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Teaching Basic Skills Through Microcomputer Assisted Instruction
Abstract
Low achieving students in grades 4–6 were given supplementary microcomputer assisted instruction in reading and mathematics. Students' performance was assessed with a pretest/posttest nonequivalent control group design using standardized achievement and affective tests. Although all microcomputer experimental groups showed statistically significant pretest/posttest gains in reading and mathematics, the control groups using conventional instructional methods also showed similar gains. Analysis of covariance of achievement gains revealed only one experimental group, sixth grade reading, to be statistically superior to the control groups' performance. No significant changes in students' attitudes toward schooling or sense of control over their own performance were detected. Implications of this study's design and findings are discussed with respect to past CAI research and present CAI school practices.
... Although positive results were produced , the parameter scored low statistical signi cance. However, when Bass et al. (1986) and Torgesen et al. (2007) performed a similar study involving 73 and 90 participants respectively (considered small sample sizes), the results uncover a positive signi cant correlation among IT use (Computer-Assisted-Instruction and Integrated-Leaning-System) and test scores. ...
... In fact, it is suggested that there should be, "at least 10 observations per variable" (Statistics Solutions 2020: 1). Consistent with past publications with relatively small sample sizes (Bass et al. 1986;Torgersen et al. 2007), the Bi-point serial correlation test will be employed to uncover a potential relationship between the use of technology and academic scores.This study follows the steps of Rouse and Kreuger (2004) by adopting a within-school, within-grade experiment. Furthermore, it will also be controlling for demographic and behavioural characteristics of the target population prior to holding the experiment (section 3.3.1). ...
The relevance of the use of educational technology by educators in the classroom to improve academic achievement has been a debatable query in the literature for decades. This research's attempt was to scientifically quantify and determine the impact of technology use in the classroom (specifically Computer-Assisted-Instruction and Integrated-Learning-System) on the academic scores attained by level 2 MCAST students. By employing a two-stage quasi-experimental methodology: first controlling for respondents' characteristics and then delivering the sessions using alternating teaching tools, the study ensured homogeneity between the control and treatment groups. Findings from the Bi-Point serial correlation test proof statistically significant negative returns of the use of educational technology by educators in the classroom on level 2 students' test scores since on average, the group that was not exposed to educational technology achieved higher test score than the treatment group. These results can help teachers of such student cohort to better plan their lesson whilst institutions such as MCAST, the Ministry for Education and the European Union to design appropriate policies that ensure more effective learning.
... Several studies conducted in the mid 1980's provided overviews of software programs that were designed to teach reading skills (Bradley, 1984;Candler & Johnson, 1984). Other studies published in the mid and late1980's focused on the implementation of computer based reading interventions with students (Bass, Ries, & Sharpe, 1986;Casteel, 1989;Gore, Morrison, Maas, & Anderson, 1989). ...
... The study published by Bass et al., (1986), compared the reading and math scores of low achieving fourth through sixth grade students. These students were split into experimental and control groups and each was administered several standardized measures for math and reading. ...
... Some claim that CAL practice is superior to traditional instructional approaches (Harrison & Van Dervender, 1992;Williams, 2000). However, Bass, Ries, and Sharpe (1986) reported that learning effectiveness does not significantly differ between CAL and traditional materials. Indeed, some studies indicate that traditional instruction methods more effective (Wong & Evans, 2007). ...
... Restated, students with less prior knowledge of multiplication benefit more from CAL activities. The finding, which is consistent with an earlier report by Bass et al. (1986), may be attributable to the use of game-like scenarios, which are effective for engaging students with low motivation. ...
This study develops and implements a computer-assisted learning (CAL) program with both multiplicative facts practices and the instruction of meaning behind these facts. The effectiveness of CAL on the development of multiplication abilities is also explored. Eight CAL activities are developed to teach multiplication to second grade elementary school students. The CAL program is comprised of three stages of instruction that addressed in succession the basic concept of multiplication, the meaning and properties of multiplication and multiplication-related computation skills. Evaluation of the effects of the learning activities reveals that CAL activities are effective in improving comprehension of the concept of multiplication and the meaning and properties of multiplication for students who have lower prior knowledge of multiplication, but it does not significantly improve the development of multiplication-related computation skills. Nevertheless, CAL activities facilitate overall learning of multiplication.
