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72
Journal
of International
Studies
© Foundation
of International
Studies, 2012
© CSR, 2012
Scientifi c Papers
Lubov Semiv
University of Banking of the National Bank of Ukraine
Lviv Institute of Banking Business
проспект Т. Шевченка, 9
semivlk@rambler.ru
Yulia Hvozdovych
NAS Ukraine
Institute for the Regional Research
Kozelnytska st.4
Lviv, 79026, Ukraine
cheska4x@gmail.com
Abstract. e migration of high-skilled youth is a natural phenomenon in terms of globali-
zation and brings considerable benefi ts to countries that own the intellectual capital
of these workers. e main trends related to the international youth migration that
can cause the further threat of the “brain drain” in Ukraine are explored, namely: la-
bour migration and “brain waste”, educational migration, migration for international
scientifi c cooperation and professional training and “idea migration”. Some policy
measures that can encourage an eff ective process of “brain circulation” in Ukraine are
proposed.
Keywords: youth, intellectual migration, labour migration, academic mobility,
outsourcing .
JEL Classifi cation: F22, J24, J61, O15.
INTRODUCTION
Ukraine’s admission to the Bologna process in 2005 has created favourable conditions for students,
teachers and scientists for a gradual entry into the civilized mainstream of educational and scientifi c mobility
(academic mobility). is caused an opportunity for their personal development, strengthening cooperation
between researchers and research institutions at international level and within Ukraine, improving the qual-
ity of higher education and research activity.
But fortunately for many young people especially from developing countries, such as Ukraine, the proc-
ess of studying abroad is the fi rst step in establishing permanent residence in the host country and can cause
the phenomenon of “brain drain” or intellectual emigration. e waste of skills or “brain waste” that occurs
Received:
March, 2012
1st Revision:
June, 2012
Accepted:
October, 2012
Received:
March, 2012
1st Revision:
June, 2012
Accepted:
October, 2012
e intellectual migration of the youth in Ukraine:
the backgrounds for “brain circulation”
Lubov Semiv, Yulia Hvozdovych “ e intellectual migration of the youth
in Ukraine: the backgrounds for «brain circulation»”,
Journal of International Studies, Vol. 5, No 2, 2012, pp. 72-81.
Lubov Semiv, Yulia Hvozdovych
The intellectual migration of the youth in Ukraine:
the backgrounds for “brain circulation”
73
when highly skilled workers migrate into forms of employment not requiring the application of the skills
and experience applied in the former job, is the another chronic form and outcome of Ukrainian labour emi-
gration. e new trend of “idea migration” appeared recently with the improvement of communicational
technologies and new forms of work organization and training (as outsourcing, crowd-sourcing, e-learning)
and does not involve physical movement of the creator, but leads to the outfl ow of progressive ideas abroad.
In such context the problem of potential intellectual migration in Ukraine acquires a special signifi cance
of correct migration policy aimed to turn a negative phenomenon of “brain drain” (or even worse – ‘brain
waste”) into the “brain gain” and “brain circulation”.
e problem of migration from Ukraine and factors aff ecting emigration mood has been challeng-
ing a great interest of Ukrainian researchers (Pirozhkov S., Malinovska O., Khomra O., 2003; Libanova
E., Poznyak O., 2002; Balakireva, Valkovana, 2006). us, Nikolayevskyy (2010) studies recent trends
in intellectual migration and consider it to be one of the main problem of modern Ukrainian society. O.
P’yatkovska (2012) stresses that the fi fth wave of immigration that has appeared today, refers to highly-
skilled youth. V. Kipen (2011) asserts that the “pushing” factors (the counteraction between the individual
development of needs, capabilities and the conditions to satisfy them), not “pulling”, are dominant in emi-
gration mood of young Ukrainians.
At the same time foreign experts (L. Lowell, A. Findlay and E. Stewart, 2004) emphasize that return
migration is thought to generate signifi cant benefi ts for the migrant-sending country. Especially in the case
of skilled returnees, their newly accrued skills, taste for innovation, and networks can be advantageous.
us, the main aims of the article are: to highlight new tendencies in intellectual mobility of Ukrain-
ian youth; to defi ne if there is a potential danger of “brain drain”; and to fi nd/suggest possible actions for its’
solution via “brain gain” to “brain circulation”.
