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Africa's Emerging Maize Revolution
... The country is known for its maize "success story" among Sub-Saharan Africa including the intensive use of hybrid varieties during the 1960s and 1970s (Smale, Byerlee, & Jayne, 2011;Byerlee & Eicher 1997;Mathenge, Smale, & Olwande 2012). Today, maize is also the most widely-grown staple food of Sub-Saharan Africa (Smale, Byerlee, & Jayne, 2011). ...
... Especially in the 1950s maize research was improved. First hybrids were introduced to Kenya´s seed system in 1964 such as the H611, one of the first maize hybrids introduced in Kenya and still being used (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997). Systematic Maize Research focusing on varieties which are drought prone and resist nitrogen stresses took place (Bellon et al. 2002). ...
... Between 1963 and 1974 large-scale farmers rapidly adopted new hybrids which were the major factor for growing maize yields within this period. In addition to that also the expansion of roads and seed distribution networks in the late 1960s, early 1970s enabled yield increase (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997). This slight increase can be identified in Figure IV.1. ...
Land degradation (LD) is a global problem affecting and being affected by socio-ecological systems. In this thesis the interlinkages of LD, marginality and land use cover change (LUCC) in Kenya based on remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) are analyzed. By combining biophysical and socio-economic data we obtain a deeper understanding of internal dynamics and their relationship to processes of decreasing productivity within a coupled Human-Environment System (HES). The simultaneous use of quantitative and qualitative methods supports insights in different disciplines.
LD stands for the decrease of soil fertility and, hence, land productivity. Marginality is defined as the root cause of poverty but goes beyond the solely economic perspective of poverty measurement. LUCC represents another interdisciplinary concept where LC refers to the land surface and its biophysical determinants which can be detected with remote sensing while land use (LU) includes an active component referring to activities on land by human impact.
The study was conducted on two different scales: the national scale, the country Kenya, and a local scale focusing on western Kenya. With census data and household survey information the socio-economic perspective was presented while biophysical assessment on LD and LUCC was conducted via remote sensing imagery. Time series analysis of vegetation information derived from remotely sensed imagery – NDVI and EVI – lead to the analysis of trends of land productivity from 2001 to 2011. In the national study, based on five indicator groups, different dimensions of marginality such as health, education, access to infrastructure and information but also economy could be analyzed. A set of eight indicators was detected that explains decreasing productivity trends with the use of exploratory regression and ordinary least square regression (OLS) on the national scale. Explaining decreasing productivity trends on the local level using household information for 42 villages and their respective acting scopes made obvious that also qualitative information is needed to validate and interpret results correctly. Trigger events such as the post-election violence in 2007 and 2008, and the world economy crisis in 2008 had a significant impact on decreasing productivity trends in 2009 in the local study area.
The national and the local study both showed that variables explaining decreasing and stable productivity trends are in close relationship while increasing productivity is influenced by a different set of variables. Therefore, with regard to the concept of land degradation neutrality (LDN) stable productivity trends need to be taken into account for future research. Identification of biophysical and socio-economic variables influencing productivity trends helps to get a better understanding of coupled HES. The interdisciplinary approach of this study is path leading for the development of food security strategies. Validation of the here presented results on the respective spatial scale can be used to identify areas where a need for action is required to stop ongoing productivity decrease and finally stabilize yields.
... As policymakers continue their urging for the promotion of productive agricultural inputs, it is useful to consider the trajectory of maize hybrids in SSA, given this crop's role as the most popular staple across the region. Studies assessing the rate of return of investment in maize research in SSA have demonstrated that their impact can be high, with Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mali, all experiencing returns over 40 percent over several decades (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997). ...
... This is the case, despite the fact that extension workers are acknowledged to be the major force behind the diffusion of maize. For example, in Kenya, in one of the most successful maize R&D programs, extension agents established 'tens of thousands' of demonstration plots which were critical in farmers' decisions to adopt (Byerlee and Eicher, 1997). Apart from demonstration farms, a common hierarchical approach to extension includes the Training and Visit system, whereby extension agents would thoroughly train a model farmer in particular communities, with the expectation that those farmers would then convey information to others in their communities. ...
... However, without the fundamentals of a reliable seed sector, pathways of exposure, and educational institutions, farmers will be unlikely to have the opportunity to develop an assessment of their expected utility of adopting IGVs. Returns through high yielding adoption will require long-term crop-specific efforts (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997). ...
The international community has successfully developed improved varieties of seeds that yield high returns in the presence of drought, pests, and disease. This effort is in response to the persistent concern of food security, especially in regions that are most vulnerable to climate change. This study uses cross-sectional data from the World Bank Living Standards Measurement Survey to obtain estimates for the adoption of improved groundnut varieties (IGVs) in Uganda as well as gaps in farmer managerial capacity (alternatively known as technical inefficiency). To do so, this study employs an adoption logit model, in conjunction with a stochastic production frontier framework. The analysis indicates that adoption is lower than what has been previously estimated in the literature, and that regional factors play a strong role. Results also show that the use of IGVs is positively correlated with production but that large gaps remain in technical efficiency among groundnut farmers.
... Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important cereal crops for both human consumption and animal feeds across the globe (Ali et al., 2015). In Kenya, it's the staple food with high per capita consumption averaging 125 Kgs per person annually (Byerlee and Eicher, 1997) which provides basic diet to millions of Kenyans. It contributes to more than 25% employment and 20% of the total agricultural production (GoK, 2001;Nyaga, 2018). ...
Maize is a staple food with a high per capita consumption averaging 125 Kgs per person annually in Kenya. However, its low yields associated with climate change, declining cultivable land and reduced soil fertility posing a serious threat to food security. To ensure increased crop yields, apt intercropping systems and management has to be adopted to meet the ever increasing demands. Field experiments were carried out in Kisii and Kisumu counties over two seasons; to determine the effect of intercropping maize with selected agroforestry species on maize yields and Harvest Index (HI). The treatments consisted of; maize no-fertilizer, maize+banana+Caliandra (MBC), maize+banana+ Leucaena (MBL), maize+ banana+ Sesbania (MBS), maize+ banana (MB) and maize+ fertilizer arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Agroforestry species were planted six months before maize both in 2018 Short rains (SR) and 2019 Long Rains (LR). Maize-fertilizer treatment was applied with 35 Kgs P/ha and 85 Kgs N/ha. Maize fertilizer had significantly high grain yields in Kisumu LR (3.98 t/ha) which was statistically similar to MBS (3.72 t/ha). In Kisii, Maize fertilizer in SR (4.62 t/ha) and LR (5.0 t/ha) with Maize No fertilizer (5.0 t/ha) had significantly high yields. Maize fertilizer biomass in Kisii SR was 26.4 t/ha and 15.8 t/ha in LR which was significantly similar to Maize No fertilizer (13.9 t/ha) and MBS (13.8 t/ha). Intercropping systems had a significant effect on maize yields and Harvest Index. Maize fertilizer recommended to obtain higher grain and biomass yields in Kisumu and Kisii.
... Even among economists, there tend to be widely divergent opinions when it comes to how to handle these societal issues most effectively. The first is the problem of poverty, which is explained in Chapter 8, in poor countries, but also urban poverty in rich countries (World Bank 1990, Byerlee and Eicher 1997, Evenson and Gollin 2003, Ravallion and Chen 2004, Banerjee et al. 2015. The second is the problem of environmental pollution and protection, including mass extinction of species, discussed in Chapter 9 (Likens and Bormann 1974, US EPA 1990, Pope et al. 2002, Mendelsohn and Olmstead 2009, Muller and Mendelsohn 2009, Schamalensee and Stavins 2013. ...
... Furthermore, through several interventions, including direct subsidies that reduced fertilizer prices for farmers, governmentfinanced and -managed input credit programs, centralized fertilizer procurement and distribution, and control of output markets. Impressive improvements in maize productivity were demonstrated in Kenya, Zimbabwe, and Zambia during the 1980s (Eicher and Byerlee, 1997). Cereal crop output in Ethiopia has dramatically increased over the past decade (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008.). ...