... There were two exceptions. Bass et al. (1986) evaluated the use of a variety of software programs for students in grades 5 to 6 (expected ages 10 to 12 years) and found a benefit, albeit with a small effect size (+0.22 and +0.13 respectively on the two measures used). The other exception was a study on READ 180 (Dynarski et al., 2007), a comprehensive literacy intervention program which combines both computer and non-computer intervention. ...
This paper addresses a gap in research regarding the efficacy of software programs to help children with reading difficulties. Forty-two children aged 5-13 years identified as poor readers participated in a study over twelve weeks using Reading Doctor, a software program targeting phonemic awareness, orthographic-phonemic mappings, decoding ability and sight word recognition. Measures were taken using the Sutherland Phonological Awareness Test - Revised (SPAT-R), the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE), and the graphemes and decoding subtests of the Phonological Awareness Test 2 (PAT-2). A quasi-experimental one group study with three multiple baseline measures was used. The dependent variables/measures were assessed seven times over a period of 32 weeks, allowing the research to be completed in the school-allocated time frame. Significant improvements were found on all three measures of phonological/phonemic awareness and word-reading efficiency. These improvements were maintained when assessed three months later, during which time the software program was not used.
... Aos neutros, podemos somar 5 artigos [39,4,40,43,36], totalizando 15 artigos; e para os negativos, podemos somar o artigo [27], totalizando 3 artigos negativos. ...
Esta revisão sistemática visa a entender qual o ganho que o computador promove na ação pedagógica para alunos do Ensino Fundamental e Médio, tendo como base publicações das últimas três décadas, indexadas no banco de dados do “Education Research Information Center” (ERIC). Obtivemos como resultado um total de 109 artigos considerados relevantes para esta pesquisa; estes foram classificados em artigos experimentais positivos, negativos e neutros. Consideramos como positivos, artigos que apontam algum resultado favorável ao uso educacional dos computadores; como negativo, o oposto a estes e ainda, como neutros, aqueles que não informam, em seu resumo, o resultado do experimento estudado. Concluímos ainda que há poucas evidências experimentais publicadas em revistas internacionais que suportem a crença de que o computador proporciona
ganhos na Educação Fundamental e Média. Na revisão das metaanálises, concluímos que elas indicam resultados mais otimistas, para o uso de computadores na educação, que os resultados experimentais permitiriam deduzir e que muitas apresentam problemas metodológicos.
... In a small study in two Virginia Title I schools, Bass, Ries, and Sharpe (1986) evaluated the use of a variety of software programs (e.g., Alpine Skier, Tank Tactics, Big Door Deal) in grades 5 and 6. Both groups received regular classroom instruction in reading and mathematics. ...
This review examines the effectiveness of educational technology applications in improving the reading achievement of struggling readers in elementary schools. The review applies consistent inclusion standards to focus on studies that met high methodological standards. A total of 20 studies based on about 7,000 students in grades 1–6 were included in the final analysis. Findings indicate that educational technology applications produced a positive but small effect on the reading skills of struggling readers ( ES = .14) in comparison with “business as usual” methods. Among four types of educational technology applications, small‐group integrated applications such as Read, Write & Type and the Lindamood Phoneme Sequence Program produced the largest effect sizes ( ES = .32). These are tutorial educational technology applications that use small‐group interaction tightly integrated with reading curriculum. Supplementary models, such as Jostens and Lexia, had a larger number of studies ( N = 12) and a more modest effect size ( ES = .18). Comprehensive models, such as READ 180 and ReadAbout ( ES = .04) and Fast ForWord ( ES = .06), did not produce meaningful positive effect sizes. However, the results of these two categories of programs should be interpreted with extreme caution due to the small number of studies involved. More studies are required to validate the effectiveness of all technology applications. Policy implications are discussed.