MIGRATION MOOD
ere is no exact data on the number of citizens who have recently emigrated abroad, as well as no
information about what part of all emigrants makes youth. But the fact that emigration from Ukraine is
becoming more widespread can be proved by empirical evidence and social research.
According to the survey that was held by the Fund “Democratic Initiatives” jointly with the “Ukrain-
ian Sociology Service” ( “Europe without barriers”, 2010) only 13.8% of youth aged 18-34 years had the
intention to leave their own country for permanent residence. More often young Ukrainians were willing to
stay abroad for some time (29.9%). e labour migration was the main purpose for visiting other countries
(65.1%), 30.1% of youth realized their tourist interest. Compared with 2003 the desire of young Ukrainians
to work abroad has increased 2.9 times (from 22.4% to 65.1%).
DEC Education Agency (N. Tarchenko, 2011) found that the number of Ukrainian students willing
to study outside Ukraine for the past 5 years has increased ten times e majority of Ukrainian students
prefer to study for a master’s degree abroad and 30% of students prefer going abroad to obtain a complete
higher education.
Another survey (Ukrainian centre for social reform, 2009) fi gured out that 17% of Ukrainians working
abroad had no desire or ability to return back Ukraine and more than half of them (55,9%) were young
persons aged 15 to 34 years.
e main “pushing” factors, why young people from Ukraine with tertiary education and perspectives
in scientifi c or innovation career are leaving the country today are (Pirozhkov S., Malinovska O., Khomra
O., 2003; Balakireva, Valkovana, 2006): 1) the high unemployment rate in Ukraine; 2) the low level of
Journal of International Studies Vol. 5, No.2, 2012
74
employment according to the specialty; 3) the low level of material and technical basis for scientifi c research;
4) the salary divergence in Ukraine and abroad; 5) institutional barriers to perform international coopera-
tion; 6) the poor innovation infrastructure, complicated mechanism of knowledge transfer and imperfect
venture capital market; 7) housing problems and others.
LABOUR MIGRATION AND “BRAIN WASTE”
According to the statistic data (2010) the number of Ukrainian youth working abroad has increased in
the last ten years. In 2006 there was 25% share of Ukrainian youth working abroad that left Ukraine during
the latest 2-3 years, in 2009 this share raised and now it counts 29%. e half part of these emigrants has
gained higher education in Ukraine.
us, 47% of young people that have been working abroad for last years were engaged in construction,
19% fulfi lled agricultural works, 12% were employed in trading. Housekeeping was the main job for the
10% of the youth, 8% took care after the retirees and children. e workplace of professionals, experts and
technical staff occupied only 6.0% of migrant workers (Boyko Z. 2010). is evidence shows that a signifi -
cant proportion of migrants had an unqualifi ed job that didn’t correspond to their educational level. It is
worth to notice that in the presence of relevant vacant places in the national labour market, the main reason
of labour migration is not a high unemployment rate in Ukraine but the low salary for the relevant work.
Migration processes between Ukraine and other countries have mainly “emigrational” nature, because
the number of “gone” youth exceeds 2-20 times (it depends on the country) the number of “arrived” youth.
In 2009 from Ukraine to Russia went 37801 person and came back 19427; to Germany went 9027 and
came back 269; to USA went 4150 and came back only 319. Despite the illegal status, not prestigious job
and adaptation diffi culties there are still 15% of youth that decide not to return from diff erent summer
programs like Work&Travel (StarTravel agency, 2010).