The study analyzed small-scale farmers' access of inputs subsidy in Borno State, Nigeria. Two-stage sampling procedure was used to select 134 farmers in the study area. Copies of structured questionnaire were used to collect data which were analyzed using frequency count, percentages, and mean score. Results on the socioeconomic characteristics of the farmers showed that 87.32% of them were male and 12.68% were female. Only 10.45% of the farmers did not receive any form of formal education and the predominant system of land ownership in the study area was inheritance which received a score of 52.99%. Also the study showed that 73.13% of the farmers did not receive government subsidized inputs while 26.87% received them. Furthermore, 88.81% of the farmers admitted that their major source of farm inputs was from the market as against 11.19% who admitted their source was from the government. The constraints which were most severe to farming in the study area were, lack of fertilizers (mean score = 3.1), lack of subsidized input (mean score = 3.1), and lack of extension services (mean score = 3.0). The study recommended that government should provide adequate extension services to rural small-scale farmers who can pass relevant information about farm input acquisition and application.
... Hybrid seed of maize and vegetables have fairly well-structured production and marketing systems with private sector participation in SSA and SA. The successful maize seed system, has effectively given smallholder farmers in Africa access to new genetics (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997;Smale & Jayne, 2003). Meanwhile, formal seed systems of legume crops remain inadequately developed despite efforts to emulate success in cereal seed systems. ...
Abstract
There are several hurdles to ensure sustainable seed production and consistent flow of improved legume varieties in sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asia (SA). The unreliable demand, autogamous nature of most of the grain legumes, and slow variety replacement rate by smallholder farmers do not provide strong incentive for private seed companies to invest in legume seed business. Unless a well thought‐out and comprehensive approach to legume seed delivery is developed, current seed short‐ ages will continue, eroding emerging market opportunities. The experiences reported here are collated through a 10‐year partnership project, the Tropical Legumes in SSA and SA. It fostered innovative public–private partnerships in joint testing of innovative market‐led seed systems, skills and knowledge enhancement, de‐risking private sector initiatives that introduced in new approaches and previously overlooked enti‐ ties in technology delivery. As new public and private seed companies, individual seed entrepreneurs and farmer organizations emerged, the existing ones enhanced their capacities. This resulted in significant rise in production, availability and accessibility of various seed grades of newly improved and farmer demanded legume varieties in the target countries.
KEYWORDS decentralized seed production and supply, improved legume variety innovative legume seed systems, multi‐stakeholder platform, sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia, variety promotion
... Zimbabwe's Green Revolution was launched in 1960, five years before India's, and was predicated on high-yielding maize varieties such as SR52 (Southern Rhodesia #52), a world-first, single-cross hybrid which came from twentyeight years of indigenous research (Byerlee and Eicher 1997). It was based on rain-fed maize cultivation, compared to India's irrigated wheat and rice crops. ...
Background African countries face multiple developmental, economic, social and industrial transformation hurdles, especially in the era of sustainable development and sensitivity to environmental damage. As late-comer industrialisers, there is some catching up to do, but they need to navigate complex, international, legal and institutional agreements that early industrialisers did not face. Given the environmental concerns, it is not surprising that the development thrusts encouraged are in agriculture and not in heavy industry. At the same time, many African countries are grappling food security, rural–urban and cross-border migration, and social, economic with industrial transformation challenges (Mkandawire 2001; Bruijn, Van Dijk and Foeken 2001; Diop 2008; Tsikata 2009; Patnaik, Moyo and Shivji 2011; Sall et al. 2011; Cheru and Modi 2013; Hall, Scoones and Tsikata 2015; Cross and Cliffe 2017; Bredeloup 2015; Jha, Chambati and Ossome 2021; Adesina 2021). This special issue brings together a broad range of papers exploring some of the myriad complexities faced by African countries. It focuses on Senegal and Zimbabwe, a western and a southern Africa country. The choice of countries was purposive as the editors had active networks in Zimbabwe and Senegal, and bringing together two...
... Zimbabwe's Green Revolution was launched in 1960, five years before India's, and was predicated on high-yielding maize varieties such as SR52 (Southern Rhodesia #52), a world-first, single-cross hybrid which came from twentyeight years of indigenous research (Byerlee and Eicher 1997). It was based on rain-fed maize cultivation, compared to India's irrigated wheat and rice crops. ...
This article focuses on some of the historical innovation institutional infrastructures in Zimbabwe that supported the genesis of a vibrant maize sector, and analyses institutions for technology, policy, skills, knowledge development and attendant financing mechanisms. We discuss the country’s maize innovation ecosystems, focusing on the technological capabilities in breeding and extension services, the architecture of financial institutions to support agriculture, and bridging institutions that supported technology adoption and innovation diffusion. In the process, we highlight elements of co-evolution, co-specialisation, collaboration and linkages amongst innovation communities for maize over a period spanning the pre- and post-independence eras. Our discussion covers the uneven colonial institutional, technological and financial support availed to white commercial farmers and how the shift in focus of government policy and support post-independence, resulted in the centre of gravity shifting to communal farmers, who now contribute the bulk of maize production. We discuss the critical roles played by Agritex (a technology broker and accelerator) and a state procurement agent (the Grain Marketing Board) as a market creator and signalling tool, as well as how specialised agriculture financing by state and commercial banks supported the rise of maize as a food security crop. Our key argument is that there were focused knowledge and technology flows between government research institutions, the private sector and others, such as the Seed Maize Association, which was involved in seed multiplication and marketing to the white commercial farmers pre-independence. This relationship shifted after independence in order to support small-scale commercial farmers, who were mainly black farmers.
... Northeast China is a main maize production region in China and produces one-third of the national maize yield (SGAC, 2017). Maize plant growth and yield formation are greatly affected by changes in weather conditions (Singh et al., 2010), especially in the rainfed areas (DeGregori et al., 1999). To quantify the impacts of climate change on regional maize yield, it is important to compute the climatic yield variation. ...
China is one of the top maize exporting countries in the world. In China, maize is the most important staple food crop, and Northeast China is one of the main maize-growing regions. Regional maize production in Northeast China is critical for national or even global food security. In order to take preventive measures in combating the potential impacts of climate change on maize yield, it is imperative to evaluate historical climatic maize yield variation at finer scales in Northeast China. Previous scholars have achieved some good results in crop yield projection by using machine learning methods. However, climatic crop yield variation has rarely been addressed by considering the geographical factors (i.e., elevation, latitude, and longitude) of the meteorological stations used. In this study, based on 18 climatic elements during the period of 2003–2016, we compared the performance of three machine leaching methods, including neural network, support vector machine, and random forest, with multiple linear regression in evaluating climatic maize yield variation. Overall, machine learning methods are superior to traditional multilinear regression, particularly the neural network (with an R² of 0.43 and an annual average MAE of 1.22 ton·ha⁻¹). We selected the best machine learning methods and used the Bayesian method to integrate them as a new model. The Bayesian method reduced the evaluation error (i.e., RMSE and MAE) and improved the estimation accuracy. By addressing the uncertainty in the meteorological stations, our newly built model could be extended to other regions for evaluating climatic crop yield variation.
... During the 1970s and 1980s, there were significant improvements in maize productivity in several eastern and southern African countries led by the adoption of improved varieties and supportive government policies (Byerlee and Eicher, 1997). Maize is the dominant crop in this part of Africa, and growth in maize productivity could explain the better-thanaverage agricultural TFP growth observed in eastern and southern Africa during these decades. ...
This book focuses on the 2007-2008 food price crisis and the ensuing financial and economic crisis (both globally and in sub-Saharan Africa), illustrating the problems using country case studies that cover their origins, effects on agriculture and rural poverty, and their underlying factors. The 13 chapters in this volume address several themes, all related to the food and financial crises and their impacts in sub-Saharan Africa. Broadly speaking, the principal themes discussed in this book are the causes and consequences of the dual crises, their impacts in sub-Saharan Africa at both the macro- and micro-levels, and finally, how Africa can address some of the key challenges - primarily related to improving productivity and policy - that may help the continent escape the devastation of such crises in the future.
... Brazil is a major producer with 53 million mega grams produced in 2010 (United States Department of Agriculture, 2010). Maize is the most important crop grown in South Africa, it accounts for about 70% of total human caloric intake (Byerlee and Eicher, 1997). Most maize production is fed by rain. ...
Lianes have gained notoriety as species that suppress and kill desired forest tree species among foresters and silviculturists; a situation that has contributed to their wanton destruction. However, lianes play important ecological roles by contributing significantly to carbon sequestration and forest regeneration. The composition, diversity and structural characteristics of lianes in the Subri River Forest Reserve in Ghana were studied on a 5 ha patch of the forest divided in 50 random 0.1 ha circular subplots each. Eleven species of lianes ≥ 3.2 cm diameter at breast height (dbh, 1.3 m above ground) belonging to 10 taxonomic families were identified. The abundance and diversity of the lianes were low. Relative diversity among the families was low with all but one family being represented by single species. The density, basal area and ecological importance of the species, as determined by the importance value index were low. The results of the study have shown that liane species are rare and less diverse coupled with low structural attributes The need to preserve the lianes in the Subri Forest Reserve is therefore very crucial, for forest biodiversity conservation, which will in turn contribute to climate change mitigation.