... The number of studies meeting our initial criteria for inclusion in the synthesis was 17. With the exclusion of the two computer software studies by Bass et al. (1986) and Moore (1988), the total number of studies in the analysis was 15. These 15 studies were coded into four major categories and generated 39 independent effect sizes. ...
The purpose of this study was to synthesize research on the effects of interventions to improve the mathematics achievement of students considered low achieving or at risk for failure. Meta-analytic techniques were used to calculate mean effect sizes,for 15 studies that met inclusion criteria. Studies were coded according to 5 categories of mathematics interventions, and effect sizes were examined on a study-by-study basis within each of these categories. Results indicated that different types of interventions led to improvements in the mathematics achievement of students experiencing mathematics difficulty, including the following:.(a) providing teachers and students with data on student performance; (b) using peers as tutors or instructional guides; (c) providing clears specific feedback to parents on their children's mathematics success; and (d) using principles of explicit instruction in teaching math concepts and procedures.
... In a small study in two Virginia Title I schools, Bass, Ries, & Sharpe (1986) evaluated the use of a variety of software in grades 5-6. Students in one school using CAI (n=73) were compared to those in a matched school (n=72). ...
This article reviews research on the achievement outcomes of alternative approaches for struggling readers ages 5–10 (US grades K-5): One-to-one tutoring, small-group tutorials, classroom instructional process approaches, and computer-assisted instruction. Study inclusion criteria included use of randomized or well-matched control groups, study duration of at least 12 weeks, and use of valid measures independent of treatments. A total of 97 studies met these criteria. The review concludes that one-to-one tutoring is very effective in improving reading performance. Tutoring models that focus on phonics obtain much better outcomes than others. Teachers are more effective than paraprofessionals and volunteers as tutors. Small-group, phonetic tutorials can be effective, but are not as effective as one-to-one phonetically focused tutoring. Classroom instructional process programs, especially cooperative learning, can have very positive effects for struggling readers. Computer-assisted instruction had few effects on reading. Taken together, the findings support a strong focus on improving classroom instruction and then providing one-to-one, phonetic tutoring to students who continue to experience difficulties.
... Such a context might facilitate double loop learning. However, evidence from other studies indicates that participants might be more highly motivated to engage with a simulation game if there is an element of summative assessment (see Base et al., 1986;Herz and Merz, 1998). Arguably, by not assessing students one is simply offering the freedom to disengage from the simulation process. ...
This paper discusses the role of computer based simulations in business education. It examines the learning approaches adopted by students using a simulation game. Results inform the development of causal-loop diagrams capturing representations of zero, single and double-loop learning within the study context. Actions are proposed to maximise the effectiveness of this form of learning technology.
... Aos neutros, podemos somar 5 artigos [39,4,40,43,36], totalizando 15 artigos; e para os negativos, podemos somar o artigo [27], totalizando 3 artigos negativos. ...
Esta revisão sistemática visa a entender qual o ganho que o computador promove na ação pedagógica para alunos do Ensino Fundamental e Médio, tendo como base publicações das últimas três décadas, indexadas no banco de dados do “Education Research Information Center” (ERIC). Obtivemos como resultado um total de 109 artigos considerados relevantes para esta pesquisa; estes foram classificados em artigos experimentais positivos, negativos e neutros. Consideramos como positivos, artigos que apontam algum resultado favorável ao uso educacional dos computadores; como negativo, o oposto a estes e ainda, como neutros, aqueles que não informam, em seu resumo, o resultado do experimento estudado. Concluímos ainda que há poucas evidências experimentais publicadas em revistas internacionais que suportem a crença de que o computador proporcionaganhos na Educação Fundamental e Média. Na revisão das metaanálises, concluímos que elas indicam resultados mais otimistas, para o uso de computadores na educação, que os resultados experimentais permitiriam deduzir e que muitas apresentam problemas metodológicos.
