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Anthropol. Sci. 102(4), 363-378, 1994
A Human Skeleton of the Early Phase of the Okhotsk Culture
Unearthed at the Hamanaka-2 Site, Rebun Island, Hokkaido
HAJIME ISHIDA1, TSUNEHIKO HANIHARA2,
OSAMU KONDO1, AND NAOYUKI OHSHIMA1
1 Department of Anatomy, Sapporo Medical University School of
Medicine, S-1, W-17, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, 060 Japan
2 Department of Anatomy, Tohoku University School of Medicine,
2-1 Seiryo-cho, Aoba-sku, Sendai 980-77, Japan
Received February 16, 1994
•ôGH•ô Abstract•ôGS•ô A burial site of the early phase of the Okhotsk culture was found at
the Hamanaka-2 site, Rebun Island, Hokkaido, from which an adult female human
skeleton was unearthed. This is the oldest extant human remains from the Okhotsk
culture. Both measurements and nonmetric traits of the skeleton showed that she
has common physical characteristics with the Northern Mongoloid populations.
Because her skeletal morphology shows a contrast to those of the Jomon, Epi-
Jomon and Ainu peoples, we reconfirmed the earlier conclusion that the Okhotsk
people were originated in the northern area including the Sakhalin and Amur
region and then migrated into the northern Hokkaido with their culture. Severe
dental wear had caused apical periodontitis around the left lower first molar,
secondarily resulting in tooth fracture. Compression fractures affected the first and
third lumbar vertebrae, probably because of osteoporosis.
•ôGH•ô Key Words•ôGS•ô: skeletal morphology, Okhotsk culture, Rebun, dental pathology,
compression fracture
INTRODUCTION
Many archaeological sites of the Okhotsk culture are located in Hamanaka
district, in the northern part of Rebun Island, Hokkaido Prefecture. These have
revealed some human skeletal remains of the Okhotsk culture. Professor Sakuzaemon
Kodama of Hokkaido University unearthed about 20 human skeletal remains at the
Funadomari site in 1949 (Ito and Kodama, 1963), and Professor Tadahiko Matsuno
of Hokkaido University recovered four human skeletal remains at the Kanzaki site
in 1967 (Matsuno et al., 1968); however, those anthropological data have never been
published.
Recently, the Hamanaka-2 site was excavated by Professor Ushio Maeda of
University of Tsukuba and Professor Kiyoshi Yamaura of Rikkyo University in
1990, who found the remains of eight infants and children in a shell mound (Maeda
and Yamaura, 1992). The physical characteristics of those skeletons were reported
364 ISHIDA et at.
by the present authors (Ishida and Hanihara, 1992). These four and other researchers
have continued excavations at the Hamanaka-2 site since 1991 in the hope of
elucidating the origin, affinity and life style of the Okhotsk culture (Yamaura and
Maeda, 1994). In 1992, a burial of the early phase of the Okhotsk culture (hereafter
called "the Towada phase," in keeping with Japanese nomenclature) was found,
from which an adult skeleton was unearthed in good preservation. The Towada
phase is now defined as the second earliest phase of the Okhotsk culture, following
the Susuya phase (Maeda, 1987). The adult skeleton from the Hamanaka-2 site was
the first discovery for the Towada phase and is the oldest human remains of the
Okhotsk culture at the present. Seven other human skeletal remains of the Okhotsk
culture have been recovered there. The authors investigated all these materials for
a report in an excavation monograph edited by Maeda and Yamaura (1994).
Since the recovery of many human skeletal remains from the Moyoro shell
mound, Omisaki site and others in Hokkaido, morphological studies of the skeletons
have provided a number of hints as to the origin of the Okhotsk people. They have
been found to show much closer affinities with the Northern Mongoloid populations
than with the Jomon or Ainu peoples (Kodama, 1948; Suzuki, 1958; Yamaguchi,
1974, 1981; Ishida, 1988a, 1994; Kozintsev, 1990, 1992). However, because the
human skeletal remains described in earlier reports were not from early phases of
the Okhotsk culture, we could not eliminate the possibility that some of them
intermarried with the people already living in Hokkaido at that time, that is, the Ainu
ancestors (Ishida, 1988a, 1988b; Kozintsev, 1990, 1992). That is the reason for the
interest in the present findings.