... It is the staple food crop for the majority of the population in the continent and reliance on maize is nearly universal for those in southern Africa, where it provides on average 40-50% of the calories consumed by the poor (Smale, Byerlee, & Jayne, 2011). Being a strategic crop in the region, maize has been a subject of political and academic interest for more than half a century, during which time there have been tremendous achievements in maize research in terms of the development of new and better adapted varieties (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997;Smale, 1995;Smale & Jayne, 2003). Despite the success stories around maize, poverty and food insecurity in the maize-based livelihood systems of southern Africa remain deep-rooted. ...
... The practice of land-use intensification through the application of yield-enhancing technologies, such as inorganic fertilizer becomes important (Duflo et al., 2008). However, the rate of fertilizer use is substantially lower in Africa than in Asia and Latin America (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997). The recent higher world fertilizer price is also one major obstacle to fertilizer disadoption in sub-Saharan Africa (Mosier & Syers, 2005). ...
Technological change in agriculture in climate risk exposed developing countries requires for land-use intensification to feed the growing populations. The purpose of this article is to analyze the impact of participation in rural credit program on adoption of yield enhancing technology(inorganic fertilizer) using 1412 farm households surveyed in 2005/06, 2009/10, and 2014/15 cropping seasons from rural Tigrai, northern Ethiopia where smallholder farmers are financially constrained to purchase of improved agricultural technologies. The paper uses a double hurdle correlated random effect models with a control function approach to analyze the causal effect. Results show that controlling for the unobservable heterogeneity and the underlying determinants of fertilizer adoption and credit participation, for an increase of credit size by 1% from its mean, adoption rate of inorganic fertilizer has increased by 2.5% and supports the earlier hypothesis. The results imply that expanding and strengthening of rural credit program are crucial for smallholder agriculture and appeared to have a more robust impact on adoption of inorganic fertilizer.
... In fact, in the 1960s and 1970s, Kenya was nearly net exporter of maize (Byerlee and Eicher, 1997). Figure 1 shows the trend in domestic maize production and imports from 1963 to 2016. ...
The objective of our study is to investigate the key factors that determine maize import volumes in Kenya. To achieve this objective, we used time series secondary data from FAOSTAT, World Bank and World Trade Organization (WTO) for the period 1963 to 2016. We consider this period to be long enough to allow us to accurately capture the domestic maize price patterns before and after the onset of maize market reforms in Kenya. Our economet-ric analysis of the time series data using an error correction version of Auto-regressive distributed lag model shows that maize import volume is determined by trade openness, domestic price of maize and gross domestic product in the long run. In the short run, the results show that maize import volume is determined by exchange rate, lag of exchange rate, lag of maize import volume and production. The findings suggest that to reduce overreliance on maize imports, effective management of macroeconomic environment should be stimulated to create a favourable environment for improving domestic maize production so as to discourage a surge in maize imports and at the same time improve the country's food security.
... The area under maize production in the savannas of WCA has increased at the expense of other traditionally cultivated cereal crops such as sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) [3]. The acceptability of maize by farmers and its potential to combat food security challenges posed by population increase in WCA have greatly improved due to its high yield potential, wider adaptability to different environments, and relative ease of cultivation, processing, storage, and transportation [4,5]. However, maize production in most agroecological zones of WCA is constrained by three stresses: drought, low soil nitrogen (low N), and Striga infestation [3,[6][7][8]. ...
Maize (Zea mays L.) breeders in the West and Central Africa have developed and commercialized extra-early and early-maturing maize hybrids, which combine high yield potentials with tolerance/resistance to drought, low soil-N and Striga infestation. Hybrids of both maturity groups have not been investigated for tolerance to high plant density and N application and are new to the farmers; thus, the urgent need to recommend appropriate agronomic practices for these hybrids. We investigated the responses of four hybrids, belonging to the extra-early and early-maturity groups, to three plant densities and three N rates in five locations of different agroecologies. The early-maturing hybrids consistently out-yielded the extra-early maturing hybrids in all the five agroecologies. The hybrids showed no response to N-fertilizer application above 90 kg ha −1. All interactions involving N had no significant effect on grain yield and other measured agronomic traits except in few cases. The extra-early and early-maturing hybrids had similar response to plant density; their grain yield decreased as density increased. Contrarily, flowering was delayed and expression of some other agronomic traits such as plant and ear aspects were negatively impacted by increased density. Optimal yield for hybrids of both maturity groups was obtained at approximately 90 kg N ha −1 and 66,666 plants ha −1. Most of the measured traits indicated high repeatability estimates across the N levels, densities and environments. Evidently, the hybrids were intolerant of elevated density. It therefore, becomes necessary to improve maize germplasms for high plant density tolerance in the region.
... Maize (Zea mays L.) is a widely adapted major staple food crop, providing calories for over 300 million people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). There is a rapid increase in the importance of the crop due to its wide adaptation to varying agroecologies, relative ease of production, processing, storage, and transportation [1]. However, Striga hermonthica of information on the combining ability and heterotic groupings of inbred lines. ...
Recurrent drought and Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth parasitism constrains maize production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Transfer of resistance genes from wild relatives can improve resistance to drought and Striga in tropical maize. The objectives of this study were to (i) determine the combining ability of 12 extra-early yellow maize inbreds derived from Zea diploperennis and tropical maize germplasm; (ii) classify the inbreds into heterotic groups using heterotic grouping based on the general combining ability (GCA) of multiple traits (HGCAMT) method; (iii) examine hybrid performance under contrasting environments; and (iv) examine the stability of hybrid combinations involving the inbreds. Sixty-six diallel crosses involving the inbreds plus four checks were evaluated for two years under drought, Striga-infested and rainfed environments in Nigeria. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed for the effects of genotype, environment, genotype × environment, GCA and specific combining ability (SCA) on grain yield and other measured traits. Inbred lines such as TZdEEI 7 × TZEEI 63 derived from Z. diploperennis and tropical germplasm exceeded the checks by a range of 28 to 41%. Across environments, the hybrid TZdEEI 1 × TZdEEI 7, which was derived from Z. diploperennis, was the highest-yielding with a grain yield of 4302 kg ha −1. The results revealed the predominance of GCA over SCA effects for most measured traits, suggesting that additive gene action governed the inheritance of Striga resistance and drought tolerance related traits in the inbreds. The 12 inbreds were classified into three heterotic groups, while TZEEI 79 and TZdEEI 7 were identified as inbred testers and TZdEEI 7 × TZEEI 12 as a single-cross tester across environments. Hybrid TZdEEI 9 x TZEEI 79 was the highest-yielding and most stable. Other promising hybrids were TZdEEI 7× TZEEI 79, TZdEEI 1 × TZdEEI 7 and TZdEEI 12 × TZEEI 95. These hybrids should be extensively tested on-farm for potential commercialization in SSA. Overall, our results highlighted the importance of harnessing beneficial alleles from wild relatives of maize for improvement of resistance to Striga and tolerance to drought in adapted maize germplasm.
... In the case of maize, west Africa achieved the fastest rate of production growth in Africa, with annual increases of 4.5 per cent between 1975 and 1999 (Byerlee and Eicher 1997), with much of this expansion occurring in subsystem 1 where rainfall is relatively reliable, which reduced the risk of investing in inputs such as fertilizer. The price collapse of 2000 has largely recovered and production is growing at nearly 7 per cent in west Africa (Coulibaly 2014). ...
This book applies a unique, structured, systems methodology for characterizing and grouping large populations of farm households with broadly similar livelihood, production and consumption patterns, and for whom similar development strategies would be appropriate.
As a result African households across the continent are grouped into 15 major farming systems and 58subsystems.
The farming systems analysis integrates an extensive range of spatial data, administrative statistics, assessment reports and expert knowledge, in order to update the 2001 FAO/World Bank farming systems analysis.
Pattern recognition is key to teasing out the diversity inherent to African agriculture and to understanding common livelihood patterns (derived from crops, trees, livestock, fish and off-farm income), constraints and opportunities which define each farming system.
The principle of central tendency is used to identify the core length of growing period and travel time to the nearest market town, which are two key indicators of access to agricultural resources and access to agricultural services, respectively, that shape livelihood patterns in each farming system.