EDUCATIONAL MIGRATION
e increasing number of foreign students in the world is driven by several factors. e fi rst is the rising
numbers of young people completing secondary education and continuing on to tertiary education. e
second factor causing the rising number of foreign students is the increasing affl uence in many develop-
ing countries, which has made it possible for more parents to aff ord the cost of educating their children
abroad. e third factor behind growing student mobility is the globalization of education, be it through
the establishment of foreign branches of prestigious Western universities in developing countries or via the
promotion of student mobility within integrated markets, such as within the European Union or between
the countries of the Pacifi c and Australia (United Nations, 2011).
e main forms of obtaining foreign education for Ukrainians are:
– Obtaining complete higher education in foreign country;
– Receiving a diploma simultaneously from Ukrainian and foreign university within the bilateral agree-
ments between universities (several universities off er their students to gain basic Ukrainian higher edu-
cation and get a foreign degree, but the quality of such education is often questionable);
– Student internships and exchange programs;
– Postgraduate 1-2 year educational programs based on students grants or at their own expense. Ukrain-
ian students get such grants mostly from: Poland, Slovakia, USA and Germany;
– Short-term internship or targeted training for specifi c specialists (seminars, conferences etc.).
Lubov Semiv, Yulia Hvozdovych
The intellectual migration of the youth in Ukraine:
the backgrounds for “brain circulation”
75
e greatest share of European Higher Education Area (EHEA) students enrolled for a degree study in
another EHEA country come from Germany, and this is followed by France, Russia, Ukraine, Italy, Poland,
Slovakia and Greece and their quantity tends to increase from year to year. us, if in 2007 20.336 Ukrain-
ians have been gaining higher education in EHEA, then in 2009 their number has risen to 30459.[22] Most
Ukrainian students have been studying in Germany (9222), Russia (6922), Poland (2672), USA (1912),
Hungary (1475) and France (1099). e increasing tendency of the number of Ukrainian students studying
abroad is shown (Table 1).
Table 1
e number of Ukrainian student studying abroad according to the host country
e host country
2004 2006
% of all foreign
students from
Ukraine (2006)
Ukrainian
students,
number
% among
all foreign students
in host country
Ukrainian stu-
dents, number
% among
all foreign students in
host country
Germany 4959 2,6% 9222 3.6% 35.3%
Russia - - 6922 14,6% 26.5%
Poland 1800 23,9% 2672 20.5% 10.2%
USA - - 1912 7.1% 7,3%
Hungary 1005 8,2% 1475 9.8% 5,6%
France - - 1066 4% 4,0%
Czech Republic 302 2,9% 774 3.2% 2,9%
UK - - 524 1.9% 2,0%
e Republic of
Moldova
- - 512 26,6% 1,9%
Romania 782 8% 382 3.1% 1,4%
Bulgaria 435 5,4% 319 3.4% 1,2%
Greece 61 0,5% 202 1% 0,7%
Estonia 21 1,9% 95 4.3% 0,3%
Slovakia 135 8,2% 75 3.7% 0,2%
Source: Kelo M, Teichler U., Wächter B. (eds.) EURODATA – Student mobility in European higher education –
Bonn: Lemmens Verlags- & Mediengesellschaft, 2006; Mobility Barometer by Conor Cradden on behalf
of Education International & the European Students Union Education International & European Students Union,
Printed in Belgium, 2008; Teichler U, Ferencz I., Wächter B. (eds.) Mapping mobility in European higher education,
Vol. I: Overview and trends, Brussels. June 2011.
e data’s shown in Table 1 demonstrate: 1) that the number of Ukrainian students studying abroad had
an increasing tendency during 2004-2006 (fortunately, there is no more recent information) and 2) that in-
creased student mobility has been happening and could continue happening without the Bologna Process.
With the ratifi cation of Bologna agreements in Ukraine in 2005, several European students’ mobility
programs have started proceeding in the country, as DAAD (Germany), OAD (Austria), and TEMPUS
(EU) and others. EU Socrates-Erasmus and Leonardo large-scale programs are of much importance for
Ukraine. But, the scope of these entire programs share in Ukraine is extremely limited mainly because of the
delay in reforming the higher education system in the country especially in the autonomy of universities.
