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Exposure of honeybees (Apis mellifera ) in Saskatchewan, Canada to organophosphorus insecticides
Abstract
Concentrations of 14 organophosphorus insecticides (OPs) were measured in Apis mellifera L.
(European honeybee) and hive matrices (honey and bee bread). Samples were collected from seven randomly selected colonies in central Saskatchewan during the summer of 2013. LC-MS/MS was used to identify and quantify individual OP by use of a modified quick easy cheap effective rugged safe (QuEChERS) method. Diazinon, dimethoate, and chlorpyrifos-oxon were the only OPs detected in honey with mean concentrations of 0.3, 1.5, and 0.2 ng/g, wet mass (wm), respectively. Fenamiphos, chlorpyrifos, and chlorpyrifos methyl were the only OPs detected in bee bread, with mean concentrations of 0.4, 2.7, and 15.8 ng/g, wm, respectively, while ethoprop, malathion, and dichlorvos were the only OPs detected in bees with mean concentrations of 1.4, 3.7, and 889.2 ng/g, wm, respectively. Total hazard quotients (HQs), based on lethality of bees exposed to OPs in honey and pollen consumed by bees ranged from 0.01 to 0.06 and based on lethality of bees from direct exposure to OPs ranged from 0.3 to 0.4 which suggests little hazard of OPs to Saskatchewan beehives.
Supplementary resource (1)
... The LOD of chlorpyrifos and profenofos was 0.14 and 5.4 ng/ g and 0.31 and 2.3 ng/ g respectively in honey samples and respective recovery of 92.4% and 109.6% (Al Naggar et al., 2015). New modified multi-residue method developed for pollen samples had a range of recovery between 60% and 136% with less than 30% relative standard deviations (RSDs) (Tong et al., 2016). ...
... Honey samples collected from the insectary of an Agricultural college contained residues less than permitted level and hence safe for human consumption according to Hemalatha et al., 2018. Another method of analysis obtained 69.4% to 91.8% of recovery and correlation coefficient was 0.97 for neonicotinoids (Al Naggar et al., 2015). The coefficient of determination observed in this study showed 0.9939, 0.9919, 0.9869, 0.9803, 0.9981, 0.9824 and 0.9824 for chlorpyrifos, fipronil, lambda cyhalothrin, profenofos, flubendiamide, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam respectively. ...
... Al Naggar et al. (2015) reported that pollen samples collected from the hives had the highest concentration of OP compounds, which is against our findings. When the orchards of dandelion and apple were sprayed with deltamethrin and mancozeb the nectar was polluted with its residues. ...
Honey and pollen collected from experimental fields in Kutladampatti village and farmer's field from different locations of Tamil Nadu were analysed for the presence of pesticide residues in modified QuEChERs method which showed the coefficient of determination (R 2) of 0.9939, 0.9919, 0.9869, 0.9803, 0.9981, 0.9918 and 0.9824 for chlorpyrifos, fipronil, lambda cyhalothrin, profenofos, imidacloprid, flubendiamide and thiamethoxam respectively. The method adopted in this experiment resulted in LOQ of 0.0036, 0.0057, 0.0027, 0.0027, 0.0032, 0.0041 and 0.0044 μg/g and LOD of 0.0011, 0.0017, 0.0008, 0.0008, 0.0009, 0.0012 and 0.0013 for chlorpyrifos, fipronil, lambda cyhalothrin, profenophos, imidacloprid, flubendiamide and thiamethoxam respectively. Recovery of the method was recorded as 96.33% for chlorpyrifos spiked with 0.1 μg/ g in honey while fipronil 0.1 μg/ g spiked honey samples recorded the maximum recovery of 102.33%. Lambda cyhalothrin recorded a maximum recovery of 98.67% in honey when spiked with 0.1 μg/ g of pesticide whereas Imidacloprid recorded a maximum recovery of 98.42% in honey when spiked with 0.1 μg/g of pesticide. Profenofos recorded with a maximum recovery of 103.33% in pollen sample spiked with 0.1 μg/ g. Flubendiamide recorded a maximum recovery of 99.67% in honey when spiked with 0.5 μg/ g of pesticide and thiamethoxam recorded 101.67% recovery in 0.1 μg/g spiked honey sample. The modified QuEChERS method recorded reduced matrix effect compared to conventional QuEChERS method. No residue of insecticidal chemicals was found in any of the samples collected from the experimental plots and farmer's holdings as well.
... Industrial activity, road traffic, and agriculture have all increased environmental pollution caused by the toxic metals produced by these activities, and these toxic metals cause many diseases, such as chronic kidney disease (Orr & Bridges, 2017); cardiovascular (Nigra, Ruiz-Hernandez, Redon, Navas-Acien, & Tellez-Plaza, 2016), neurological, and autoimmune diseases; and cancer. Bee bread is used as an indicator of environmental pollutants such as insecticides (ALNaggar et al., 2015), fungicides, carbamate pesticides, and toxic metals. Organophosphorus insecticides, such as fenamiphos, chlorpyrifos, and chlorpyrifos methyl, were detected in bee bread samples from Saskatchewan during the summer of 2013, with mean concentrations of 0.4, 2.7, and 15.8 ng/ g, respectively. ...
... Bee bread was the most contaminated material, while honey was the least contaminated material. The presence of organophosphorus in nutrients should be considered because of the worldwide application of these compounds, and deposits of these compounds represent a potential hazard to human health (ALNaggar et al., 2015). ...
