicas y también de orden motriz (34). Por último, en los resultados de autoconfianza-autoestima existe un desequilibrio en deportistas novatos con un (49,12%), en deportistas amateur un (49,20%) y en deportistas de alto rendimiento existe un numero mayoritario de (56,24), demostrando que a comparación de los otros grupos los de alto rendimiento superan los niveles base dado la impulsividad característica de este estrato social; por lo cual al aplicar la teoría de Meichenbaum se pudiera disminuir la ansiedad cognitiva al elevar la autoestima (12), desmintiendo para el caso de estudio que a través de la ansiedad existe una autoestima baja, tanto es así que deportistas de este nivel piensan que no podrán lograr sus objetivos por factores personales y externos; por lo tanto, se deduce que el nivel de ansiedad está basado principalmente en la ansiedad cognitiva, y de ella depende la autoestima y la ansiedad somática o fisiológica que en este punto sería algo mucho más secundario o controlable en cierta magnitud (5). En ese sentido, una comparación entre los tres grupos independientes estudiados para determinar la existencia o no de diferencias significativas en términos de ansiedad cognitiva, concluyó la existencia de una significación asintótica diferente (p=0,008) entre los grupos estudiados según estableció la Prueba de Kruskal-Wallis, obteniendo un mayor rango promedio el grupo de novatos (12,5), seguido del grupo de alto rendimiento (7,7) y el amateur (3,7) respectivamente. ...
... Por último, en los resultados de autoconfianza-autoestima existe un desequilibrio en deportistas novatos con un (49,12%), en deportistas amateur un (49,20%) y en deportistas de alto rendimiento existe un numero mayoritario de (56,24), demostrando que a comparación de los otros grupos los de alto rendimiento superan los niveles base dado la impulsividad característica de este estrato social; por lo cual al aplicar la teoría de Meichenbaum se pudiera disminuir la ansiedad cognitiva al elevar la autoestima (12), desmintiendo para el caso de estudio que a través de la ansiedad existe una autoestima baja, tanto es así que deportistas de este nivel piensan que no podrán lograr sus objetivos por factores personales y externos; por lo tanto, se deduce que el nivel de ansiedad está basado principalmente en la ansiedad cognitiva, y de ella depende la autoestima y la ansiedad somática o fisiológica que en este punto sería algo mucho más secundario o controlable en cierta magnitud (5). En ese sentido, una comparación entre los tres grupos independientes estudiados para determinar la existencia o no de diferencias significativas en términos de ansiedad cognitiva, concluyó la existencia de una significación asintótica diferente (p=0,008) entre los grupos estudiados según estableció la Prueba de Kruskal-Wallis, obteniendo un mayor rango promedio el grupo de novatos (12,5), seguido del grupo de alto rendimiento (7,7) y el amateur (3,7) respectivamente. Por lo que, las variables que sustentan los niveles de ansiedad influyen de distinta maneras en las muestras estudiadas (17), lo cual implicaría diferentes acciones de intervención. ...
Ansiedad precompetitiva en karatecas de alto rendimiento, amateur y novatos
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2017
Introducción: La ansiedad es un estado mental que implica inquietud, excitación e inseguridad, variando sus niveles en dependencia de diversos factores que deben ser estudiados para la toma de decisiones de intervención. Objetivo: El estudio tiene por objetivo determinar los niveles de ansiedad precompetitiva en karatecas de alto rendimiento, amateur y novatos. Métodos: Se estudian a tres grupos de 15 karatecas, cinco de alto rendimiento, cinco amateur y cinco novatos, 24 horas antes de la competición. Se aplicó el Test de Ansiedad de Martens (CSAI-2) para determinar los niveles de ansiedad cognitiva, somática y autoconfianza. Resultados: La prueba de Kruskal-Wallis determinó diferencias significativas en la ansiedad cognitiva (p=0,008) entre los grupos estudiados, y no determinó diferencias significativas en la ansiedad somática (p=0,887) y en la autoconfianza (p=0,650), aunque si existieron diferencias en los grupos estudiados en términos de rangos promedios. Conclusiones: Los deportistas novatos presentaron un elevado nivel de ansiedad antes de la competición, seguidas por los karatecas de alto rendimiento y los amateur respectivamente.