Journal of International Studies Vol. 5, No.2, 2012
76
Within the framework of the Tempus program since 1993 only 214 grants for individual mobility were
given to Ukrainian students. Since 2004, just 158 Ukrainian students and 35 scientists received scholarships
for study by Erasmus Mundus program (National Tempus offi ce in Ukraine, 2010).
e more popular and available for Ukrainian youth are the Grande programs provided by the certain
country, as DAAD (Germany) or Fulbright (USA). e number of grants intended for Eastern and Central
Europe by DAAD has been increasing annually by 10%, in particular this includes Ukraine, where in 2010
about 1,100 students and 220 teachers received the scholarship (DAAD offi ce, 2010). Another program
held by Fulbright Foundation and American Councils enables near 120 students from Ukraine annually to
establish their scientifi c practice in USA (Fulbright Ukraine, 2010).
is evidence shows that mobility is not likely being fully realized by the Bologna Process in Ukraine,
but there is a constant tendency of increasing number of Ukrainian students studying abroad.
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COOPERATION
AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
e value of academic mobility must not be diminishing today, especially for doctoral students
and young scientists, for whom mobility is an important tool for the immersion into the research process
and the diversifi cation of their research or teaching activities. ere are diff erent opportunities for youth
to be involved into the interuniversity or international scientifi c cooperation within the European or other
programs (TEMPUS-TACIS, TACIS-Delfa, EURECA, TIME, Marie Curie and others).
In 2007-2010, 601 Ukrainian teams took part in the 430 proposals submitted under 83 competitions
according to the 7
th
framework program of EU. Only 112 of them won the tender off er and have been select-
ed for funding in the amount of 7.96 million euro’s. e success rate of Ukraine, defi ned as the ratio of the
expected fi nancing to the proposed fi nancing (13,2%), is considerably less than the average for all countries
FP7 participants (20.31%), but corresponds to the new EU countries (13.01%) (Y. Supel. 2010).
In the previous 6th Framework Programme for Research (FP6) Doctoral candidates from Ukraine were
among the most active participants in Marie Curie Actions within EU neighbouring countries and provided
13% of the total number of participants and yielded only to Russia (Technopolis Group, 2010).
Fig.1 International cooperation of Ukrainian scientists (2000-2010)
Source: State Statistics Service of Ukraine
Lubov Semiv, Yulia Hvozdovych
The intellectual migration of the youth in Ukraine:
the backgrounds for “brain circulation”
77
We can also observe an upward trend in the level of international cooperation of Ukrainian scientists
in the last 10 years. In particular, there was an increase in the number of grants received from international
funds (from 1,138 in 2000 to 1,723 in 2010), a growing number of outbound visits for training or educa-
tion (1780 in 2000 to 3,933 in 2010), and the substantive growth of outbound visits for the purpose to carry
out a scientifi c research (from 3052 in 2000 to 5,291 in 2010) (Figure 1).
Figure 1 shows that the level of scientifi c cooperation between Ukrainian scientists and international
community has grown almost two times from 2000 till 2010. On the one hand this tendency is a good evi-
dence of Ukrainian entry into the international scientifi c arena. On the other hand it must be realized that
such temporary movements increases the likelihood for following emigration: after the return a specialist can
realize his dissatisfaction with the quality of life in Ukraine, low technical base for scientifi c work, inability to
use the research results, an occupied workplace, and therefore be willing to look for new trips abroad.
IDEA MIGRATION
A form of brain circulation unimpeded by physical borders and unconstrained by national boundaries
or even better a new form of brain drain that does not directly involve mobility has emerged recently and
grown in importance as outsourcing, overseas consultancy, scientifi c programs for foreign clients on grant
basis have emerged as current day avenues of knowledge migration.
Today Ukraine shows the high rates of market growth and leaves other countries far behind in terms of
the volume of IT outsourcing services exported and appears to be one of the biggest nearshore outsourcing
country for Europe (especially for Central and Scandinavian countries) and off shore for USA, Canada and
Asia countries. In 2010 Ukraine was at the 11th place in the top-20 world’s largest centers of IT-outsourcing
business entities (CEE IT Outsourcing Review, 2010).