The method allows farming system drivers, trends and strategic interventions to be identified for policymakers, investors and research planners, using a synthesis of UN statistics, assessment reports and expert knowledge.
... The remaining three quarters of Mozambicans fetched water at some distance from their home, often from shared water points such as borewells. The most common method of processing grain in Mozambique for both urban and rural populations is with a pilão, although wealthier households may pay to have their grain milled professionally (29) . Nampula thus provides a setting in which both head-hauling water and pilão usage are common. ...
Objective
Even though sub-Saharan African women spend millions of person-hours per day fetching water and pounding grain, to date, few studies have rigorously assessed the energy expenditure costs of such domestic activities. As a result, most analyses that consider head-hauling water or hand pounding of grain with a mortar and pestle (pilão use) employ energy expenditure values derived from limited research. The current paper compares estimated energy expenditure values from heart rate monitors v . indirect calorimetry in order to understand some of the limitations with using such monitors to measure domestic activities.
Design
This confirmation study estimates the metabolic equivalent of task (MET) value for head-hauling water and hand-pounding grain using both indirect calorimetry and heart rate monitors under laboratory conditions.
Setting
The study was conducted in Nampula, Mozambique.
Participants
Forty university students in Nampula city who recurrently engaged in water-fetching activities.
Results
Including all participants, the mean MET value for head hauling 20 litres (20·5 kg, including container) of water (2·7 km/h, 0 % slope) was 4·3 ( sd 0·9) and 3·7 ( sd 1·2) for pilão use. Estimated energy expenditure predictions from a mixed model were found to correlate with observed energy expenditure ( r ² 0·68, r 0·82). Re-estimating the model with pilão use data excluded improved the fit substantially ( r ² 0·83, r 0·91).
Conclusions
The current study finds that heart rate monitors are suitable instruments for providing accurate quantification of energy expenditure for some domestic activities, such as head-hauling water, but are not appropriate for quantifying expenditures of other activities, such as hand-pounding grain.
... In the case of maize, west Africa achieved the fastest rate of production growth in Africa, with annual increases of 4.5 per cent between 1975 and 1999 (Byerlee and Eicher 1997), with much of this expansion occurring in subsystem 1 where rainfall is relatively reliable, which reduced the risk of investing in inputs such as fertilizer. The price collapse of 2000 has largely recovered and production is growing at nearly 7 per cent in west Africa (Coulibaly 2014). ...
Knowledge of Africa's complex farming systems, set in their socio-economic and environomental context, is an essential ingredient to developing effective strategies for improving food and nutrition security.
This book systematically and comprehensively describes the characteristics, trends, drivers of change and strategic prioritiesf or each of Africa's fifteen farming systems and their main subsystems. It shows how a farming systems perspective can be used to identify pathways to household food securiity and poverty reduction, and how strategic interventions may need to differ from one farming system to another. In the analysis, emphasis is placed on understanding farming systems drivers of change, trends and strategic priorities for science and policy.
Illustrated with full-colour maps and photographs throughout, the volume provides a comprehensive and insightful analysis of Africa's farming systems and pathways for the future to improve food and nutrition security. The book is an essential follow-up to the seminal work 'Farming Systems and Poverty' by Dixon and colleagues for the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the World Bank, published in 2001.
... Strengthening in-country seed production forms a key element of strategies for advancing food security and poverty reduction goals (Lipton and Longhurst 1989;Byerlee and Eicher 1997;Louwaars and de Boef 2012), as well as for mitigating the effects of climate variability and extremes (Access to Seeds Foundation 2019; Atlin, Cairns, and Das 2017;Fisher et al. 2015). While different philosophies and pathways exist on what goals and means should be employed to advance seed sector development (McGuire and Sperling 2016), for the maize seed sector in East and Southern Africa, the dominant approach for maize emphasizes seed production by privately owned, often small and medium-scale, businesses and agro-input companies (AGRA 2017;McGuire and Sperling 2016;Toenniessen, Adesina, and DeVries 2008;Erenstein and Kassie 2018). ...
During the past decade, sizable investments have been made to strengthen maize (Zea mays L.) seed production in Eastern and Southern Africa by private seed companies. However, efforts have generally overlooked downstream issues, such as how seed companies market their products and position their business in a competitive market. This paper assesses competition and customer preferences in Kenya at the retail level for varieties from the parastatal, private domestic and international companies. Data were collected from agro-dealer surveys (n = 80) and farmer intercept interviews (n = 377). Compared to the market leader, the parastatal Kenya Seed Company, private domestic and international companies provide greater value to farmers by selling varieties that are, on average, 10 years younger. However, these companies offer few late-maturing varieties, thus giving the parastatal a near monopoly in that market segment. Kenya Seed Company also excels at being present at all sales locations with their varieties. If private domestic companies focus more on smallholders with lower budgets (luding travel budget), they should consider the most cost-effective ways to extend their networks to remote areas as well as compete with the lower prices of Kenya Seed Company. Modern breeding programs should explicitly consider these marketing challenges when designing strategies for seed production and engagement with seed companies.
... Households in sub-Saharan Africa cultivate an assortment of agricultural systems (Tittonell et al. 2010), and often maize is the staple crop in both subsistence and cash crop systems (Byerlee and Eicher 1997). Maize as a regional staple crop makes up approximately 60% of the caloric consumption of the average household in Southern Africa (Denning et al. 2009), and, on average, is consumed at a rate of over 100 kg per person annually (Smale et al. 2011). ...
For smallholder farmers in developing countries, agricultural production is seasonal yet food demand is constant throughout the year. One fundamental agricultural decision is how much harvest to sell versus store for subsequent household consumption. Little is known about the temporal dimensions of grain storage, the extent to which storage levels vary over time, and the diversity of food storage patterns across different household types. This paper examines household level maize storage consumption, sales, and purchases using weekly food storage data collected via text message. We demonstrate how high frequency data can be used to measure rates and patterns of food storage decline, identify thresholds of food security, and anticipate future periods of food insecurity at a fine spatial scale.
... Hybrid seed of maize and vegetables have fairly well-structured production and marketing systems with private sector participation in SSA and SA. The successful maize seed system, has effectively given smallholder farmers in Africa access to new genetics (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997;Smale & Jayne, 2003). Meanwhile, formal seed systems of legume crops remain inadequately developed despite efforts to emulate success in cereal seed systems. ...
There are several hurdles to ensure sustainable seed production and consistent flow of improved legume varieties in sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asia (SA). The unreliable demand, autogamous nature of most of the grain legumes, and slow variety replacement rate by smallholder farmers do not provide strong incentive for private seed companies to invest in legume seed business. Unless a well thought‐out and comprehensive approach to legume seed delivery is developed, current seed shortages will continue, eroding emerging market opportunities. The experiences reported here are collated through a 10‐year partnership project, the Tropical Legumes in SSA and SA. It fostered innovative public–private partnerships in joint testing of innovative market‐led seed systems, skills and knowledge enhancement, de‐risking private sector initiatives that introduced in new approaches and previously overlooked entities in technology delivery. As new public and private seed companies, individual seed entrepreneurs and farmer organizations emerged, the existing ones enhanced their capacities. This resulted in significant rise in production, availability and accessibility of various seed grades of newly improved and farmer demanded legume varieties in the target countries.
... In these, governments were heavily involved in fertiliser supply schemes via public agencies ( Yamano and Arai 2011a). Although substantial increases in fertiliser use and improved seeds (Eicher 1995;Byerlee 1997) took place under these policies, government agencies also accumulated substantial levels of debts, or written-off credit, that supported these subsidies. ...
Increasing agricultural productivity, sustainability and resilience through technological innovation is a key mandate of ACIAR. Since 1982, ACIAR has organised and funded research to inform agricultural development programs that are applied to the wide range of cultures, resources, growing conditions, political climates, food and
livelihood needs of our partner countries. This book highlights the role of diversity in agricultural development efforts in southern and eastern Africa.
The food and nutrition security of more than half a billion smallholder farmers in Africa depends on their capacity to scale efficient and effective innovations that increase productivity and build resilience in their food and livelihood systems. The Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Systems for Food Security in eastern and southern Africa (SIMLESA) program aimed to create more productive, resilient, profitable and sustainable maize-legume farming systems to overcome food insecurity and help reverse soil fertility decline, particularly in the context of climate risk and change.
This monograph, produced by the SIMLESA program, aims to identify the agroecological and socioeconomic patterns that define the diversity of opportunities to sustainably intensify eastern and southern Africa’s food and livelihood systems. It describes differences and similarities within and across five countries, and the various types of disparities that contribute to generating poverty traps and opportunities for economic and social growth.