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... Self-confidence -is the expected probability that a person will achieve a goal in a certain situation [57]. ...
Effect of outdoor recreation activity on mental toughness of taekwondo athletes in competition period
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2023
Background & Study Aim: Taekwondo mixes mental and physical training into a helpful leisure activity. The research focusing on the impact of taekwondo on psychological health, although limited, suggests it is associated with several positive outcomes. These include increased cognitive and affective self-regulation and prosocial behaviour in children and reduced aggressive behaviour in the youth and teenager population. The aim of this study is knowledge about the effect of outdoor recreation activity (walking in nature) on mental toughness components (confidence, control, and constancy) of taekwondo athletes during the competition period. Material & Methods: The participants of this study were 12 Latvian taekwondo athletes, including males (n = 6) and females (n = 6), aged 17-23. The experiment was held four weeks before the International Sweden Taekwondo Competition (2022). The participants had twelve sessions, including 40 minutes of outdoor recreation (walking in nature), in zones 1 and 2 (HR 101-141 bpm). The Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) measured the mental toughness components (confidence, constancy, and control). The data was analyzed using the mean, standard deviations, the Shapiro-Wilk test, and paired sample t-test. Results: The outdoor recreation activity (walking in nature) did not significantly affect the component of mental toughness (confidence t (11) = 0.451 as the p-value 0.837 >0.05, for constancy t (11) = −0.233; as the p-value 0.820 >0.05 and control t (11) = 0.117; as the p-value 0.909 >0.05) at the 5% level. Conclusions: Gender disparities exist in the mental toughness components of confidence, constancy, and control among Latvian taekwondo athletes. In particular, male athletes revealed higher average scores in confidence and constancy, with control scores remaining consistent across both male and female athletes. Furthermore, male athletes showed less variability in their confidence and constancy scores when compared to their female counterparts.
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... Furthermore, during the fight, athletes must be fully concentrated and aware of their opponent's moves, which can lead to a flurry of thoughts and confusion [42]. Similar conclusions have been observed in studies conducted among karate athletes [43]. However, in this study, the athletes did not fight. ...
Preliminary Development of a Brainwave Model for K1 Kickboxers Using Quantitative Electroencephalography (QEEG) with Open Eyes
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2023
  • INT J MOL SCI
Citation: Rydzik, Ł.; Ambroży, T.; Pałka, T.; Wąsacz, W.; Spieszny, M.; Perliński, J.; Król, P.; Kopańska, M. Preliminary Development of a Brainwave Model for K1 Kickboxers Using Quantitative Electroencephalography (QEEG) with Open Eyes. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 8882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijms24108882 Academic Editor: Hiroki Toyoda Abstract: K1 kickboxing fighting is characterised by high injury rates due to the low restrictions of fighting rules. In recent years, much attention has been paid to research on changes in brain function among athletes, including those in combat sports. One of the tools that are likely to help diagnose and assess brain function is quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG). Therefore, the aim of the present study was an attempt to develop a brainwave model using quantitative electroen-cephalography in competitive K1 kickboxers. A total of thirty-six male individuals were purposefully selected and then comparatively divided into two groups. The first group consisted of specialised K1 kickboxing athletes exhibiting a high level of sports performance (experimental group, n = 18, mean age: 29.83 ± 3.43), while the second group comprised healthy individuals not training competitively (control group, n = 18, mean age: 26.72 ± 1.77). Body composition assessment was performed in all