The subjects of this study are to present skeletal metric and nonmetric charac
teristicsof the material, to evaluate affinities with the neighboring populations, and
to show life activity-induced pathology seen in this individual.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The material, numbered HM2 I-3, was derived from the Towada phase level of
the Okhotsk culture on August, 1992 (Yamaura and Maeda, 1994). It is associated
with one complete Towada type pot. I-3 is a nearly complete skeleton of an adult
female of mature age. The sex determination is based on the morphology of its great
sciatic notch, pubic ramus, cranium and long bones. The estimate of age at death
is based on its symphyseal surface morphology and dental wear.
Thirty-five cranial measurements, including facial flatness ones, were taken
(Brauer, 1988; Yamaguchi, 1973). Next, upper facial height was also measured
following Howell's method (1973). The cranium was examined for the presence or
absence of thirty-three nonmetric cranial traits, as defined by Dodo (1972, 1974,
1986a) and Kozintsev (1990, 1992, 1993). Long bones were measured following
Martin's methods (Brauer, 1988). In addition, maximum and minimum shaft
An Early Human Skeleton of Okhotsk Culture 365
diameters of ulnae were also measured. When subtrochanteric diameters of femur
were measured, in place of sagittal and transverse ones, the maximum and minimum
ones were taken. Transverse diameters of tibial shaft were measured according to
the definition given by Vallois (Olivier, 1960). Pathological findings were diagnosed
by both macroscopic and radiological examinations.
Biological distances based on cranial measurements were estimated by Penrose's
shape distances (Penrose, 1954). The likelihood of allocation of the HM2 I-3 was
calculated by Sjovold's method (1975) in terms of nonmetric cranial traits.
DESCRIPTION AND MEASUREMENTS
Cranial measurements and indices are listed in Table 1. Nonmetric cranial traits
and limb bone measurements and indices are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Figures 1 and 2 show the cranium and limb bones of the HM2 I-3, respectively.
Length-breadth index is mesocranic (76.3). The temporal lines developed in the
frontal region wind acutely inward (minimum frontal breadth: 88). The mastoid
process is rather large with a distinct supramastoid ridge and mastoid crest, while
the nuchal lines or external occipital protuberance are obtuse. The sagittal parieto-
occipital index is slightly low (91.1). The occipito-mastoid wormian and precondylar
tubercle are recognizable on the left side. The glabella and superciliary arches are
not developed and the nasion is not engraved. Supraorbital foramina are bilateral;
the left consists of two supraorbital nerve grooves in the frontal bone. The high and
wide face is mainly caused by large maxillae and zygomatic bones. The infraorbital
suture is not intersected by the zygomatic bone, whose form was classified into type
I defined by Kozintsev (1993). The piriform orifice is narrow and high. The canine
fossa of the maxilla is very shallow with a large alveolar process. The frontal flatness
index is low, while the zygomaxillary portion shows some prognatism. The palatine
and mandibular tori are visible. The mandibular condyle as well as the temporal
components of the temporo-mandibular joint shows osteoarthrotic changes.
All thirty-two teeth are preserved in the alveolar processes. While the third molars
show moderate occlusal attrition, all other teeth exhibit pronounced wear with their
dentine or even pulps exposed. Abrasion and pathological changes of the teeth were
discussed in a later section. Because of the severe wear, it was impossible to measure
the crown diameters or examine nonmetric crown characters.