A copy of this publication may be downloaded from https://www.aciar.gov.au/publication/household-diversity or you may order a hardcopy by sending a request to publishing@aciar.gov.au
The R script code described in this publication is available, see previous link for details.
... The use of improved crop varieties is essential for increasing agricultural productivity in Africa (Walker & Alwang, 2015;World Bank, 2007). Maize is the most important cereal crop in Sub-Saharan Africa and as such considerable attention has been paid to potential productivity gains through the use of improved varieties (Smale et al., 2013;Alene et al., 2009;Hassan et al., 2001;Byerlee & Eicher, 1997). This desired outcome hinges upon an efficiently functioning seed system to ensure the delivery of these varieties to farmers Tripp, 2001;Morris, 1998). ...
Rising global demand for food as well as for feed and biomass-based raw materials such as fuel and fibre crops has increased pressure on the agricultural sector, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. The expected trend of increased demand for more diverse biomass-based produce from agricultural land effectively transforms the agriculture sector from just a food-supplying to a biomass-supplying sector in the growing international bioeconomy. This transition is leading to the development of biomass-based value webs whereby there are complex systems of interlinked value chains in which food, fodder, fuels, and other raw materials are produced, processed, traded and consumed. Against this background, this thesis aims to evaluate the appropriate roles of the public, private and third (civil society) sectors in facilitating the transformation of the agricultural sector in the developing bioeconomy in Ghana. The study focuses on the emerging value webs of cassava (Manihot esculenta) and maize (Zea mays), which are the two most important staple crops in Ghana.
... The best known example is the Green Revolution and the system of NARS and IARCs that emerged to form R&D supply chains of new seeds (Lipton with Longhurst, 1989;Hayami andRuttan, 1971, Binswanger, 1978). Another example is the shift from local varieties to breed for broad agroecological adaptation, such as the breeding of maize to fit drier areas an institute in Zaria in Northern Nigeria in the 1980s (Byerlee and Eicher, 1997). ...
Developing regions' food system has transformed rapidly in the past several decades. The food system is the dendritic cluster of R&D value chains, and the value chains linking input suppliers to farmers, and farmers upstream to wholesalers and processors midstream, to retailers then consumers downstream. We analyze the transformation in terms of these value chains' structure and conduct, and the effects of changes in those on its performance in terms of impacts on consumers and farmers, as well as the efficiency of and waste in the overall chain. We highlight the role of, and implications for agricultural research, viewed broadly as farm technology as well as research pertaining to all aspects of input and output value chains.
... In the United States of America, 50% of the yield gain since the 1930s is attributed to the introduction of hybrid maize and improved genetics (Duvick 1999). In sub-Saharan Africa, improvement in maize yield as a result of adoption of hybrid maize was also reported (Byerlee and Eicher 1997;Smale and Mason 2014). However, seed of maize hybrids is expensive for resource-poor farmers and cannot be recycled without severe yield penalty (Lyimo et al. 2014;Macharia et al. 2010). ...
... The use of improved crop varieties is essential for increasing agricultural productivity in Africa (Walker and Alwang 2015; World Bank 2007). Maize is the most important cereal crop in Sub-Saharan Africa and as such considerable attention has been paid to potential productivity gains through the use of improved varieties (Alene et al. 2009;Byerlee and Eicher 1997;Hassan et al. 2001;Smale et al. 2013). This desired outcome hinges upon an efficiently functioning seed system to ensure the delivery of these varieties to farmers Morris 1998;Tripp 2001). ...
The liberalisation of commercial seed systems has largely been seen as an essential means of improving agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, access to improved seed varieties has remained a major constraint in many countries in spite of liberalisation and other reform efforts. This paper analyses the governance challenges involved in seed systems from a theoretical and an empirical perspective. The paper applies theoretical concepts of New Institutional Economics to identify potential governance challenges involved at the different stages of the seed supply system. The commercial maize seed sector in Ghana is used for an empirical case study. Ghana has passed a seed law that aims to increase the availability of improved seed varieties to farmers by providing more opportunities to the private sector. However, there is still a chronic lack of varietal diversity, indicating that governance challenges in the seed system remain despite the reform efforts. For data collection, a participatory mapping technique known as Process Net-Map was applied, together with expert interviews involving a diverse set of stakeholders. The empirical evidence reveals that, in line with the theoretical considerations, governance challenges indeed affect all stages of the seed supply system. These challenges include limited involvement of smallholders in setting breeding priorities, restricted private sector participation in source seed production, limited ability of an under-resourced public regulatory body to ensure high seed quality through mandatory seed certification and overdependence on a weak public extension system to promote improved varieties. The paper discusses the policy implications of the findings.
... Improved crop varieties play a critical role in agricultural intensification (Evenson and Gollin, 2003;Walker and Alwang, 2015) -particularly when combined with external inputs and a conducive policy environment as exemplified by the Asian Green Revolution. There has been considerable interest in an African green revolution (Byerlee and Eicher, 1997;Otsuka and Larson, 2016;Scoones and Thompson, 2011;Smale et al., 2011;Toenniessen et al., 2008). ...
Improved maize seed is instrumental to deliver an Asian-style 'green revolution' for Africa. The paper reviews and makes a comparative analysis of the maize (corn) seed sector and its evolution in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Ethiopia drawing from seed sector surveys and secondary data. Enhancing farmers' access to and use of new maize varieties still presents a number of challenges in eastern Africa - not least due to a number of policy and institutional impediments to the development of the seed sector. The regional seed sectors also show some remarkable contrasts: they have evolved at different speeds and in different directions, driven by diverging agricultural growth opportunities and varying degrees of regulation, liberalization and restructuring. The paper reiterates calls for an enabling environment for private seed companies to evolve in order to serve the diverse farmer communities so that they benefit from existing and future improved maize seed opportunities.
... [3] Among cereal grains, corn is one of the most widely consumed types in the world [4] and is the most dominant food staple in Eastern and Southern Africa. [5] In sub-Saharan Africa, postharvest losses of corn have been estimated as greater than 16% in the past decade [6] with a significant dry matter loss occurring during storage. [7] Aflatoxins, which are toxic metabolites produced by the field fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, are a major public health concern in this region. ...
A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model was developed to simulate the corn drying process in a solar cabinet dryer. Incident solar radiation was modeled using a dual-band spectrum to simulate the absorption of shortwave radiation by corn and account for the greenhouse effect caused by glazing materials. The performance of the dryer was simulated at fair and over-cast weather conditions. The model allowed visualization of temperature, humidity, and air velocity profiles in the dryer. The model was validated with experimental results, which showed an over-prediction of temperature (8.5%) and humidity (21.4%). The experimental humidity profile suggests that there was stagnation in the airflow of the dryer, which was accurately predicted by the model. The model was used to simulate the dryer's performance under overcast conditions, and the predicted moisture removal was 32% less than the simulated fair-weather case.
... Higher levels of reactive Al2O3 can mean less expansion at low replacement levels of SCMs [1]. Corn is the main staple food in the Eastern and Southern Sahara Africa, accounting for more than 20% of domestic food production [36]. Corncob is the hard central core of corn which bears the grain of the ear cob, while CCA is the remnant of incinerated corncob [1,37]. ...
Cement is the most utilized construction material, and the second most consumed commodity in the world after water. Its demand has soared proportionately with the exponential rise in population in a bid to match the required development. The heavily energy-intensive processes that are involved in its production contribute to about 7 to 10 per cent (%) of the total global emissions, with potentially adverse environmental implications, and are also economically expensive. These processes, and generally those of the production of concrete consume heavily on natural resources such as sand, gravel, water, coal and crushed rock, mining of which mars the environment. It is however possible, that energy and cost efficiency can be achieved by reducing on the amount of clinker, and in its place utilising supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) that require less process heating and emit fewer levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). This study investigated the ability of corncob ash (CCA) to be used as a SCM by testing for pozzolanic or hydraulic properties and performance in sulfate environments. Experiments were carried our by supplementing cement by weight in concrete mixes with CCA at 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% steps at the point of need. Results were compared with a control specimen, which was made with 100% cement. Durability was tested using the sulfate elongation test. The results showed impressive compressive strengths that were suitable for structural applications. It was concluded from the sulfate elongation test that CCA supplemented concrete could be used in aggressive environments with an advantage. The results showed good repeatability and highlight the potential of CCA as an effective pozzolan, which could enhance the sustainability and economic aspect of concrete, as well as improve its properties in both the wet and hardened states.