... Moreover, it has even been detected in nectar from plants usually foraged by bees (a hydrophilic matrix) (Azpiazu Segovia, 2020;Wen et al., 2021). As a consequence, its widespread occurrence in different bee-hive matrices (i.e., beebread, honey or even wax) is undeniable (e.g., Chauzat et al., 2011;Mullin et al., 2010;Al Naggar et al., 2015;Fulton et al., 2019;Medici et al., 2020). Given the impact of organophosphates on animals, and specifically on pollinators' health and survival, they are gradually being prohibited in many countries, as they are recognized as one of the main contributors to bee decline (Urlacher et al., 2016). ...
... 36 In addition, when worker bees collect and store contaminated pollen and nectar in their hives, honey bee larvae can be chronically exposed to pesticides via their contaminated diet during the feeding phase. 37,38 Chronic exposure to contaminated brood food during the feeding phase as larvae can shorten the life span of workers and can lead to weakening colony health over time. 39 According to the European Food Safety Authority, the acute oral and contact median lethal dose (LD 50 ) values of CYA for honey bees were above 0.1055 and 0.0934 μg bee −1 , respectively. ...
BACKGROUND
Recently, cyantraniliprole (CYA) and sulfoxaflor (SUL) have been considered as alternatives to neonicotinoid insecticides. In this study, we evaluated the acute and chronic toxicities of CYA and SUL on honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) larvae reared in vitro.
RESULTS
In the acute toxicity test, the following test doses were used to determine the median lethal dose (LD50): CYA 0.007, 0.014, 0.028, 0.056 and 0.112 μg larva⁻¹; SUL 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 40 μg larva⁻¹. In the chronic toxicity test, the following test doses were used to determine the LD50: CYA 0.00512, 0.0128, 0.032, 0.08 and 0.2 μg larva⁻¹; SUL 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 μg larva⁻¹. The acute LD50 values of CYA and SUL were 0.047 and 11.404 μg larva⁻¹, respectively. Larvae acutely exposed to SUL had significantly lower body weight than controls, but those exposed to CYA showed no difference. The no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) and LD50 values of the chronic toxicity tests for each insecticide were 0.00512 and 0.064 μg larva⁻¹ for CYA, and 0.0625 μg larva⁻¹ and 0.212 μg larva⁻¹ for SUL, respectively. Larvae chronically exposed to SUL emerged as bees with deformed wings, reaching adult deformation rates of over 50%; however, CYA had no effect on adult deformation.
CONCLUSION
Exposure to CYA increased larval mortality but did not cause any adult deformation, whereas SUL exposure increased pupal mortality and caused wing deformation in newly emerged bees. Our study may be useful for the assessment of pesticide toxicity by providing valuable findings on the effects of these insecticides on honey bee larvae. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.
... Other applied extraction solvents include n-hexane (García-Valcárcel et al., 2016;Wiest et al., 2011), heptan (Daniele et al., 2018), dichloromethane (Chauzat et al., 2011), as well as mixtures, i.e. ACN/H 2 O/acetic acid (55:44:1) (Al Naggar et al., 2015Naggar et al., , 2015a, ACN: Ethyl acetate (8:2) (Gbylik-Sikorska et al., 2015), Ethyl acetate: hexane (7:3) (Li et al., 2015). Fig. 6 shows the physicochemical properties of solvents frequently used for extraction, ordered by elution power. ...
To this day, it remains unknown what the cause of decline of honey bee populations is and how to prevent this phenomenon efficiently. Poisonings with pesticides are assumed to be among the main causes for the decline of the honey bee population. Despite the significant progress observed in analytics over recent years, research aimed at improving methods applied in diagnostics of bee poisoning is still in progress. This is no easy task, since determination of the content of trace amounts (often equal to sublethal doses) of a wide range of compounds with diverse physico-chemical properties in honey bee samples with a complex matrix composition poses a serious challenge to modern analytics. This overview is the first to include a comprehensive critical assessment of analytical methods proposed for quantification of pesticides in honey bees over the last decade. Since the QuEChERS method is currently of great significance to ensuring accurate and reliable results of pesticide quantification in honey bees, the present overview focuses on the major aspects of this method, which will provide a comprehensive reference for scientists. The review focuses on the limitations of methods and on potential future prospects. It also contains information on the detection of pesticides in honey bees between 2010 and 2020 and characterizes the pesticide classes which are most toxic to these insects. This is extremely important, not just in the context of understanding the potential adverse impact of pesticides, manifesting as losses in bee colonies; it is also intended to facilitate decision-making in future research related to this difficult yet very important subject.
... With this in view, several metabolites of some prominent NNs (imidacloprid, acetamiprid), the oxon metabolites of chlorpyrifos, and acaricide coumaphos, and known anti-varroa amitraz metabolites were quantified. Although the residual prevalence for several of the mentioned metabolites has been already reported in various commodities Ioerger and Smith, 1993), limited data on their occurrence in honeybees (Al Naggar et al., 2015b) or related commodities are available, even if in some cases these substances were enrolled in the analytical scope of the study or investigated under HRMS non-targeted conditions (indicatively see Al Naggar et al., 2015a;Portoles et al., 2009). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate reported cases of honeybee mortality incidents and the potential association to pesticide exposure and to their metabolites. The same honeybee samples were also assessed for Varroa mites, and Nosema microsporidia provoked infections to provide an integrated picture of all observable stressors that may impact bees’ survival. Thus, honeybee samples from different areas of Greece (2014-2018) were analyzed for the presence of pesticide residues and metabolites. In this context, an existing LC-ESI-QqQ-MS multiresidue method of analytes of different chemical classes such as neonicotinoids, organophosphates, triazoles, carbamates, was enriched with additional active substances, developed and validated. A complementary GC-EI-QqQ-MS method was also exploited for the same scope covering pyrethroid compounds. Both methods monitored more than 150 active substances and metabolites and presented acceptable linearity over the ranges assayed. The calculated recoveries ranged from 65 to 120 % for the three concentration levels, while the precision (RSD%) values ranged between 4 and 15 %. Therefore, this approach proved sufficient to act as a monitoring tool for the determination of pesticide residues in cases of suspected honeybee poisoning incidents. From the analysis of 320 samples, the presence of 70 active substances and metabolites was confirmed with concentrations varying from 1.4 ng/g to 166 μg/g. Predominant detections were the acaricide coumaphos, several neonicotinoids exemplified by clothianidin, organophosporous compounds dimethoate and chlorpyrifos, and some pyrethroids. Metabolites of imidacloprid, chlorpyrifos, coumaphos, acetamiprid, fenthion and amitraz were also identified. Concerning Nosema and Varroa they were identified in 27, and 22% of samples examined, respectively, verifying their prevalence and coexistence with pesticides and their metabolites in honeybees.