participants before the main measurement process. Measurements were taken for kickboxers during the de-training period, after the sports competition phase. Quantitative electroencephalography of Delta, Theta, Alpha, sensimotor rhytm (SMR), Beta1 and Beta2 waves was performed using electrodes placed on nine measurement points (frontal: FzF3F4, central: CzC3C4, and parietal: PzP3P4) with open eyes. In the course of the analyses, it was found that the level of brain activity among the study population significantly differentiated the K1 formula competitors compared with the reference standards and the control group in selected measurement areas. For kickboxers, all results of the Delta amplitude activity in the area of the frontal lobe were significantly above the normative values for this wave. The highest value was recorded for the average value of the F3 electrode (left frontal lobe), exceeding the norm by 95.65%, for F4 by 74.45% and Fz by 50.6%, respectively. In addition, the Alpha wave standard value for the F4 electrode was exceeded by 14.6%. Normative values were found for the remaining wave amplitudes. Statistically significant differentiation of results, with a strong effect (d = 1.52-8.41), was shown for the activity of Delta waves of the frontal area and the central part of the parietal area (Fz,F3,F4,Cz-p < 0.001), Theta for the frontal area as well as the central and left parietal lobes (Fz,F3,F4-p < 0.001, Cz-p = 0.001, C3-p = 0.018; d = 1.05-3.18), Alpha for the frontal, parietal and occipital areas (for: Fz,F3-p < 0.001, F4-p = 0.036, Cz-p < 0.001, C3-p = 0.001, C4-p = 0.025, Pz-p = 0.010, P3-p < 0.001, P4-p = 0.038; d = 0.90-1.66), SMR for the central parietal and left occipital lobes (Cz-p = 0.043; d = 0.69, P3-p < 0.001; d = 1.62), Beta for the frontal area, occipital and central lobes and left parietal segment (Fz,F3-p < 0.001, F4-p = 0.008, Cz, C3, Pz, P3,P4-p < 0.001; d = 1.27-2.85) and Beta 2 for all measurement areas (Fz, F3, F4, Cz, C3, C4, Pz, P3, P4-p < 0.001; d = 1.90-3.35) among the study groups. Significantly higher results were shown in the kickboxer group compared to the control. In addition to problems with concentration or over-stimulation of neural structures, high Delta waves, with elevated Alpha, Theta and Beta 2 waves, can cause disorders in the limbic system and problems in the cerebral cortex.
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... The aforementioned developments in EEG and computational neuroscience make it a good choice for scientific and interdisciplinary studies. Thus, EEG has been used not only in clinical and psychiatric [15][16][17] and psychological and neuroscientific studies [18][19][20][21][22][23], but also in other fields, such as brain-computer interface (BCI) [24,25], neuromarketing [26][27][28][29], gaming [30][31][32][33], neuro-ergonomics [34][35][36][37][38][39], neuroaesthetics [40,41], transportation [42][43][44][45][46][47], and athlete performance evaluation [48,49]. In the building industry, both neuro-architecture and neuro-urbanism [50][51][52][53][54] use EEG and mobile EEG in their studies to enhance the built environment features. ...
Applications of electroencephalography in construction
Article
  • Jan 2022
  • AUTOMAT CONSTR
A wearable electroencephalogram (EEG) is considered a means for investigating psychophysiological conditions of individuals in the workplace in order to ameliorate occupational health and safety. Following other sectors, construction scholars have adopted this technology over the past decade to strengthen evidence-based practices to improve the wellbeing of workers. This study presents the state-of-the-art hardware, algorithms, and applications of EEG as a platform that assists in dealing with the risk-prone and complex nature of construction tasks. After summarizing the background of EEG and its research paradigms in different sectors, a comprehensive review of EEG-enabled construction research is provided. First, through a macro-scale review aided by bibliometric analysis a big picture of the research streams is plotted. Second, a micro-scale review is conducted to spot the gaps in the literature. The identified gaps are used to classify the future research directions into theoretical, application, and methodological developments.