... Maize (Zea mays L.) dominates Zambia's agriculture and its production dates back to the 16th Century, the period when Zambia's main staple crops were sorghum (Sorghum bicolar L.) and millet (Eleusine coracana L.). Maize gradually replaced sorghum and millet as the country's staple crops and by 1964, maize had already accounted for more than 60% of Zambia's total planted area for major crops (Byerlee and Eicher 1997). Up to the early 1990s, the sector was still dominated by maize and lacked private sector participation in the areas of agricultural marketing, input supply and processing. ...
Most empirical work on sources of economic growth for different countries lack
country-specific empirical evidence to guide policy choices in individual developing countries
and previous studies of factor productivity tend to focus on the entire economy or a single sector. This
provides fewer insights about a country’s structural evolution. Unlike previous studies, our study
builds on this by taking a more comprehensive approach in estimating Zambia’s sources of economic
growth by sectors—agriculture, industry, and service—in a systematic manner that yields insights
into the country’s sources of structural transformation. We use recently developed growth accounting
tools to explicitly determine sources of economic growth at both national and sectoral levels in
Zambia between 1970 and 2013. We use data from World Development Indicators and Zambia’s
Central Statistical Office. Results indicate that, on average, total factor productivity (TFP) contributes
about 5.7% to economic growth. Sectoral analysis shows that agriculture contributes the least to GDP
and that, within each sector, factors that contribute to growth differ. Structural transformation has
been slow and contributed to the observed inefficiency. We outline the implications of the observed
growth and provide recommendations.
... Of the 22 countries in the world where maize forms the highest percentage of energy in the national diet, 16 are in Africa (Dowswell et al., 1996). Maize has made a distinct imprint across African landscapes with nearly 95% of harvests used for human consumption (Byerlee et al., 1997). Lesotho, Malawi, and Zambia rank as the world's top 3 maizesubsisting countries, surpassing Mesoamerican countries, where the crop originated. ...
... It is the staple food crop for the majority of the population in the continent and reliance on maize is nearly universal for those in southern Africa, where it provides on average 40-50% of the calories consumed by the poor (Smale, Byerlee, & Jayne, 2011). Being a strategic crop in the region, maize has been a subject of political and academic interest for more than half a century, during which time there have been tremendous achievements in maize research in terms of the development of new and better adapted varieties (Byerlee & Eicher, 1997;Smale, 1995;Smale & Jayne, 2003). Despite the success stories around maize, poverty and food insecurity in the maize-based livelihood systems of southern Africa remain deep-rooted. ...
Maize plays a leading role in the food security of millions in southern Africa, yet it is highly vulnerable to the moisture stress brought about by the erratic rainfall patterns that characterize weather systems in the area. Developing and making drought-tolerant maize varieties available to farmers in the region has thus long been a key goal on the regional development agenda. Farm-level adoption of these varieties, however, depends on local perceptions of the value they add, along with willingness to pay (WTP) for it. Focusing on Zimbabwe, this research aimed at estimating the implicit prices farmers are willing to pay for drought tolerance in maize compared to other preferred traits. Using a choice experiment framework, we generated 12,600 observations from a random sample of 1,400 households in communal areas within 14 districts of Zimbabwe. Taste parameters and heterogeneities were estimated using the generalized multinomial logit model (G-MNL). The results reveal drought tolerance, grain yield, covered cob tip, cob size, and semi-flint texture to be the most preferred traits by farm households in Zimbabwe. The WTP estimates show that farmers are willing to pay a premium for drought tolerance equal to 2.56, 7, 3.2, and 5 times higher than for an additional ton of yield per acre, bigger cob size, larger grain size, and covered cob tip, respectively. We suggest designing and implementing innovative ways of promoting DT maize along with awareness-raising activities to enhance contextual understandings of drought and drought risk to speed adoption of new DT maize varieties by risk-prone farming communities. Given the high level of rural literacy and the high rate of adoption of improved maize, trait-based promotion and marketing of varieties constitutes the right strategy.
... As a result of these, it has been used to combat the food security challenges posed by the population increase in West Africa (Byerlee and Eicher 1971). Therefore, strategies to increasing maize productivity is the major priority for African agricultural development to reduce poverty and hunger and thus lead to proposed African Green Revolution (Ejeta 2010). ...
Genotype × environment interactions complicate selection of superior genotypes for narrow and wide adaptation. Eighteen tropically-Adapted maize cultivars were evaluated at six locations in Nigeria for 2 yrs to (i) identify superior and stable cultivars across environments and (ii) assess relationships among test environments. Environment and genotype × environment interactions (GEI) were significant (P < 005) for grain yield. Environments accounted for 63.5% of the total variation in the sum of squares for grain yield, whereas the genotype accounted for 3.5% and GEI for 32.8%. Grain yield of the cultivars ranged from 2292 kg ha⁻¹ for DTSTR-W SYN2 to 2892 kg ha⁻¹ for TZL COMP4 C3 DT C2 with an average of 2555 kg ha-1. Cultivar DT SYN2-Y had the least additive main effect and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) stability value of 7.4 and hence the most stable but low-yielding across environments. AMMI biplot explained 90.5% and classified cultivars and environments into four groups each. IWD C3 SYN F3 was identified as the high-yielding and stable cultivar across environments. ZA15, ZA14, BK14, BK15 and IL15 had environment mean above the grand mean, while BG14, BG15, LE14, LE15, IL14, LA14 and LA15 had mean below the grand mean. ZA, BK, BG, LE and LA were found to be consistent in ranking the maize cultivars. However, Zaria, Birnin Kudu, and Ilorin were identified as the best test locations and could be used for selecting the superior maize cultivars. The identified high-yielding and stable cultivar could be further tested and promoted for adoption to contribute to food insecurity in Nigeria.
... South Africa produced 15 million tonnes in 2014 (FAOSTAT 2015). In developing countries, South Africa included, maize serves as the primary source of carbohydrates and vitamins to millions of people, and the demand for this commodity will rise to 837 million tonnes in 2020 (Thiel et al. 1992; Byerlee & Eicher 1997; Pingali 2001; Shephard et al. 2007 ). The most important pathogenic Fusarium species found in maize is F. verticillioides (Saccardo). ...
Maize is most often infected by the fumonisin-producing Fusarium verticillioides. Total fumonisins of natural infected grain is made up of FB1, FB2 and FB3 with FB1 occurring naturally at higher levels. A maize plant can be infected with more than one F. verticillioides isolate, and finding a reliable method to elucidate the toxigenic potential of these isolates is important to extrapolate the possible fumonisin risk to consumers of grain. It is not clear whether F. verticillioides produce similar fumonisin levels, as well as fumonisin analogue ratios across media. In this study nine F. verticillioides isolates were subjected to three methods of fumonisin testing using 1) liquid media, 2) maize patties and 3) a field trial (silk inoculation of grain) in Potchefstroom, South Africa. Spore concentrations of 1 x 10⁶ conidia ml⁻¹ of each isolate were used to inoculate the different media and levels fumonisin analogues were measured using HPLC. Fumonisin production per isolate was highly variable and was influenced by the two-way interaction of F. verticillioides isolate x growth media. Total fumonisins produced in the liquid medium ranged between 0 to 21.3 ppm, on maize patties fumonisins ranged between 0 to 21.5 ppm and in the silk inoculation technique they ranged from 0 to 15.5 ppm. The fumonisin analogue FB1 occurred at higher levels followed by FB3 in both the in vitro studies. In the silk inoculation technique fumonisin analogue FB2 was the second highest occurring analogue after FB1. Isolate GCI 282 produced higher FB2 and FB3 levels than FB1 in the patties and the grain, respectively. In order not to miscalculate the fumonisin and analogue ratio levels per F. verticillioides isolate the growth medium will have to be optimised for each isolate and more than one growth medium will have to be used.
... Its importance as food and industrial crop in SSA has been increasing steadily over the last few decades (Fakorede et al. 2003). Maize provides about 20 % of the world's food calories and 15 % of all food proteins, and has potential for reducing the food security challenges posed by the increasing levels of urbanization in SSA countries (Byerlee and Eicher 1997). However, during the last two decades, production and productivity have not matched population growth due to a number factors including poor availability of improved seeds, herbicides, and fertilizers, inadequate agronomic management practices, labour shortage, rising cost of inputs and increased levels of biotic and abiotic constraints. ...