The mid-shaft of the humerus is flattened. The crest of the greater tubercle is
distinct and elongated. Femoral length is almost equal to the average of the Omisaki
female (Mitsuhashi and Yamaguchi, 1962a). The mid-shaft of femur forms a weak
pilaster and the subtrochanteric shaft is platymeric. The degree of medio-lateral shaft
flatness of the tibia is in the platycnemic range. The cross section of the tibial shaft
was classified into Hrdlicka's type II or VI (Stewart, 1952); i.e., it did not form a
vertical line in the posterior surface. The tibio-femoral index based on the maximum
366 ISHIDA et al.
length shows the relative shortness of the tibia, while the radio-Numeral index is
not very low. The talocrural joint surfaces of tibia and talus have additional articular
surfaces or tubercles, which are called squatting facets; these are common in the
Okhotsk people (Mitsuhashi and Yamaguchi, 1962b).
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
The biological distances from the HM2 I-3 were estimated by Penrose's shape
distances (Penrose, 1954), based on the 17 cranial and facial flatness measurements
listed in Table 4. The available comparison samples consist of the Okhotsk people
from the Omisaki site at the northern part of Hokkaido (Ishida, 1988a), Hokkaido
Table 1. Cranial measurements and indices of the HM2 I-3 human skeleton at the Towada phase of
the Okhotsk culture from the Hamanaka-2 site, Rebun Island, Hokkaido
An Early Human Skeleton of Okhotsk Culture 367
Ainu (Koganei, 1893; Yamaguchi, 1973), Jomon (Dodo, 1986b; Yamaguchi, 1980),
and the Ulch in the lower Amur basin (Ishida, unpublished data). The HM2 I-3 is
the closest to the Okhotsk, and the next closest to the Ulch.
On the basis of the 17 available nonmetric cranial traits, we calculated average
probabilities of likelihood for allocating the HM2 I-3 using Sjovold's method
(1975). The comparison samples contain the Aleut, Asian Eskimo, Ekven (the Iron
Age), Evenki, Buryat, Neolithic Baikalian, Hokkaido Ainu (Ishida and Dodo, 1992),
Amur (Ishida, 1990) and Sakhalin Ainu (Ishida and Kida, 1991). Table 5 shows that
the HM2 I-3 is more probably allocated to the Buryat, Neolithic Baikalian, or
Sakhalin Ainu than to the Hokkaido Ainu or the Arctic peoples.
Mitsuhashi and Yamaguchi (1962a, 1962b), investigating the Omisaki samples
of the Okhotsk culture, pointed out that the Okhotsk people had a short tibia in
comparison with the femur, while their forearm bones were relatively long as
compared with the humerus. The HM2 I-3 also has those characteristics. In addition,
the HM2 I-3 has the following shaft morphology of limb bones, which is consistent
with those of Omisaki Okhotsk people: flattened shaft of the humerus; platymeria
of the femoral upper shaft; and platycnemia of the tibial shaft. The Hokkaido Ainu
have different proportions of limb bones, while their shaft shapes are rather similar
to those of the Okhotsk people (Koganei, 1893; Yamaguchi, 1983).
All these results indicated that the HM2 I-3 shows closer affinities with the
Okhotsk people and the Northern Mongoloid populations than with the Hokkaido
Table 2. Nonmetric cranial variations of the HM2 I-3 skeleton from the Hamanaka-2 site
+: present, -: absent, /: unknown
368 ISHIDA et al.
Table 3. Limb bone measurements and indices of the HM2 I-3 skeleton from the Hamanaka-2 site
An Early Human Skeleton of Okhotsk Culture 369
Fig. 1. Cranium of the HM2 I-3 from the Hamanaka-2 site, Rebun, Hokkaido.
370 ISHIDA et al.
Fig. 2. Frontal and back views of right limb bones of the HM2 I-3 from the Hamanaka-2 site, Rebun,
Hokkaido.