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... En los deportes de combate, la motivación está ligada a diversos factores interrelacionados, que incluyen entre otros la ira, la percepción del bienestar psicológico, la personalidad y el estado de ánimo, vinculados normalmente con los distintos tipos de motivación; factores presentes en diversas fuentes primarias de investigación (Kolayis, 2012). ...
Motivación de los boxeadores cubanos de élite: un indicador de rendimiento
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2020
The present research characterizes the motivation in an intentional sample of 20 elite Cuban boxers, 10 outstanding and 10 not outstanding. This study aims to determine the development of motivation qualities in elite Cuban boxers. As an empirical method, the Motivational Qualities Questionnaire is used to evaluate thirteen motivation variables. The statistical analysis of the data was carried out with the SPSS, version 21.0, as a measure of association between the level of the athlete and the score reached in the motivational qualities, the Pearson Chi Square test was used. Although levels of statistical significance are expressed in only one quality, a careful review of the data reports the perceived motivational superiority of the outstanding group of boxers over the non-outstanding group. As part of the preliminary results, the presence of a study sample with remarkable motivational potential is considered.
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... In combat sports, competitive anxiety has been studied as a predictor of the fight outcome [Papacosta et al. 2016;Radochonski et al. 2011] as well as its relationship with stress biomarkers [Capranica et al. 2017;Moreira et al. 2012], alterations in the autonomous nervous system [Morales et al., 2012] or brain electrical activity [Kolayis 2012]. In a classical study, Terry and Slade [1995] found that karate athletes that won their first contest showed lower cognitive and somatic anxiety and higher self-confidence than the athletes that lost their fights. ...
Comparison of competitive anxiety and self-confidence among Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu skill levels: a cross-sectional in-event study
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2020
Background: Competitive anxiety and self-confidence can be influenced by a number of factors, including skill levels and changes during sporting events. However, changes in-event are unclear. Problem and aim: We aimed to compare in-event competitive anxiety and self-confidence among Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) athletes with different belt colors and compare it between the first and the second combat. One-hundred thirteen BJJ male athletes (26.6 ± 5.36 years) competing in the Northeastern Open Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Championship 2017 were included. Methods: They responded to the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2R) after weighing and 15 min before the first fight and those who won responded again before the second combat. Cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence domains were analyzed. Null-hypothesis test and magnitude-based inference analysis were performed. Results: The athletes in the black belt group were older and more experienced (p<0.05). There was no difference between belt colors groups in cognitive and somatic anxiety, and self-confidence (p>0.05). However, after winning there was a decrease in cognitive and somatic anxiety only in the blue, purple and brown belt groups, while only the black belt group increased self-confidence. Conclusions: We conclude that skill levels did not influence competitive anxiety and self-confidence in combat sports, but it did influence how it changed during a competition.