... Organophosphorus insecticides are esters of alcohols and phosphoric acid. Organophosphorus compound molecules are soluble in fats and waxes, allowing them to easily penetrate insect cuticles (Naggar et al., 2015). In the case of organophosphorus insecticides, the clean-up step based on dSPE 2 proved to be the best. ...
This paper illustrates the development of a miniaturized and precise analytical tool for biomonitoring of honey bee exposure to insecticides. This is the first work describing an analytical metod method for determination of sublethal doses very low concentrations of a wide range of insecticides in maize guttation fluid. Seed treatment with systemic insecticides or their foliar application causes the accumulation of compounds in the guttation liquid, which consists of excess water and compounds removed by plants and is a source of water for bees. A micro-QuEChERS protocol using 1 g of sample was used for analysis of over 140 insecticides belonging to 30 different chemical classes by LC–ESI–MS/MS. The determination of insecticides in guttation fluid is a difficult analytical task due to 1) the complexity of the sample matrix, 2) small amounts of test samples and 3) trace levels of analytes (often equal sublethal dose level sublethal dose of insecticide for bees). An efficient sample treatment is proposed, involving 1 gram of sample, extraction with 1% formic acid in acetonitrile, frozen, ultrasound-assisted, centrifugation and dispersive solid phase extraction with nano graphene oxide. Other tested sorbents: Fe3O4MNPs and two mixtures PSA/C18/GCB and Z-Sep did not give satisfactory parameters during sample purification. The graphene oxide proved to be the best, ensuring negligible matrix effects and analyte recoveries between 70% and 120% with relative standard deviations <20% for most of the compounds studied. The proposed method enables assessment of risk to honey bees resulting from exposure to guttation fluids containing toxic insecticides at the level of just 0.001 μg mL⁻¹ (LOQ). very low concentrations.
... These compounds act on the nervous system of insects by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. Residues of OPs have been detected in colony matrices, 32 and their potential hazard to colonies has been noted. [33][34][35] Chlorpyrifos is an OP pesticide used foliarly in crop management 36 Chlorpyrifos has a relatively high toxicity to bees compared to other pesticides, 37,38 and sublethal doses may threaten the success and survival of honey bees. 39 Dimethoate, another OP, is often used foliarly in the field to control crop pests, and it is most commonly used as a positive control in toxicity tests due to its high toxicity to honey bees. ...
BACKGROUND
The effects of chronic exposure to two neonicotinoids (clothianidin and imidacloprid) and two organophosphates (chlorpyrifos and dimethoate) on survival, developmental rate and larval weight of honey bee larvae reared in vitro were determined. Diets containing chemicals were fed to larvae with the range of concentrations for each compound based on published acute toxicity experiments and residues found in pollen and nectar, both components of the larval diet.
RESULTS
Four concentrations of each compound and controls were tested: chlorpyrifos: 0.5, 0.8, 1.2, 8 mg/L; clothianidin: 0.1, 0.4, 2, 10 mg L⁻¹; dimethoate: 0.02, 1, 6, 45 mg L⁻¹; imidacloprid: 0.4, 2, 4, 10 mg L⁻¹; positive control: dimethoate (45 mg L⁻¹); solvent control: acetone or methanol; and negative control. A significant decrease in survival, relative to the solvent control, occurred in the 0.8, 1.2 and 8 mg L⁻¹ chlorpyrifos, 0.4, 2 and 10 mg L⁻¹ clothianidin, and 45 mg L⁻¹ dimethoate diets, but not the imidacloprid diets.
CONCLUSION
The treatment of larval diets with clothianidin, dimethoate and imidacloprid did not affect survival, developmental rate, or weight of immature honey bees; however, treatment with chlorpyrifos did. Overall, our results are valuable for evaluating the chronic toxicity of these pesticides to developing honey bees. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry
... RJ is responsible for the colonies well-being and physical fitness as it is fed to both larvae during the first few days after hatch and during the whole life of the queen (Haydak 1970). Naggar et al. 2015, Traynor et al. 2016. This stored pollen is consumed by nurse bees in order to produce larval food. ...