Background
Low levels of numeracy and literacy skills are associated with a range of negative outcomes later in life, such as reduced earnings and health. Obtaining information about effective interventions for children with or at risk of academic difficulties is therefore important.
Objectives
The main objective was to assess the effectiveness of interventions targeting students with or at risk of academic difficulties in kindergarten to Grade 6.
Search Methods
We searched electronic databases from 1980 to July 2018. We searched multiple international electronic databases (in total 15), seven national repositories, and performed a search of the grey literature using governmental sites, academic clearinghouses and repositories for reports and working papers, and trial registries (10 sources). We hand searched recent volumes of six journals and contacted international experts. Lastly, we used included studies and 23 previously published reviews for citation tracking.
Selection Criteria
Studies had to meet the following criteria to be included:
Population: The population eligible for the review included students attending regular schools in kindergarten to Grade 6, who were having academic difficulties, or were at risk of such difficulties.
Intervention: We included interventions that sought to improve academic skills, were conducted in schools during the regular school year, and were targeted (selected or indicated).
Comparison: Included studies used an intervention‐control group design or a comparison group design. We included randomised controlled trials (RCT); quasi‐randomised controlled trials (QRCT); and quasi‐experimental studies (QES).
Outcomes: Included studies used standardised tests in reading or mathematics.
Setting: Studies carried out in regular schools in an OECD country were included.
Data Collection and Analysis
Descriptive and numerical characteristics of included studies were coded by members of the review team. A review author independently checked coding. We used an extended version of the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool to assess risk of bias. We used random‐effects meta‐analysis and robust‐variance estimation procedures to synthesise effect sizes. We conducted separate meta‐analyses for tests performed within three months of the end of interventions (short‐term effects) and longer follow‐up periods. For short‐term effects, we performed subgroup and moderator analyses focused on instructional methods and content domains. We assessed sensitivity of the results to effect size measurement, outliers, clustered assignment of treatment, risk of bias, missing moderator information, control group progression, and publication bias.
Results
We found in total 24,414 potentially relevant records, screened 4247 of them in full text, and included 607 studies that met the inclusion criteria. We included 205 studies of a wide range of intervention types in at least one meta‐analysis (202 intervention‐control studies and 3 comparison designs). The reasons for excluding studies from the analysis were that they had too high risk of bias (257), compared two alternative interventions (104 studies), lacked necessary information (24 studies), or used overlapping samples (17 studies). The total number of student observations in the analysed studies was 226,745. There were 93% RCTs among the 327 interventions we included in the meta‐analysis of intervention‐control contrasts and 86% were from the United States. The target group consisted of, on average, 45% girls, 65% minority students, and 69% low‐income students. The mean Grade was 2.4. Most studies included in the meta‐analysis had a moderate to high risk of bias.
The overall average effect sizes (ES) for short‐term and follow‐up outcomes were positive and statistically significant (ES = 0.30, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.25, 0.34] and ES = 0.27, 95% CI = [0.17, 0.36]), respectively). The effect sizes correspond to around one third to one half of the achievement gap between fourth Grade students with high and low socioeconomic status in the United States and to a 58% chance that a randomly selected score of an intervention group student is greater than the score of a randomly selected control group student.
All measures indicated substantial heterogeneity across short‐term effect sizes. Follow‐up outcomes pertain almost exclusively to studies examining small‐group instruction by adults and effects on reading measures. The follow‐up effect sizes were considerably less heterogeneous than the short‐term effect sizes, although there was still statistically significant heterogeneity.
Two instructional methods, peer‐assisted instruction and small‐group instruction by adults, had large and statistically significant average effect sizes that were robust across specifications in the subgroup analysis of short‐term effects (ES around 0.35–0.45). In meta‐regressions that adjusted for methods, content domains, and other study characteristics, they had significantly larger effect sizes than computer‐assisted instruction, coaching of personnel, incentives, and progress monitoring. Peer‐assisted instruction also had significantly larger effect sizes than medium‐group instruction. Besides peer‐assisted instruction and small‐group instruction, no other methods were consistently significant across the analyses that tried to isolate the association between a specific method and effect sizes. However, most analyses showed statistically significant heterogeneity also within categories of instructional methods.