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Türkiye’de Sporda Motivasyon Araştırmaları: Sistematik Derleme*Sport Motivation Research in Turkey: A Systematic Review
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2021
Bu sistematik derlemenin amacı, Türkiye’de spor motivasyonu ile ilgili araştırmaların güncel durumunu ve özelliklerini inceleyerek bu konuda kapsamlı bilgi sunmaktır. Sistematik derlemeler ve meta-analizler için tercih edilen raporlama öğeleri (PRISMA) rehberi kullanılarak Dergi Park, TR dizin ve Ulusal Tez Merkezi veri tabanlarında, “motivasyon* ve spor*”, “güdülenme* ve spor*” ve “spora katılım*” anahtar kelimeleri ile taramalar gerçekleştirilmiştir. Ulaşılan toplam 1466 araştırma içinden dâhil etme kriterlerini karşılayan 203 tanesi değerlendirmeye alınmıştır. Analizler Excel programında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmalar belli özellikleri açısından kategorize edilerek yüzde ve frekansları incelenmiştir. Kalite değerlendirmesi için The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool kullanılmıştır. Bulgulara göre; en çok kullanılan motivasyon yaklaşımları sırasıyla başarı motivasyonu, spora katılım motivasyonu ve Hür İrade Kuramı’dır. Türkçe araştırmaların İngilizce yayımlanan araştırmalara göre; makalelerin ise tezlere göre daha fazla sayıda olduğu belirlenmiştir. Araştırmaların %96,55’i nicel yöntemi kullanırken %3,45 oranındaki az sayıda araştırma ise nitel ve karma yöntemi kullanmıştır. Öte yandan, günümüze yaklaştıkça nitel ve karma yöntem araştırmalar artmaktadır. Araştırmaların büyük bir kısmında (%70,94) örneklem grubu karma şekilde kadın ve erkeklerden oluşmuştur. Ayrıca, motivasyon konusu engelli sporcu, e-spor oyuncusu ve ekstrem sporcu gibi nispeten daha özel gruplarda da ele alınmıştır. En çok yayın yapılan üç dergi sırasıyla; Spormetre, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Dergisi ve Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi’dir. Spor motivasyonu konusundaki araştırmalarda en sık kullanılan ölçme araçları ise sırası ile Sporda Güdülenme Ölçeği, Spora Katılım Güdüsü Ölçeği, Spora Özgü Başarı Motivasyon Ölçeği ve Sporda Görev ve Ego Yönelimi Ölçeği’dir. Son olarak, rapor edilmesi gereken önemli bilgileri eksik olan ve ölçme araçlarının hatalı kullanıldığı araştırmalar bulunmaktadır. * This systematic review aims to evaluate the current situation and the characteristics of sports motivation research in Turkey and to provide comprehensive information. Using the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, the databases of Dergi Park, TR index and the National Thesis Center were searched by the keywords “motivation* and sport*”, “participation in sports.” A total of 203 researches out of 1466 were evaluated. The analyses were carried out in Microsoft Excel software. The studies were categorized according their characteristics and the frequencies along with the percentages of these categories were evaluated. Study quality was assessed by The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. The most used motivational approaches were sport participation motivation, achievement motivation and Self-determination Theory approach. More Turkish studies compared to English ones and more articles compared to thesis were determined. 96.55% of the studies adopted the quantitative method, while the remaining few studies (%3,45) adopted the qualitative or mixed method. On the other hand, it was seen that qualitative and mixed method researches have increased as we approach today. In 70.94% of the studies, women and men participants constitute the sample groups together. In addition, sport motivation has been researched in relatively special groups such as disabled athletes, e-sports players and extreme athletes. Top three scientific journals in which sport motivation researches are published were Spormetre, Hacettepe Journal of Sport Sciences and International Journal of Human Sciences. The most used measurement tools were Sport Motivation Scale, Participation Motivation Questionnaire, Sport-Specific Achievement Motivation Scale and Task and Ego Orientation in Sports Questionnaire. Finally, there are some researches with incomplete information along with incorrect use of the measurement tools.
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Motivation and elite performance: An exploratory investigation with Bulgarian athletes
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1996
  • INT J SPORT PSYCHOL
The goal of the present investigation was to proceed to a multidimensional analysis of sport motivation in relation with elite performance and gender. The sample was made up of 98 Bulgarian top athletes (35 females and 63 males). Participants' athletic performances in national and international events over the last two years was documented. Participants also completed the Bulgarian version of the Sport Motivation Scale (Brière, Vallerand, Blais, & Pelletier, in press; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Brière, & Blais, 1995). The SAIS, which is based on the tenets of Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991), assesses: intrinsic motivation, self-determined extrinsic motivation, non-self-determined extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Results indicated that, in comparison with less successful athletes, title and medal holders displayed higher levels of non-self-determined extrinsic motivation and higher levels of amotivation. With respect to gender, the motivation of female athletes was more strongly characterized by intrinsic motivation. Results are dicussed in light of Self-Determination Theory and the cultural context which prevailed in Bulgaria at the time of the investigation. It is concluded that these results highlight the role of motivation in elite sport performance.