Extra-early quality protein maize (QPM) hybrids with combined tolerance to drought and low soil nitrogen (N) are crucial for reduced food insecurity and malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Ninety six extra-early QPM single-crosses derived from 24 extra-early QPM inbreds using the North Carolina Design II plus four checks were evaluated under stress (drought and low-N) and non-stress environments in Nigeria, 2012 and 2013. The objectives were to (i) determine the gene action for grain yield and other agronomic traits in the QPM inbreds (ii) identify the best inbred testers across environments (iii) classify the inbreds into heterotic groups and (iv) evaluate the performance and stability of the hybrids. General combining ability (GCA) effects contributed more to the total variation among the hybrids for grain yield and most measured traits under each and across environments suggesting that additive gene effects were more important in the inheritance of the traits. The inbreds were classified into three heterotic groups. Inbreds TZEEQI 7 and TZEEQI 134 were the best testers while TZEEQI 7, TZEEQI 60, TZEEQI 61, TZEEQI 8, TZEEQI 11, TZEEQI 137, TZEEQI 63, TZEEQI 66, TZEEQI 44, and TZEEQI 157 possessed favorable alleles for stress tolerance and could be used for population improvement and development of stress tolerant hybrids. The hybrids TZEEQI 183 × TZEEQI 7, TZEEQI 181 × TZEEQI 7 and TZEEQI 144 × TZEEQI 183 were high yielding and the most stable across environments and should be tested extensively in on-farm trials and commercialized in the sub-region.
The objective of this paper was to determine the level of efficiency of smallholder maize farmers and to link the observed efficiency to farmers' socioeconomic and institutional characteristics in Boricha Woreda, Sidama Region of Ethiopia. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 204 sample farmers which were interviewed using structured questionnaire to obtain data pertaining to farm production, input usage, and other variables including socioeconomic and institutional factor. A Cobb-Douglas production function was employed to analyze the data. In the analysis, frontier 4.1c software was used to determine the levels of technical and economic efficiencies. Furthermore, descriptive statistics and a two-limit Tobit regression model were employed. It was established from a stochastic frontier model that maize yield was positively influenced by seed, labor, oxen, farm size, DAP and Urea fertilizers. The mean technical and allocative efficiencies were 72 and 70 percent, respectively while the mean economic efficiency was 53 percent. Tobit model results revealed that efficiency was positively and significantly affected by education, training, membership in cooperatives, access to credit, and family size whereas variables such as age, distance to extension center, distance to market, livestock and off-farm income affected it negatively. Based on the findings of the study policy implications for improvements in economic efficiency and productivity were drawn.
As far as the impacts of climate change are concerned, Sub-Saharan Africa has received most attention owing to its already adverse climatic conditions, especially a hot and arid climate. A closer examination of Sub-Saharan agriculture reveals a great diversity of agricultural activities whose distributions are dependent on equally diverse agro-ecological zones. This chapter illustrates the six agro-ecological zones and three different elevation zones of the continent. In the most vulnerable arid and semi-arid zone, farm animals are an essential component of Sub-Saharan agriculture. The most frequently owned animals are beef cattle, dairy cattle, goats, sheep, and chickens. An analysis shows that Africa farmers prefer livestock management over crop farming in a hotter climatic zone, especially goats and sheep. In a more humid climate zone, farmers preferred goats and chickens over cattle and sheep. Sub-Saharan farmers will be able to adapt to changing climatic systems through changes in the choices of farm animal species. A complete picture of adaptation cannot be painted until Sub-Saharan farmers would figure out ways to reduce the methane emissions from farm animals, which is explained at a later chapter of this book.
Maize (Zea mays L.) production in West and Central Africa is constrained by drought, low soil-N and Striga infestation. Breeders in the region have developed and commercialized extra-early and early-maturing hybrids (E-EH and EH), which combine high yield potentials with tolerance/resistance to the three stresses. Hybrids of both maturity groups are new to the farmers; thus, the urgent need to recommend appropriate agronomic practices for these hybrids. We investigated the responses of four hybrids belonging to extra-early and early-maturity groups to plant density (PD) and nitrogen (N) application in five agroecologies. The EHs consistently out-yielded the E-EHs in all the five agroecologies. The hybrids showed no response to N-fertilizer application above 90 kg ha-1. All interactions involving N had no significant effect on all traits except in few cases. The E-EHs and EHs had similar response to PD; their grain yield decreased as PD increased. Contrarily, flowering was delayed and expression of some other agronomic traits such as plant and ear aspects became poorer with increased PD. Optimal yield was obtained at approximately 90 kg N ha-1 and 66,666 plants ha-1. Most of the measured traits indicated high repeatability estimates (i.e. ≥ 60) across the N levels, PDs and environments. Evidently, the hybrids were intolerant of high PD.
In 2009 Kisii county in Kenya reached a population density of 875 persons/km² and many families failed to produce enough food for their subsistence needs. The Kisii case appears to confirm the Malthusian theory that increases in food production cannot keep up with sustained high population growth. So how can Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with many less favorable ecologies than Kisii county feed a projected four billion people in 2100? A closer look is taken at population in relation to ecology, economy, technology, and public policy to deduct the conditions for economic growth with increasing population densities. This paper shows that high population densities are a resource rather than a burden when a strong government creates a conducive public policy environment through improvements in education, health and infrastructure facilities. SSA countries can copy the Asian success stories through choosing their own development paths and using temporary subsidies and tariff protections to make their rural and industrial sectors competitive in the world markets. Countries with high population densities have to create a successful industrial employment sector in order to absorb inefficient rural labour. Increased inflows from various foreign direct investments give SSA countries a wider range of options and the opportunity to pick their own choices. SSA countries which implement the appropriate public policies will obtain agricultural and economic growth thanks to the projected large population increase during 2020-2100. Luckily, SSA has the required amount of suitable land for feeding 2 billion people in 2050 and 4 billion people in 2100.
Maize is influential for the food security of Ethiopian households as a source of both food and income. As a result, due emphasis is required to enhance productivity through improvement of efficiency of resource usage. As such, the objective of this paper was to determine the level of economic efficiency of smallholder maize farmers and to link the observed efficiency to farmers’ socioeconomic and institutional characteristics in Boricha Woreda, Southern Ethiopia. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 204 sample farmers which were interviewed using structured questionnaire to obtain data pertaining to farm production, input usage, and other variables including socioeconomic and institutional factors during the year of 2012. A Cobb-Douglas production function was employed to analyze the data. In the analysis, frontier 4.1c software was used to determine the levels of technical efficiency. Furthermore, descriptive statistics and a two-limit Tobit regression model were employed. It was established from a stochastic frontier model that maize yield was positively influenced by seed, labor, oxen, DAP and Urea fertilizers and farm size. The mean technical and allocative efficiencies were 72 and 70 percent, respectively while the mean economic efficiency was 53 percent. Tobit model results revealed that economic efficiency was positively and significantly affected by education, training, membership in cooperatives, access to credit, and family size whereas variables such as age, distance to extension center, distance to market, livestock and off-farm income affected it negatively. Furthermore, important factors that significantly affected the technical efficiency were sex, age, training, membership in cooperatives, livestock, off-farm income, distance to extension center, distance to market, access to credit and family size of household. The results also showed that allocative efficiency was significantly affected by factors such as membership in cooperatives, age, training, family size, off-farm income and distance to extension center. Based on the findings of the study policy implications for improvements in economic efficiency and productivity were drawn.
Agriculture is the main economic revenue in sub-Saharan African countries, playing a key role on smallholder livelihoods as household incomes and as food. Food insecurity is known to increase with the inevitable climate changes, which already affect the major farming systems, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) being particularly susceptible, mostly due to the high dependence of rainfall for crop cycles. As such, to promote food security in a long run, new farming systems have to become more sustainable and productive at the same time. In this chapter, a global overview of major farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa is provided, and current and future production scenarios are discussed. Moreover, some of the major pillars under the sustainable land use intensification are highlighted, and the potential of the undervalued African legumes toward a sustainable crop production is debated. Finally, an outline of key opportunities to diversify cropping systems is explored along with the benefits associated to integration of local and "orphan legumes" that are considered. It is argued that the use of these "orphan legumes" and the implementation of appropriated management approaches will promote a sustainable production of more food from the same land area, relying on mutually beneficial ecological relationships and reducing environmental impacts.