We found little evidence that effect sizes were larger in some content domains than others. Fractions had significantly higher associations with effect sizes than all other math domains, but there were only six studies of interventions targeting fractions. We found no evidence of adverse effects in the sense that no method or domain had robustly negative associations with effect sizes.
The meta‐regressions revealed few other significant moderators. Interventions in higher Grades tend to have somewhat lower effect sizes, whereas there were no significant differences between QES and RCTs, general tests and tests of subdomains, and math tests and reading tests.
Authors’ Conclusions
Our results indicate that interventions targeting students with or at risk of academic difficulties from kindergarten to Grade 6 have on average positive and statistically significant short‐term and follow‐up effects on standardised tests in reading and mathematics. Peer‐assisted instruction and small‐group instruction are likely to be effective components of such interventions.
We believe the relatively large effect sizes together with the substantial unexplained heterogeneity imply that schools can reduce the achievement gap between students with or at risk of academic difficulties and not‐at‐risk students by implementing targeted interventions, and that more research into the design of effective interventions is needed.
This study employed a meta-analytic technique to compare the academic achievement during a 12-year period of secondary students across a broad latitude of academic areas who were instructed through traditional methodology, traditional methodology supplemented with computer-assisted instruction (CAI), or CAI alone. Moreover, the study compared more recent with earlier research findings. An overall mean effect size of 0.187 was calculated, indicating that, on the average, students receiving traditional instruction supplemented with CAI attained higher academic achievement than did 57.2% of those receiving only traditional instruction. However, a -0.762 correlation between effect size and years indicates that the effect of CAI on academic achievement has declined during this period.
This meta-analysis compared the academic achievement of students in grades six through twelve who received either traditional instruction or traditional instruction supplemented with computer-assisted instruction (CAI) across eight curricular areas. From the forty-two conclusions, an overall mean effect size of 0.209 was calculated, indicating that, on average, students receiving traditional instruction supplemented with CAI attained higher academic achievement than did 58.2 percent of those receiving only traditional instruction. The comparative effectiveness of CAI may be seen in the following descending order mean effect sizes: science, 0.639; reading, 0.262; music, 0.230; special education, 0.214; social studies, 0.205; math, 0.179; vocational education, -0.080; and English, -0.420.
Best Evidence Encyclopedia is a free web site created by the Johns Hopkins University School of Education's Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education (CDDRE) under funding from the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
The paper explores the interactions and dynamics associated with stu-dents' learning about business strategy using a computer-based simulation game. Developed from student interviews, a causal loop diagram is pre-sented which distills the relationships between the key learning variables. The diagram demonstrates that reinforcing behavior is at work in the lear-ning process, with students being caught up in either a virtuous or vicious cycle of learning. A key determinant of the path followed by students is module design which is inherently linked to both students' motivation to play the game and their understanding of the associations between strate-gizing and resulting business performance.
Different learning environments provide different learning experiences and ought to serve different achievement goals. We hypothesized that constructivist learning environments lead to the attainment of achievements that are consistent with the experiences that such settings provide and that more traditional settings lead to the attainments of other kinds of achievement in accordance with the experiences they provide. A meta-analytic study was carried out on 32 methodologically-appropriate experiments in which these 2 settings were compared. Results supported 1 of our hypotheses showing that overall constructivist learning environments are more effective than traditional ones (ES = .460) and that their superiority increases when tested against constructivist-appropriate measures (ES = .902). However, contrary to
expectations, traditional settings did not differ from constructivist ones when traditionally-appropriate measures were used. A number of possible interpretations are offered among them the possibility that traditional settings have come to incorporate some constructivist elements. This possibility is supported
by other findings of ours such as smaller effect sizes for more recent studies and for longer lasting periods of instruction.