The contamination of bee products, e.g., bee bread, by pesticides is an increasing problem of beekeeping in rural areas. Bee bread is used by nurse bees to produce larval food. However, the fate of pesticides originating from the pollen during this process is unknown. Over the entire period of queen rearing, adult honeybees in queenless mini-hives were fed with a pollen-honey diet containing a cocktail of 13 commonly used pesticides in high concentrations (34–920 μg/kg). Royal jelly (RJ) harvested from queen cells was subjected to a multi-residue analysis. Seven substances were rediscovered in traces (76.5% of all detections are below 1 μg/kg) with at most 0.016% of the original pesticide concentrations of the fed diet. Considering this extraordinary low contamination of RJ, it seems unlikely that pesticides, if used according to the approved application instructions, would impair the development and health of honeybee queens. Possible reasons for the low residue levels in RJ are discussed.
... Declines in populations of honey bees are of global concern to agriculture, because each year the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) adds approximately $40 billion to the world economy (Fairbrother et al. 2014;Klein et al., 2007). Although causes of increased rates of failure of colonies are still unclear, results of some studies have suggested that extensive use of insecticides might be a responsible co-factor for failures of colonies (Al Naggar, Codling, et al., 2015a, Al Naggar, Vogt, et al., 2015bMullin et al., 2010). The major cause of colony loss is, however, thought to be due to parasitism by the mite Varroa destructor and associated pathogens (Martin et al., 2012, Ryabov et al. 2014. ...
... Declines in populations of honey bees are of global concern to agriculture, because each year the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) adds approximately $40 billion to the world economy (Fairbrother et al. 2014;Klein et al., 2007). Although causes of increased rates of failure of colonies are still unclear, results of some studies have suggested that extensive use of insecticides might be a responsible co-factor for failures of colonies (Al Naggar, Codling, et al., 2015a, Al Naggar, Vogt, et al., 2015bMullin et al., 2010). The major cause of colony loss is, however, thought to be due to parasitism by the mite Varroa destructor and associated pathogens (Martin et al., 2012, Ryabov et al. 2014. ...
Efficacies of two miticides, Apivar® and Thymovar®, were evaluated as a fall treatment against V. destructor. The effect of treatment with miticides was further evaluated by monitoring both viral load and rate of indoor overwintering survival of colonies of European honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in the vicinity of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Forty-five colonies were randomly assigned to three treatment groups with 15 hives per group: Group 1; 2 strips of Thymovar® (thymol); Group 2; 2 strips of Apivar® (Amitraz); and Group 3; no treatment (control). Significant decreases in the rates of colony infestation (Mites per hundred bees, MPHB) by V. destructor were observed (p < 0.05) between colonies of bees treated with Apivar® in October 2013 when compared to control colonies. Efficacy of Apivar® and Thymovar® against V. destructor after treatment for 22 days were 76.5 and 26.7%, respectively. After 22 days, concentrations of the two miticides in bees were 15.4 ng amitraz/g wet mass (wm) and 64,800 ng thymol/g wm. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the percentage of colonies infected by deformed wing virus (DWV) and Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) either before or after treatment with Apivar® or Thymovar® in October 2013 and 7 months post treatment in April 2014. Only the Apivar® treatment group showed IAPV infections in April 2014. The group treated with Apivar® exhibited a better overwintering rate of survival (93%), than hives treated with Thymovar® (67%). These results suggest volatile miticides like Thymovar® should be avoided in geographical areas with colder fall temperatures.
... The 128,000 hives in Saskatchewan are vital to the economy of the province because they provide significant revenue for beekeepers through production of honey and benefits of pollination for many crops. In Saskatchewan, approximately 11.3 Â 10 6 kg of honey is produced annually and 23% of the honey sold in Canada (Al Naggar et al., 2015b). Due to importance of bees in Saskatchewan's farming industry and concerns over loss, a study of multiple colonies, was conducted to investigate whether or not NIs could be detected in bees and hive products. ...
... The 128,000 hives in Saskatchewan are vital to the economy of the province because they provide significant revenue for beekeepers through production of honey and benefits of pollination for many crops. In Saskatchewan, approximately 11.3 Â 10 6 kg of honey is produced annually and 23% of the honey sold in Canada (Al Naggar et al., 2015b). Due to importance of bees in Saskatchewan's farming industry and concerns over loss, a study of multiple colonies, was conducted to investigate whether or not NIs could be detected in bees and hive products. ...
... Even though honey bees in the field are rarely exposed to single compounds, few studies have examined toxic effects of mixtures of pesticides on bees (Gill et al., 2012;Johnson et al., 2013;Pilling and Jepson, 1993). Results of surveys in the USA and Canada (Al Naggar et al., 2015b;Mullin et al., 2010), Europe (Chauzat et al., 2011;Wiest et al., 2011) and North Africa (Al Naggar et al., 2015a) have shown that colonies of bees might concurrently be exposed to dozens of different compounds including multiple OPs. In some cases, mixtures of pesticides have been shown to be synergistic, with reported increases in toxicity as great as 100-fold relative to that which would be predicted from a strictly additive model (Thompson, 1996). ...
We assessed whether exposure to environmentally-relevant mixtures of four organophosphorus insecticides (OPs) exerted adverse effects on honey bees. Adult and worker bees were orally exposed for five days under laboratory conditions to mixtures of four insecticides, diazinon, malathion, profenofos and chlorpyrifos at two concentrations. Concentration in the mixtures tested were equivalent to the median and 95th centile concentrations of the OPs in honey, as reported in the literature. Effects on survival, behavior, activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and expression of genes important in detoxification of xenobiotics and immune response were examined. Survival of worker bees was not affected by exposure to median or 95th centile concentrations of the OPs. Activity of AChE was significantly greater in worker bees exposed to the 95th centile concentration mixture of OPs compared to the median concentration mixture. Expression of genes involved in detoxification of xenobiotics was not affected by treatment , but the abundance of transcripts of the antimicrobial peptide hymenoptaecin was significantly greater in worker honey bees exposed to the median concentration mixture. Results suggest that short-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of a mixture of OPs do not adversely affect worker honey bees.