Such a high position of Ukraine affi rms that: 1) the education level of our specialists is high; 2) the level
of confi dence of foreign companies and international experts to Ukrainian IT-professionals is favourable;
3) companies and specialists working in Ukraine, pay taxes, spend their salary inside the country, and thus
facilitate the economic development. However, it is also a symptom that there is a mass outfl ow of new in-
formation technologies and breakthrough ideas from Ukraine. Already in 1995 Russian scientists expressed
a great concern of hiring their researchers and professionals on the territory of Russia to work for Western
fi rms and asserted that it is one of the most dangerous forms of “brain drain” (Khromov, 1995).
FOREIGN EXPERIENCE TOWARDS “BRAIN GAIN” AND “BRAIN CIRCULATION”
At the end of XX century diff erent countries mainly in Asia (India, China, Korea and Taiwan) have expe-
rienced the exodus of their habitants. Many qualifi ed people have left their motherland. However these nations
have managed to overcome this harmful phenomenon. ey have created and implemented successful policies
which have led to the brain circulation or even to the brain gain (Zweig, D., Fung C. S., 2008):
– e establishment of research funds with the purpose to fund returnees’ scientifi c activities;
– e creation of postdoctoral centers in order to attract overseas Ph. D’s to return for postdoctoral posi-
tions on the mainland;
– e implementation of new regulations on “incubators” in hi-tech zones for overseas returnees;
– e establishment of world-class universities;
– e attraction of venture capital;
– e development of digital infrastructure in order to attract IT companies;
Journal of International Studies Vol. 5, No.2, 2012
78
– e remuneration of returnees corresponds to the payment in the U.S. (in purchasing power terms);
– e creation of good domestic conditions for returnees (preferential policies giving for returnees espe-
cially better living and working conditions);
– e diverse and active cooperation with scientifi c Diaspora.
Even European governors were concerned about the mass departure of their high-skilled citizens during
1980-1990’s mainly to the United States and Canada. us, they conducted eff ective actions for the return-
ing of their scientists and attracting promising young scientists from the third countries (R. Daugėlienė, R.
Marcinkevičienė, 2009, P. Giannoccolo, 2009):
– e creation and implementation of programmes stimulating scientists’ mobility (Marie Curie, “Blue
card” etc.);
– e accreditation of foreign diplomas;
– e simplifi ed visa system for qualifi ed professionals (particularly in UK and Germany);
– e reduction of cultural (linguistic) barriers (e.g. there is allowed to teach in English language, in
universities);
– e incentives and facilitations to the researcher’s family (the partner’s career, children’s education or
day-care, suitable accommodation and obligations remaining in the home country etc.);
– e incentives and facilitations to the researchers and theirs career (personal assistance with legal and
practical problems);
– Various Grants and Scholarships to young researches (UK, Germany. Finland. France etc.)
– e tax reduction and bilateral taxation;
– e marketing and recruiting policies (Some countries implement marketing and recruiting policies
directly oriented to attract foreign researchers);
– e support for intellectual property rights (Financial support for start-ups and spin-off s varies widely
from one Member State to another).
– e increase in fi nancing of R&D (up to 3-4% of GDP).
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF THE “BRAIN CIRCULATION” IN UKRAINE
Foreign experience stresses, that the brain drain phenomenon could be more eff ectively suppressed via
brain gain policy measures, rather than searching for answers and focus on the reasons leading to emigration
of highly skilled professionals. ere could be highlighted that if a country becomes an attractive place for
the international knowledge workers, it will also be attractive enough for the national “brain” to stay in the
country (R. Daugėlienė, R. Marcinkevičienė, 2009).
In order to facilitate the phenomenon of “brain circulation” of Ukrainian scientists and taking into ac-
count Ukrainian realities of limited state funding possibilities, we highly recommend the following actions:
1. To remove administrative and institutional barriers which hinder the international cooperation in edu-
cation and science, namely:
– to accelerate the adoption of the new version of Law of Ukraine “About higher education”, which
ensures universities’ autonomy for free coordination of internal and external academic mobility and
brings the third cycle of higher education to the world requirements;
– to establish a simplifi ed visa system for researchers and their families with the most visited countries
(in particular, an agreement on visa regime is already signed with Poland, but need also to be ratify
with other countries as U.S., Canada, Germany, Israel, etc.);
Lubov Semiv, Yulia Hvozdovych
The intellectual migration of the youth in Ukraine:
the backgrounds for “brain circulation”
79
– to achieve the accreditation of Ukrainian diplomas abroad and to simplify nostrifi cation of foreign
degrees in Ukraine;
– to revise the conditions of labour contract with scientists who are on temporary internships abroad
in order to save their workplace in Ukraine;
– to establish a simplifi ed customs barriers for transportation scientifi c equipment and units;
– to create and to maintain the Ukrainian scientists’ mobility Internet portal.