An Early Human Skeleton of Okhotsk Culture 371
Ainu. That confirms the earlier conclusion that the people of the Okhotsk culture
were derived from the Northern Mongoloid, not Jomon or Ainu, stock (Yamaguchi,
1974; Ishida, 1988). The human skeletal remains of the late phase of the Epi-Jomon
period, that is, just before the Okhotsk culture, were recovered at the Onkoromanai
shell mound in Wakkanai, Hokkaido in 1959. They have many common character
isticswith the Ainu and Jomon peoples and are quite different in morphology from
Table 4. Comparisons of cranial and facial flatness measurements
1 Ishida (1988); 2 Koganei (1893) , partly supplemented by B. Yamaguchi (Yamaguchi, 1973);
3 Dodo (1986) , Yamaguchi (1980); 4 Ishida (unpublished data).
Table 5. Average probabilities of likelihood for allocating the
HM2 I-3
372 ISHIDA et al.
the Okhotsk people (Yamaguchi, 1963). The morphological contrast between the
Onkoromanai and Hamanaka remains seems to strongly confirm that the Okhotsk
people were originated in the northern area including Sakhalin and suddenly
appeared in northern Hokkaido and that the Ainu ancestors did not participate in
the Okhotsk people's formation.
As mentioned above, Maeda (1987) considered the Susuya type pottery to be the
marker of the earliest phase of the Okhotsk culture. However, some archaeologists
argue that the Towada phase was the beginning of the Okhotsk culture and that the
Susuya phase preceded the Okhotsk culture (Ohyi, 1982). It is certain that the
Towada phase was included in the Okhotsk culture based on the results of not only
archaeological investigations but also this osteological study. The present lack of
human skeletal remains of the Susuya phase prevents definite statement whether the
Susuya phase belonged to the Okhotsk culture.
LIFE ACTIVITY-INDUCED PATHOLOGY
Occupational stress, habitat, nutritional status, disease and trauma sometimes
result in structural modifications of bones and teeth (Iscan and Kennedy, 1989).
There has been little osteoarchaeological or paleopathological research on the
Okhotsk people; Kodama (1948) noted severe dental wear in the Moyoro Okhotsk
people, and Yamaguchi (1967) reported that a male from the Omisaki site had been
wounded by a stone arrowhead in his right hip bone. Although much investigation
must be done on life activity-induced pathology in the Okhotsk people for a clear
picture of their lives and epidemiology of diseases, the following data from the HM2
I-3 is a step in that investigation.
Dental wear and pathology (Fig. 3)
The left lower incisors and canine exhibited the distinct pattern of labial rounding
ascribed to the use of the teeth for skin-working, which is typical among hunter-
gatherer peoples (Scott, 1991). The HM2 I-3 had developed an oblique wear plane,
sloping upward to lingual in the upper molars and downward to buccal in the lower
molars, at an angle of about 30 degrees against the horizontal occlusal plane. Smith
(1984) suggested that agriculturalists tended to exhibit a steeper angle of molar wear
while hunter-gatherers developed flatter molar wear, probably due to differences in
the toughness of the food consumed in the two life styles. However, according to
stable isotope and zooarchaeological analyses (Koike et al., 1992; Nishimoto, 1985),
the Okhotsk people most likely developed a considerable maritime infrastructure
and used sea mammals and fish for food mainly. In this individual, the steep angle
of molar wear might be produced not only by attrition but also by abrasion, such
as that caused by working pelts. Light and electron microscopic surveys will be
necessary for refining our understanding of the cause of that abrasion.
An Early Human Skeleton of Okhotsk Culture 373
Accompanied with the considerable wear, apical periodontitis and tooth fracture
were seen in the left lower first molar. The bone cavity around the root of the left
lower first molar is probably caused by chronic apical periodontitis and radicular
cyst (Shafer et al., 1963; Ishikawa and Akiyoshi, 1978). The bone cavity is
surrounded by clearly sclerotic bone tissue diagnosed as condensing osteitis.