Several factors, including environmental degradation, air pollution, intense urbanization, excessive agriculture, and climate change, endanger the well-being of animals and plants. One of the major issues with an increasingly negative impact is agricultural contamination with pesticides and antibiotics. Seed coatings with neonicotinoid insecticides used as a protective layer against pests are shown to exceed the permissible limits in most cases. Neonicotinoid compounds bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, therefore affecting the honey bees’ brain. Heavy metals in higher concentrations are lethal for honey bees, and the residue in bee products might pose a threat to human health. Highly effective acaricides used to treat Varroa destructor infestations in honey bee colonies have negative effects on honey bee reproduction, olfaction, and honey production. Furthermore, amitraz and fluvalinate are mostly found in the highest amounts and lead to decreased honey production and reduced colony reproduction, along with decreased learning ability and memory. However, scientific studies have shown that honey bees act as a reliable bio-indicator of environmental pollution. In response to the growing demand for bee products, the effects of adulteration and improper storage conditions have gotten worse and represent a new risk factor. In light of the shifting global economy, it is important to analyze consumer expectations and adjust manufacturing accordingly. By ensuring the manufacture of high-quality, traceable products devoid of drug residues, consumers will be better protected from subsequent health problems. This review’s objectives are based on the necessity of identifying the risks associated with honey bees and bee products.
Graphical abstract
Pollinators such as Apidae bees are vital for ecosystems and food security. Unfortunately, their populations have declined due to several factors including pesticide use. Among them, the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos, poses a global threat, while legacy compounds like organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) easily bioaccumulate, increasing the concern. Bombus pauloensis, a widely distributed native bee in Argentina, is used for commercial pollination; however, information regarding their health status is scarce. This study assessed chlorpyrifos and OCP levels in B. pauloensis (workers and males) and related environmental matrices living from three different land uses schemes, by means of GC-ECD and GC–MS. The ornamental horticulture field (OP) showed the highest total pesticide concentrations in workers (13.1 ng/g), flowers and soils, whereas the organic agriculture field (OA) exhibited the lowest. Chlorpyrifos was the most abundant compound, accounting for at least 20 % of pesticide load across all matrices. The food production horticulture field (FH) had the highest chlorpyrifos concentration in workers, males and soils (5.0, 4.4 and 3.3 ng/g, respectively), suggesting a local greater usage, whereas OA showed the lowest. Regarding OCPs groups, Drins and DDTs were predominant in most matrices, with FH males registering the highest levels (4.0 and 2.5 ng/g, respectively), closely followed by OP. However, metabolites' contribution indicated historical use and atmospheric inputs in all sites. Multivariate analyses confirmed the significance of site and bumblebee sex to explain pesticide composition. Males from all sites exhibited higher chlorpyrifos levels than workers and this trend was similar for some OCP groups. Overall, OA differed from FH and OP, indicating a correlation between production modes and pesticide profiles. This study demonstrates the value of B. pauloensis as a pesticide biomonitor but also offers insights into its populations' health in the area. In this sense, this information could be useful towards the preservation of this crucial pollinator.
A importância das moscas na disseminação de bactérias e a importância de seu controle populacional através de bactérias entomopatogênicas.
Honey has multifaceted nutritional and medicinal values; however, its quality is hinged on the floral origin of the nectar. Taking advantage of the large areas that they cover; honeybees are often used as bioindicators of environmental contamination. The focus of the present paper was to examine the quality of honey from within the vicinity of an abandoned pesticide store in Masindi District in western Uganda. Surficial soils (< 20 cm depths) and honey samples were collected from within the vicinity of the abandoned pesticide store and analysed for organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues using gas chromatograph coupled to an electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The mean level of ∑ DDTs in all the soil samples was 503.6 µg/kg dry weight (d.w). ∑ DDTs contributed 92.2% to the ∑ OCPs contamination loads in the soil samples, and others (lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, and endo-sulfans) contributed only 7.8%. Ratio (p, p ′-DDE + p, p ′-DDD)/p, p ′-DDT of 1.54 suggested historical DDT input in the area. In all the honey samples, the mean level of ∑ DDTs was 20.9 µg/kg. ∑ DDTs contributed 43.3% to ∑ OCPs contamination loads in the honey samples, followed by lindane (29.8%), endosulfans (23.6%) and dieldrin (3.2%), with corresponding mean levels of 14.4, 11.4 and 1.55 µg/kg, respectively. Reproductive risk assessment was done based on the hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) procedure. In our study, the calculated HIs for adults (102.38), and children (90.33) suggested high potential health risks to the honey consumers. Lindane, endosulfan and p, p ′-DDD detected in the honey samples at levels exceeding the acute reference dose (ARfD) are known risk factors for spontaneous abortion, reduced implantation, menstrual cycle shortening, impaired semen quality, and prostate cancer in exposed individuals and experimental animal models.
Honey bees and the pollination services they provide are fundamental for agriculture and biodiversity. Agrochemical products and other classes of contaminants, such as trace elements and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, contribute to the general decline of bees’ populations. For this reason, effects, and particularly sublethal effects of contaminants need to be investigated. We conducted a review of the existing literature regarding the type of effects evaluated in Apis mellifera, collecting information about regions, methodological approaches, the type of contaminants, and honey bees’ life stages. Europe and North America are the regions in which A. mellifera biological responses were mostly studied and the most investigated compounds are insecticides. A. mellifera was studied more in the laboratory than in field conditions. Through the observation of the different responses examined, we found that there were several knowledge gaps that should be addressed, particularly within enzymatic and molecular responses, such as those regarding the immune system and genotoxicity. The importance of developing an integrated approach that combines responses at different levels, from molecular to organism and population, needs to be highlighted in order to evaluate the impact of anthropogenic contamination on this pollinator species.