The purpose of this review is to learn from rigorous evaluations of alternative technology applications how features of using technology programs and characteristics of their evaluations affect reading outcomes for students in grades K-12. The review applies consistent inclusion standards to focus on studies that met high methodological standards. A total of 84 qualifying studies based on over 60,000 K-12 participants were included in the final analysis. Consistent with previous reviews of similar focus, the findings suggest that educational technology applications generally produced a positive, though small, effect (ES = +0.16) in comparison to traditional methods. There were differential impacts of various types of educational technology applications. In particular, the types of supplementary computer-assisted instruction programs that have dominated the classroom use of educational technology in the past few decades were not found to produce educationally meaningful effects in reading for K-12 students (ES = +0.11), and the higher the methodological quality of the studies, the lower the effect size. In contrast, innovative technology applications and integrated literacy interventions with the support of extensive professional development showed more promising evidence. Although many more rigorous, especially randomized, studies of newer applications are needed, what unifies the methods found in this review to have great promise is the use of technologies in close connection with teachers’ efforts.
The present review examines research on the effects of educational technology applications on mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms. Unlike previous reviews, this review applies consistent inclusion standards to focus on studies that met high methodological standards. In addition, methodological and substantive features of the studies are investigated to examine the relationship between educational technology applications and study features. A total of 74 qualified studies were included in our final analysis with a total sample size of 56,886 K-12 students: 45 elementary studies (N = 31,555) and 29 secondary studies (N = 25,331). Consistent with the more recent reviews, the findings suggest that educational technology applications generally produced a positive, though modest, effect (ES = +0.15) in comparison to traditional methods. However, the effects may vary by educational technology type. Among the three types of educational technology applications, supplemental CAI had the largest effect with an effect size of +0.18. The other two interventions, computer-management learning and comprehensive programs, had a much smaller effect size, +0.08 and +0.07, respectively. Differential impacts by various study and methodological features are also discussed.
This article reviews research on the achievement outcomes of three types of approaches to improving elementary mathematics: mathematics curricula, computer-assisted instruction (CAI), and instructional process programs. Study inclusion requirements included use of a randomized or matched control group, a study duration of at least 12 weeks, and achievement measures not inherent to the experimental treatment. Eighty-seven studies met these criteria, of which 36 used random assignment to treatments. There was limited evidence supporting differential effects of various mathematics textbooks. Effects of CAI were moderate. The strongest positive effects were found for instructional process approaches such as forms of cooperative learning, classroom management and motivation programs, and supplemental tutoring programs. The review concludes that programs designed to change daily teaching practices appear to have more promise than those that deal primarily with curriculum or technology alone.
Differences among the performances of third-grade students when using a microcomputer, worksheets, and precision teaching timing procedures for independent practice to master basic multiplication facts following process learning, were examined. Based on the data analyses, practice using the daily one-minute timings of precision teaching was the most effective strategy considering a time-cost ratio, although students preferred using the microcomputer for independent practice. Of particular importance, however, was the lack of change in student performance over a six-week period, despite daily drill-and-practice sessions. The practice of reserving the last part of daily lessons for independent practice in mathematics is not supported.
Describes results of a meta-analysis that was conducted to determine whether there was a difference among the responses of secondary urban, rural, and suburban students to computer- assisted instruction. Discusses effect sizes and comparing mean effect size by educational setting. (LRW)
This study investigated whether the mathematics achievement of at-risk students using computer-assisted instruction (CAI) differed significantly from the achievements of at-risk students using other methods of instruction. At-risk fifth graders were randomly selected across a school district and assigned to one of three groups: (a) extended computer time (T1), (b) extended time-on-task (T2), (c) control group (C). All students used classroom computers; group T1 spent an extra 60 minutes per week engaged in CAI. Group T2 had special workbooks and worked for an equal amount of noninstructional time independently. Students were pretested in December and posttested in May. Software was correlated to the text, state essential elements, the workbook, and tests; the same software was used by all students. Mean gain scores were computed and the analysis of variance and multiple comparisons tests were employed. A one-factor ANOVA was conducted on treatments and a two-factor ANOVA on gender. Analysis indicated a significant difference in achievement between boys in group T1 and boys in group T2. Girls in group T1 achieved greater gains than girls using workbooks, but not at a statistically significant level.