Excessive amounts of secondary cementum were deposited on the root surface as
a result of radicular granuloma. A small bone cavity opening to the labial surface
Fig. 3. Pronounced crown wear in the upper and lower dentition, exhibiting a steeper angle of wear
on the posterior teeth. Chronic apical periodontitis and radicular cyst affected the lower left
first molar and its socket, resulting in the tooth fracture.
374 ISHIDA et al.
was also seen in the left lower lateral incisor. X-ray diagnosis confirmed that the
other teeth were not affected. We can easily imagine that pulp exposure through
extreme wear resulted in bacterial infection of dental pulp and periapical tissue. In
addition, even if dentin tissue remained on the pulp, the dentin does not seem to
have prevented infection of the pulp (Tronstad and Langelland, 1971). Tooth
fracture seems to have occurred secondarily due to severe wear and apical
periodontitis under the stress of mastication (Shafer et al., 1963).
Fractures of lumbar vertebrae (Fig. 4)
Compression fractures affected the first and third lumbar vertebrae. Anterior
wedge fracture with 52% loss of vertebral body height occurred in the first lumbar
vertebra, and central compression fracture in the third one showed a so-called fish
vertebra. X-rays revealed moderate loss of trabecular marking in the vertebral
bodies, indicating osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is likely to occur in mature and senile
aged females and weakens their bones, resulting in fractures of the vertebral body,
femoral neck and distal radius (Apley and Solomon, 1993).
As a result of compression fractures, the normal convex-forward curve of the
lumbar region had disappeared in this skeleton. Compression fracture is by far the
most common vertebral fracture, usually affecting the anterior part of the vertebral
body (Apley and Solomon, 1993). This is caused by forward flexion or axial
compression (Leventhal, 1992). Merbs (1983) guessed that a high incidence of the
vertebral compression fracture in a Canadian Inuit population, Sadlermiuts, was due
to sledding and tobogganing over rough and icy terrain. This individual might have
engaged in such activities in her lifetime, though it seems quite probable that
osteoporosis triggered the fracture of the lumbar vertebrae.
CONCLUSION
The HM2 I-3 remains from the Towada phase of the Okhotsk culture has a close
affinity with the Northern Mongoloid population in terms of cranial measurements,
nonmetric cranial variations and limb bone morphology. The skeletal morphology
of the HM2 I-3 is well contrasted with that of the Onkoromanai people of the late
phase of Epi-Jomon period in many respects, who are similar to the Jomon and Ainu.
These data confirmed the earlier hypothesis that the Okhotsk people were originated
in the northern area, perhaps, the Amur basin and Sakhalin, and that they came to
the Hokkaido with their culture.
The teeth exhibit pronounced wear with dentine exposed. Chronic apical
periodontitis and radicular cyst affected the lower left first molar and its socket,
resulting in fracture of the tooth. In addition, this individual suffered from
compression fracture of the lumbar vertebrae, probably due to osteoporosis.
An Early Human Skeleton of Okhotsk Culture 375
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank Professor Ushio Maeda, University of Tsukuba and Professor
Kiyoshi Yamaura, Rikkyo University, for their collaboration with us to recover
human skeletal remains of the Okhotsk culture. We are also grateful to Professor
Hajime Sakura, Sapporo Gakuin University, and Dr. Tetsuo Masuda, Sapporo
Medical University, for their valuable suggestions, and to Mrs. Mikako Higuchi for
her technical work.
This study was supported in part by Grant-in-aid for Scientific Research from the
Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, Japan (No. 04740463), and a Grant
in-aid for Scientific Research from the Toyota Foundation (No. 92-II-085).
Fig. 4. Lumbar vertebrae of the HM2 I-3. Compression fractures affected the bodies of first and third
lumbar vertebrae. X-ray revealed moderate loss of trabecular marking in the vertebral bodies,
indicating osteoporosis (right).
376 ISHIDA et al.
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