Mosquito control districts in the United States are limited to two main classes of adulticides, pyrethroids and organophosphates, to control mosquitoes. Two adulticides used to control domestic mosquitoes are Fyfanon EW (malathion, organophosphate) and DeltaGard (deltamethrin, pyrethroid). While the effect of these pesticides on European honeybees (Apis mellifera L., Hymenoptera: Apidae) has been investigated, effects on native pollinators need additional research. The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute nontarget effects of these pesticides on Bombus impatiens Cresson (Hymenoptera: Apidae), a native North American bumble bee species, and compare these effects to wild and laboratory strains of mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti (L.) and Culex quinquefasciatus Say, Diptera: Culicidae) through field and laboratory assays. Bombus impa-tiens was found to be resistant to Fyfanon EW (x̅ = 6.7% mortality at 50-µg malathion per bottle) at levels that caused significant mortality to study mosquitoes (86.2 ≥ x̅ ≥ 100% mortality) in laboratory bottle bioassays. Comparatively, B. impatiens demonstrated greater mortality to DeltaGard (93.3%) at 2.5-µg deltamethrin/bottle than any mosquito colony assayed (14.1 ≥ x̅ ≥ 87.0% mortality). Only DeltaGard was tested in field applications. In the field, we observed acute effects of DeltaGard on mosquitoes and B. impatiens at 25-and 75-m distance from a truck-mounted ultra-low volume fogger, although treatment effects were not significant for B. impatiens. Additional wild-caught nontarget mortality to DeltaGard field trials was also evaluated. This study indicated that common mosquito control adulticides do cause nontarget mortality to B. impatiens but that impacts are variable depending on pesticide and further studies are needed.
This study was conducted to detect and identify residues Exterminators (Deltamethrin) of pyrethroid (Pyrethroids group) and (Malathion) of organophosphates group (Organophosphates) in the body of an insect worker honeybees forager , using chemical analysis (Gas Chromatographic Analyses (GC)). Where was The study transactions are: treatment units (the control) is exposed to pesticides, treatment units offered for Deltamethrin pesticide concentrations 1, 2.5, 5, 10 ppm. treatment units offered for pesticide malathion concentrations 1.25,3.125,6.25,12.5 ppm. The results showed The technique of (GC-MS / MS) effective and high selectivity in the detection of residues of these insecticides in the samples tested. There was a positive correlation between the concentration of the insecticide and the value of the average residual pesticide inside the body of the insect. ranged from the lowest level of residues between 0.117 ppm and 0. 350 ppm concentration of 1.00 ppm and 1.250 ppm in each of the insecticides deltamethrin and malathion .The highest level of residues ranged between 3.660 ppm and 5.420 ppm concentration of 10.0 ppm and 12 0.50 ppm in deltamethrin and malathion, respectively. It could be argued that whatever the concentration of the pesticide used in the study, it found residues have deposited inside the bodies of forager honeybees worker . The life of a worker honeybee and longevity depend on the health and safety of members of the beehive, so it is necessary to take into account when the use of pesticides, the seriousness of their application in the continuity of the life of the entire society which in his life depends on this layer of worker bees.
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After a thorough investigation, the Editors have concluded that the acceptance of this article was partly based upon the positive advice of two illegitimate reviewer reports. The reports were submitted from email accounts which were provided by the corresponding author Christos A. Damalas as suggested reviewers during the submission of the article. Although purportedly real reviewer accounts, the Editors have concluded that these were not of appropriate, independent reviewers.
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Honeybee losses have been attributed to multiple stressors and factors including the neonicotinoid insecticides (NIs). Much of the study of hive contamination has been focused upon temperate regions such as Europe, Canada and the United States. This study looks for the first time at honey, pollen and bees collected from across the Nile Delta in Egypt in both the spring and summer planting season of 2013. There is limited information upon the frequency of use of NIs in Egypt but the ratio of positive identification and concentrations of NIs are comparable to other regions. Metabolites of NIs were also monitored but given the low detection frequency, no link between matrices was possible in the study. Using a simple hazard assessment based upon published LD50 values for individual neonicotinoids upon the foraging and brood workers it was found that there was a potential risk to brood workers if the lowest reported LD50 was compared to the sum of the maximum NI concentrations. For non-lethal exposure there was significant risk at the worst case to brood bees but actual exposure effects are dependant upon the genetics and conditions of the Egyptian honeybee subspecies that remain to be determined.
In two recently published reports, hazards posed by dietary exposure to organophosphate and neonicotinoid plant protection products on the European honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) in Egypt were investigated. Using concentrations reported in those studies, an assessment of hazards posed by these two classes of insecticides to humans due to consumption of Egyptian honey from the Nile Delta during both spring and summer was performed. Twenty-eight compounds including metabolites were assessed for exposure of adult Egyptians based on the best- and worst-case scenarios. Even for the worst-case scenario, exposure to these two classes of pesticides in honey was 15-fold less than hazard index value of 1.0 for adverse effects on humans. Based upon this analysis, people exposed to these insecticides through consumption of honey products would be unlikely to exhibit adverse health outcomes.