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Anxiety, self-esteem and competition ranking of judokas
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2011
The aim of this study was anxiety, self-esteem, self-confidence levels and competition ranking of Turkish judokas, the relationship of these variables with competition ranking. This study was conducted in Senior Men Turkish Judo Championship with 126 judokas. CSAI-2 (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory), STAI (State Trait Anxiety Inventory), Cooper Smith Self-esteem Inventory were used for data collection. The data was analysed in SPSS 13.0 package program. t-test results showed that there was not a significant difference between males and females according to their state anxiety, cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, self-confidence and self-esteem points. Moreover, there was a correlation between cognitive anxiety and state anxiety, somatic anxiety and state anxiety and somatic anxiety and cognitive anxiety. Results also showed that there was a negative significant correlation between the variables of self-confidence and state anxiety, self- confidence and cognitive anxiety, self-confidence and somatic anxiety. Competition ranking was not found to be correlation with any of the variables excluding education level. Self-esteem and anxiety points did not significantly differ according to gender. It was found that educational level significantly correlated with competition ranking and state-anxiety.
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Toward a New Measure of Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, and Amotivation in Sports: The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS)
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 1995
UniversitC du QuCbec B MontrCal A new measure of motivation toward sport has been developed in French, namely the Echelle de Motivation vis-h-vis les Sports. Two studies were conducted to translate and validate this new measure in English. The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) consists of seven subscales that measure three types of Intrinsic Motivation (IM; IM to Know, IM to Accomplish Things, and IM to Experience Stimulation), three forms of regulation for Extrinsic Motivation (Identified, Introjected, and External), and Amotivation. The first study con-firmed the factor structure of the scale and revealed a satisfactory level of internal consistency. Correlations among the subscales revealed a simplex pattern confirming the self-determination continuum and the construct valid-ity of the scale. Gender differences were similar to those obtained with the French-Canadian version. The more self-determined forms of motivation were associated with more positive responses on related consequences. In a second study, the SMS was administered on two occasions and revealed adequate test-retest reliability.
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Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior
Book
  • Jan 1985
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definition and New Directions
Article
  • Feb 2000
  • CONTEMP EDUC PSYCHOL
Intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation have been widely studied, and the distinction between them has shed important light on both developmental and educational practices. In this review we revisit the classic definitions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in light of contemporary research and theory. Intrinsic motivation remains an important construct, reflecting the natural human propensity to learn and assimilate. However, extrinsic motivation is argued to vary considerably in its relative autonomy and thus can either reflect external control or true self-regulation. The relations of both classes of motives to basic human needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness are discussed.
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At the Intersection of Anxiety, Gender, and Performance
Article
  • Mar 1999
  • J SOC CLIN PSYCHOL
Anxiety may affect performance by influencing either a performer's ability to perform effectively, or an observer's perception of the performer's efficacy, or by some combination of these effects. Performance evaluations may be additionally related to two expectancies about anxiety: (1) anxiety impairs performance, (2) women are more anxious than men. This study explored the effect of anxiety on performance by examining whether: (1) self-perceived anxiety is associated with expert performance evaluations; (2) evaluators' perceptions of performers' anxiety are associated with expert performance evaluations; (3) women and men differ in levels of self-perceived anxiety; (4) evaluators perceive men and women to be differentially anxious. A short-term longitudinal quasi-field study was conducted, examining performances with real-life consequences. Prior to auditioning for an orchestra, musicians filled out several questionnaires; the auditions were evaluated by two conductors. The results suggested that evaluators' perceptions of anxiety were more strongly associated with performance evaluations than were levels of self-perceived anxiety. People perceived as highly anxious received poorer evaluations. Additionally, although men's and women's self-rated levels of anxiety did not differ, evaluators perceived women to be more anxious.
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