This chapter lays out an ensemble of economic theories that are pertinent to justifying the Green Climate Fund (GCF)‘s activities, based upon which a series of evaluations is conducted of the projects to which GCF-approved grants/loans were allocated since November 2015. The three economic theories are elaborated in the contexts of the GCF’s funding decisions: a theory of public goods and expenditures, a theory of economic efficiency in land and resource reallocations, and a theory of a public adaptation to climate change. The evaluations of the GCF-funded projects are conducted with reference to the empirical results and predictions from the four scientific traditions surveyed in this book from Chaps. 3, 4, 5, and 6. The evaluations reveal many intriguing policy features of the GCF. First, a GCF grant is not awarded to the proposed project which would yield the largest amount of the global public good, for example, reduction of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions, from a pool of proposals considered. Second, when a public adaptation project is awarded with a funding, funding recipients or accredited entities are often a public agency which cannot provide the concerned public good efficiently or with the least cost. Third, evaluated from the perspective of the efficient resource reallocations, many GCF grants/loans may fail to induce efficient adaptations of the recipients and even encourage mal-adaptations.
From this chapter on, four scientific traditions that provide useful empirical information to both the decision-makers of the Green Climate Fund and the evaluators of the GCF decisions are explained, the first of which is the microbehavioral economic models of adaptation to global warming. The microbehavioral economics examines how an individual manager of agricultural and natural resources chooses an optimal portfolio of resources, taking the given climate factors into account, to maximize the profit earned from the portfolio over the long-term. This chapter explains major empirical findings from the microbehavioral studies conducted through the farm household surveys in Africa, Latin America, and South Asia. In response to or anticipation of climatic shifts, behavioral changes of individuals occur, among other things, by switching from one enterprise to another among the natural resource enterprises, or from one crop or animal species to another, or from a specialized portfolio to a diversified portfolio. The results offer valuable insights to the GCP policy-makers on which natural resource portfolio is most vulnerable as well as on how natural source mangers should adapt to future climatic changes.
We determine and compare technical efficiency (TE), technology gap ratios (TGRs) and meta-frontier technical efficiency (MTEs) of maize production between regions using nationally representative panel data collected from 4001 smallholder farm households in Zambia. We estimate the stochastic meta-frontier and region-specific stochastic frontiers based on the ‘true random effects’ framework. Our results show variations in efficiency measures and that smallholder maize production is characterised by increasing returns to scale across all regions, which clearly suggest maize farmers to reduce their average long-term costs by increasing their production scale. We find that some regions are on average more technically efficient than others while those with TE values exceeding 90 per cent operate further below their potential output than those with moderate TE values. Similarly, farm households from regions whose mean TE values are about 90 per cent employ inferior farming techniques to those employed by farmers from regions whose mean TE values are lower. This is in part due to industry-wide specific environmental factors. Most importantly, we find no region to have maize farmers that adopt the most advanced techniques. Results further indicate that all provinces have had either lower or higher TEs, TGRs and MTEs in one period than in another. Generally, our results point to the need to promote superior techniques that would withstand industry-wide specific environmental factors. While it is not possible to find the many reasons for wide variations in TEs, TGRs, and MTEs across regions and time, our results make novel contributions to literature.
Maize is the major staple food in southern Africa with human consumption averaging 91 kg capita⁻¹ year⁻¹, and normal maize is nutritionally deficient in two essential amino acids: tryptophan and lysine. Despite the development of quality protein maize (QPM) with high tryptophan and lysine, stunting and kwashiorkor remain high in sub-Saharan Africa due to lack of high yielding and adapted QPM varieties. This study aimed at evaluating a new generation of QPM varieties for yield and related agronomic traits. Before the QPM varieties were validated on-farm, they were simultaneously selected on-station under five different management conditions. In the 2014/2015 season, 10 elite QPM varieties were selected from on-station trials based on high grain yield and stability, and were compared with the best commercial check varieties on-farm. During the 2015/2016 season, some poorly performing QPM varieties were dropped while new ones were added, resulting in 12 elite QPM varieties being evaluated on-farm. Analysis of variance for the 2014/2015 season showed non-significant hybrid × management condition interaction. Mean grain yields across management conditions ranged from 1.5 to 4 t ha⁻¹ and were higher under mild stress (2.3–5.5 t ha⁻¹) compared to random stress conditions (1.1–2.9 t ha⁻¹). Broad sense heritability estimates were low to moderate (11–69%), and thus could still permit effective selection of better genotypes. Yield advantage ranged from 12 to 25% across the 2 years, suggesting effective genetic gains in QPM breeding. QPM hybrids CZH132044Q, CZH142238Q and CZH142236Q were stable and high yielding. Promotion of such QPM hybrids may help reduce protein energy malnutrition.
Promotion and adoption of early and extra-early maturing normal endosperm and quality protein maize (QPM) developed by IITA, CIMMYT, and partners in SSA have significantly contributed to the rapid spread of maize in the sub-region, making it the most important cereal crop after rice. The availability of the early and extra-early varieties and hybrids has resulted in improvements in the productivity of maize, income, and well-being of people in the sub-region. Apart from being a source of human food and a major component of livestock feed, maize has become an indispensable industrial raw material for the production of grits, flour, breakfast cereals, baby foods, baked foods, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, and other products in SSA. As a result of research undertaken by IITA, CIMMYT, DTMA, WECAMAN, NARS, and other institutions, a large number of improved maize varieties have been developed, and the area planted to these varieties continues to expand. Studies show that in 2005, of the 7 million ha planted to maize in nine WCA countries, over 4 million, representing about 60% of the area, had been planted to improved varieties. Over half of this impact has been attributed to maize research. Since the inception of the DTMA Project in 2007, there have been successes in the development and dissemination of drought-tolerant maize varieties including the multiple stress-tolerant early and extra-early varieties developed under the DTMA/STMA Project. About 160 DTM varieties (DTMVs) have been developed between 2007 and 2014. Most of these varieties have been successfully disseminated to maize farmers in 13 African countries in Western, Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa.
Most empirical work on sources of economic growth for different countries lack country-specific empirical evidence to guide policy choices in individual developing countries and previous studies of factor productivity tend to focus on the entire economy or a single sector. In this study, we use the recently developed growth accounting tools to explicitly determine the sources of economic growth at both national and sectoral levels in Zambia between 1970 and 2013. We use data from World Development Indicators and Zambia's Central Statistical Office. On average, total factor productivity (TFP) contributes about 5.7% to economic growth. Sectoral analysis shows that agriculture contributes the least to GDP and that within each sector; factors that contribute to growth differ. Structural transformation has been slow and contributed to the observed inefficiency. We outline the implications of the observed growth and provide recommendations.
Maize is an important crop for food security in Ethiopia as a source of both food and income. Hence , due emphasis should be given required to enhance productivity through improvement of efficiency of resource usage in maize production, The objective of this paper was to determine the levels of economic efficiency of smallholder maize producers and to link the observed efficiency levels to farmers’ socioeconomic and institutional characteristics in Boricha Woreda, Southern Ethiopia. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 204 sample farmers who were interviewed using a structured questionnaire to obtain data pertaining to maize production during 2013. In the analysis, frontier 4.1c software was used to determine the levels of technical and economic efficiencies. Thus, the mean technical and allocative efficiencies were 72 and 70 percent, respectively while the mean economic efficiency was 53 percent. Furthermore, descriptive statistics, stochastic frontier and a two-limit Tobit regression models were employed. It was established from a stochastic frontier model that maize yield estimated using Cobb-Douglas production function was positively influenced by seed, labor, oxen, farm size, DAP and Urea fertilizers. Similarly, a Tobit model revealed that economic efficiency was positively and significantly affected by education, trainings, membership to cooperatives, utilization of credit, and family size whereas variables such as age, distance to extension center and market, livestock and off-farm income affected it negatively. Thus, the study recommended policies targeting training, membership to cooperatives development of markets, roads and education of smallholder maize producers that would promote economic efficiency of maize producers.
Climate change, as an inevitable process, will aggravate food shortage of the already vulnerable agriculture systems in Zambia. Rain-fed agriculture supports the livelihood of majority of smallholders in Zambia. To effectively adapt to foreseeable climate change, and to decrease risk of the food crisis, we analyzed potential suitable distribution of major crops (white maize (Zea mays), cassava (Manihot esculenta) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)) in Zambia under current and future (2080s) climates using the MCE-GIS (multi-criteria evaluation -geographical information system) Planting Ecological Adaptability model. The simulation results indicate that climate change will change the potential suitable area for maize from 66.8% to 48.6%; and that of cassava from 65% to 84%. The suitable regions of sorghum move northward although the total areas will not change. We conclude that future climate change will have different effects on various crops. Our modeling results can be used to make appropriate management decisions and to provide farmers with alternative options for their farming system in responding to climate change.
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