The physical and chemical properties of chlorpyrifos (O, O-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyl phosphorothioate, CPY; CAS No. 2921-88-2) are the primary determinants that govern fate (movement, adsorption, degradation, and catabolism) in the environment and in biota. The uses of chlorpyrifos in locations of interest, such as the United States in the case of this paper, are the primary determinants of the entry of chlorpyrifos into the environment and its subsequent fate in the regions of use and beyond. The uses and manner of use are addressed in this paper.
The European honeybee, Apis mellifera, is an important pollinator of agricultural crops. Since 2006, when unexpectedly high colony losses were first reported, articles have proliferated in the popular press suggesting a range of possible causes and raising alarm over the general decline of bees. Suggested causes include pesticides, genetically modified crops, habitat fragmentation, and introduced diseases and parasites. Scientists have concluded that multiple factors in various combinations-including mites, fungi, viruses, and pesticides, as well as other factors such as reduction in forage, poor nutrition, and queen failure-are the most probable cause of elevated colony loss rates. Investigators and regulators continue to focus on the possible role that insecticides, particularly the neonicotinoids, may play in honeybee health. Neonicotinoid insecticides are insect neurotoxicants with desirable features such as broad-spectrum activity, low application rates, low mammalian toxicity, upward systemic movement in plants, and versatile application methods. Their distribution throughout the plant, including pollen, nectar, and guttation fluids, poses particular concern for exposure to pollinators. The authors describe how neonicotinoids interact with the nervous system of honeybees and affect individual honeybees in laboratory situations. Because honeybees are social insects, colony effects in semifield and field studies are discussed. The authors conclude with a review of current and proposed guidance in the United States and Europe for assessing the risks of pesticides to honeybees. Environ Toxicol Chem 2014;33:719-731. © 2014 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc., on behalf of SEATC. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The pollen content of the gastrointestinal tract of honeybee workers was investigated in the morning before the beginning of flight activity. It was low in young bees, largest in about 9-day-old nurse bees and declined to minimal amounts in foragers. In all age groups, the amount of pollen in the crop was small but that in the midgut was representative of the age-related status of the bee in the system of division of labour. It could be correlated with the developmental stage of the hypopharyngeal glands and to the known content of proteolytic enzymes in the midgut. The higher pollen content of the rectum followed the same pattern as that in the midgut. The predominant two pollen species (Castanea sativa MILL. and Trifolium repens L.) were digested more efficiently by young bees than by foragers. The species of pollen found in bees from all age groups was constant and similar to the species of comb-stored pollen. The known age structure of the colonies permits an estimation of the amount of pollen in the gastrointestinal tract of all workers in a normal-sized colony. It was 80.7 and 107.1 g in the two hives investigated. The pollen requirement for a year could be calculated from the average pollen congent of a bee and the estimated bee-days per colony. It was 13.4 and 17.8 kg in the two hives.
One of the factors that may explain nowadays honeybees' colonies losses is the increasing presence of chemicals in the environment. The aim of this study is to obtain a global view of the presence of environmental contaminants in beehives and, develop a fast, cheap and sensitive tool to analyze environmental contaminants in apiarian matrices. A multi residue analysis was developed to quantify 80 environmental contaminants, pesticides and veterinary drugs, belonging to different chemical classes, in honeys, honeybees and pollens. It consists in a single extraction, based on a modified "QuEChERS method", followed by gas chromatography coupled with Time of Flight mass spectrometry (GC-ToF) and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The "QuEChERS method" combines salting-out liquid-liquid extraction with acetonitrile and a dispersive-SPE clean up. It was adjusted to honey and especially to honeybee and pollen, by adding a small fraction of hexane in acetonitrile to eliminate lipids that interfere with mass spectrometry analysis. This method, combined with accurate and sensitive detection, allowed quantification and confirmation at levels as low as 10 ng/g, with recoveries between 60 and 120%. Application to more than 100 samples of each matrix was achieved for a global view of pesticide presence in the honeybee environment. Relatively high percentages of honeys, honeybees and pollens were found to be contaminated by pesticides used to combat varroa but also by fungicides like carbendazim and ubiquitous contaminants.
In the last decade, an increase in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colony losses has been reported in several countries. The causes of this decline are still not clear. This study was set out to evaluate the pesticide residues in stored pollen from honey bee colonies and their possible impact on honey bee losses in Spain. In total, 1,021 professional apiaries were randomly selected. All pollen samples were subjected to multiresidue analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS) and liquid chromatography-MS; moreover, specific methods were applied for neonicotinoids and fipronil. A palynological analysis also was carried out to confirm the type of foraging crop. Pesticide residues were detected in 42% of samples collected in spring, and only in 31% of samples collected in autumn. Fluvalinate and chlorfenvinphos were the most frequently detected pesticides in the analyzed samples. Fipronil was detected in 3.7% of all the spring samples but never in autumn samples, and neonicotinoid residues were not detected. More than 47.8% of stored pollen samples belonged to wild vegetation, and sunflower (Heliantus spp.) pollen was only detected in 10.4% of the samples. A direct relation between pesticide residues found in stored pollen samples and colony losses was not evident accordingly to the obtained results. Further studies are necessary to determine the possible role of the most frequent and abundant pesticides (such as acaricides) and the synergism among them and with other pathogens more prevalent in Spain.
Until 1985 discussions of pesticides and honey bee toxicity in the USA were focused on pesticides applied to crops and the
unintentional exposure of foraging bees to them. The recent introduction of arthropod pests of honey bees, Acarapis woodi (1984), Varroa destructor (1987), and Aethina tumida (1997), to the USA have resulted in the intentional introduction of pesticides into beehives to suppress these pests. Both
the unintentional and the intentional exposure of honey bees to pesticides have resulted in residues in hive products, especially
beeswax. This review examines pesticides applied to crops, pesticides used in apiculture and pesticide residues in hive products.