2. To development and implement the national program aimed to encourage the returning process of
Ukrainian scientists from abroad. In this case it is important to use the experience of Asian and EU
countries, like Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary and others.
3. To create the attractive domestic conditions for returnees on the basis of national research institutes and
universities. Particularly:
– to create the virtual research centers using modern interactive means of communication;
– to create the “mirror laboratories”, using the existing foreign lab as a model and its activities that are
linked to the foreign work as the original (Semyanov, 2007);
– to maintain and develop cooperation with Ukrainian scientists who already live and work abroad –
migration network. ere is a popular interpretation, that Diasporas are one of the most important
factor stimulating brain circulation as well as economics development.
– to give the organizational, informational, diplomatic and fi nancial support to migration networks
abroad, using their ability to spread the information among migrants about returning, employment
or opening their own business in motherland;
4. To stimulate Ukrainian attractiveness for researches and create favourable conditions for the profes-
sional growth of young scientists:
– to create and maintain competitive “technological parks” that must be opened to international coop-
eration;
– to develop and support the innovation infrastructure, technology transfer centers and to ensure their
active representation via Internet;
– to support centers for scientifi c and talented youth within the universities;
– to enlist the business sector in order to increase laboratory’s equipment base;
– to establish of world-class universities;
– to regulate the national venture market (in particular the list of entities that are subjected for venture
fi nancing);
– to introduce the benefi cial taxation system for researchers and idea creators;
– to solve the housing problem of young scientists, their families and honored returnees (using the
instruments of preferential credits or offi cial dwelling).
– to improve signifi cantly the conditions of payment for scientifi c work, the number of existing domes-
tic grants and the rate of scholarships for young scientists etc.
5. To reduce the emergence of the negative side eff ects from academic mobility, it is extremely important
to conduct the nationwide monitoring every 3-4 years concerning as many programs and areas of aca-
demic mobility as possible. Collected and analyzed data will allow both the government and universities
to change the priorities and to direct the resources to the interesting fi elds of research.
“Brain circulation” is an excellent antidote to chronic “brain drain”. Coherent and effi cient migration
regimes will help making the most of “brain circulation”.
Journal of International Studies Vol. 5, No.2, 2012
80
CONCLUSIONS
e analysis of the migration mood of Ukrainian youth based on the sociological surveys and empirical
data enables to make the conclusion that the level of potential intellectual outfl ow of Ukrainian youth tends
to increase. It includes the high rates of labour migration to the U.S., Russia, Germany and other countries;
the ongoing number of students involved into the education and training mobility and also the increasing
expansion of outsourcing international companies hiring youth in Ukraine but taking away their intellectual
capital abroad. Such a tendency is one of the displays of labour force and capital globalization that sooner
or later would appear in Ukraine.
e value of international cooperation shouldn’t be diminishing, but the potential risks for the eco-
nomic and demographic security of the country must be predicted. Considering Ukrainian realities, when
it is almost impossible to increase the state fi nancial input into R&D (even to the legitimate level of 1.7%
of GDP) it is of a great importance to prevent the next wave of intellectual migration and to create an at-
tractive conditions for “brain circulation” development. ere were suggested recommended actions for the
establishment of the “brain circulation” in Ukraine. Ukrainian’s government should implement social and
economical actions towards the establishment of this phenomenon. is includes the removal of adminis-
trative and institutional barriers which hinder the international cooperation in education and science, the
development of the national program aimed to encourage the returning process of Ukrainian scientists from
abroad, the establishment of good domestic conditions for returnees and periodic nationwide monitoring of
the outbound fl ows of Ukrainian students and scientists.
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