Classroom use of the microcomputer as an aid to learning has been patchy [Bleach 1986] and disappointing [Shiengold 1983] throughout the primary school both in quantity and quality. In an attempt to understand teacher approaches to computer‐assisted learning, case studies were undertaken in five primary schools. One of the objectives was to discover to what degree do existing instructional styles and processes precondition the instructional use of the computer. The findings below suggest a degree of instructional corroboration between classroom and computer approaches to the learning of the young primary school child.
Kolb's theory of experiential learning provides a natural setting to evaluate simulation games. In this article, an experimental design is developed to test whether economic simulation games support the learning process corresponding to Kolb's experiential learning cycle. The empirical results indicate that simulation games support the four learning stages more efficiently than traditional teaching methods.
Used quantitative techniques, or meta-analysis, to integrate findings from 51 independent evaluations of computer-based teaching in Grades 6–12. The analysis showed that computer-based teaching raised students" scores on final examinations by approximately .32 standard deviation, or from the 50th to the 63rd percentile. Computer-based instruction also had smaller, positive effects on scores on follow-up examinations given to students several months after the completion of instruction. In addition, students who were taught on computers developed positive attitudes toward the computer and toward the courses they were taking. The computer reduced substantially the amount of time that students needed for learning. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction is reviewed with emphasis on results within secondary school settings. This review summarizes studies of achievement, attitude, retention, time savings, and cost. It is concluded that CAI leads to achievement levels equal to or higher than traditional instruction, as well as to favorable attitudes, significant time savings, and comparable levels of retention and cost.
A decade has passed since the publication of Campbell and Stanley's (1963) monumental treatise on experimental design in educational research. That document synthesized much prior thinking as well as original work and established clear principles for both designing and evaluating educational experiments. It provided a systematic study of quasi-experiments, i.e., useful compromises on the characteristics of true experimental designs. It also did much to develop the experimental attitude so apparent today among experienced and novice investigators alike. In analyzing threats to the validity of experiments, Campbell and Stanley distinguished between internal validity (i.e., interpretability) and external validity (i.e., generalizability), but they concentrated attention on internal validity. An important extension of their work was contributed by Bracht and Glass (1968), who elaborated considerably the concept of external validity. They dealt with two classes of threats to external validity, calling these population validity and ecological validity. Under the first heading, they examined the issues involved in generalizing from samples, through experimentally accessible populations of students, to ultimate target populations and reviewed the possibility that person characteristics might interact with experimental variables to limit generalizations about treatment effects. Under ecological validity, they discussed the problems of describing independent variables, multiple-treatment interference, Hawthorne, novelty, and experimenter effects, pretest and posttest sensitization, interaction of history and treatment, and the measurement of dependent variables. They closed their paper suggesting that extension of the list of threats and revision of experimental designs to control for such threats would be useful next steps. This paper explores some of these next steps. Initially, it seeks merely to reconstruct and extend some old ideas for inclusion in the field that might be called the "metatheory" or "comparative methodology" of educational research. In so doing, however, it suggests that some rather unconventional additions and revisions in the design and analysis of educational experiments may be needed. It becomes apparent that the biggest threat to external validity may come when the experiment does not fit the nature of the behavior being studied and,
The use of computers to assist in the learning situation in a simulation, game, tutorial, or drill and practice mode is reviewed on an international basis with centers of activity identified in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Japan. The use of the computer as an adjunct to support learning is compared to its use in a substitution mode. Evaluative studies of CAI are reviewed and costs are examined. The critical issues of CAI are enumerated and analyzed as they pertain to computer hardware, CAI languages, and courseware development and use. The future of CAI is briefly sketched from the viewpoints of individuals prominent in the field. Finally, conclusions are drawn and recommendations are offered to help ensure the most educationally cost-effective use of CAI in learning situations.