We discuss the role that pesticides and their residues in hive products may play in colony collapse disorder and other colony
problems. Although no single pesticide has been shown to cause colony collapse disorder, the additive and synergistic effects
of multiple pesticide exposures may contribute to declining honey bee health.
Recent declines in honey bees for crop pollination threaten fruit, nut, vegetable and seed production in the United States. A broad survey of pesticide residues was conducted on samples from migratory and other beekeepers across 23 states, one Canadian province and several agricultural cropping systems during the 2007-08 growing seasons.
We have used LC/MS-MS and GC/MS to analyze bees and hive matrices for pesticide residues utilizing a modified QuEChERS method. We have found 121 different pesticides and metabolites within 887 wax, pollen, bee and associated hive samples. Almost 60% of the 259 wax and 350 pollen samples contained at least one systemic pesticide, and over 47% had both in-hive acaricides fluvalinate and coumaphos, and chlorothalonil, a widely-used fungicide. In bee pollen were found chlorothalonil at levels up to 99 ppm and the insecticides aldicarb, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos and imidacloprid, fungicides boscalid, captan and myclobutanil, and herbicide pendimethalin at 1 ppm levels. Almost all comb and foundation wax samples (98%) were contaminated with up to 204 and 94 ppm, respectively, of fluvalinate and coumaphos, and lower amounts of amitraz degradates and chlorothalonil, with an average of 6 pesticide detections per sample and a high of 39. There were fewer pesticides found in adults and brood except for those linked with bee kills by permethrin (20 ppm) and fipronil (3.1 ppm).
The 98 pesticides and metabolites detected in mixtures up to 214 ppm in bee pollen alone represents a remarkably high level for toxicants in the brood and adult food of this primary pollinator. This represents over half of the maximum individual pesticide incidences ever reported for apiaries. While exposure to many of these neurotoxicants elicits acute and sublethal reductions in honey bee fitness, the effects of these materials in combinations and their direct association with CCD or declining bee health remains to be determined.
Honey bees are a highly valued resource around the world. They are prized for their honey and wax production and depended upon for pollination of many important crops. While globally honey bee populations have been increasing, the rate of increase is not keeping pace with demand. Further, honey bee populations have not been increasing in all parts of the world, and have declined in many nations in Europe and in North America. Managed honey bee populations are influenced by many factors including diseases, parasites, pesticides, the environment, and socio-economic factors. These factors can act alone or in combination with each other. This review highlights the present day value of honey bees, followed by a detailed description of some of the historical and present day factors that influence honey bee populations, with particular emphasis on colony populations in Europe and the United States.
Samples of honeybees (Apis mellifera, n = 92) from 14 beehive monitoring stations located in 3 townships in the province of Bologna were analyzed from April to October 2000. The concentration of 32 organophosphorus pesticides and 5 carbamates was determined through liquid-liquid extraction followed by gas chromatography with a nitrogen-phosphorus detector and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry using atmospheric pressure chemical ionization in positive and negative ion modes. The most contaminated samples were from Granarolo Emilia where cereals (wheat, sorghum, and corn), sugar beets, and potatoes are the main agriculture products. Thirty-five pesticides were detected, with organophosphorus being the most abundant ones. Malathion was detected in 58% of the samples (mean level 0.360 mg/kg) followed by fenithrothion in 53% of the samples (mean level 0.544 mg/kg) and pirimiphos methyl in 48% of the samples (mean level 0.006 mg/kg). Temporal trends showed that the maximum detection frequency occurred in late spring and was associated with the use of treatment products and less rainfall. The obtained results demonstrated the feasibility of using honeybees for assessing pesticide exposure in agriculture settings.
A modification that entails the use of buffering during extraction was made to further improve results for certain problematic pesticides (e.g., folpet, dichlofluanid, chlorothalonil, and pymetrozine) in a simple, fast, and inexpensive method for the determination of pesticides in produce. The method, known as the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) method for pesticide residues in foods, now involves the extraction of the sample with acetonitrile (MeCN) containing 1% acetic acid (HAc) and simultaneous liquid-liquid partitioning formed by adding anhydrous MgSO4 plus sodium acetate (NaAc). The extraction method is carried out by shaking a centrifuge tube which contains 1 mL of 1% HAc in MeCN plus 0.4 g anhydrous MgSO4 and 0.1 g anhydrous NaAc per g sample. The tube is then centrifuged, and a portion of the extract is transferred to a tube containing 50 mg primary secondary amine sorbent plus 150 mg anhydrous MgSO4/mL of extract. After a mixing and centrifugation step, the extract is transferred to autosampler vials for concurrent analysis by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Independent of the original sample pH, the use of buffering during the extraction yields pH <4 in the MeCN extract and >5 in the water phase, which increases recoveries of both acid- and base-sensitive pesticides. The method was evaluated for 32 diverse pesticides in different matrixes, and typical percent recoveries were 95 +/- 10, even for some problematic pesticides. Optional solvent exchange to toluene prior to GC/MS analysis was also evaluated, showing equally good results with the benefit of lower detection limits, but at the cost of more time, material, labor, and expense.
In 2002, a field survey was initiated on French apiaries to monitor weakness of honey bee, Apis mellifera L., colonies. Apiaries were evenly distributed in five sites located on continental France. Five colonies were randomly selected in each apiary, leading to a total of 125 studied honey bee colonies. For 3 yr (starting in autumn 2002), colonies were visited four times per year: after winter, before summer, during summer, and before winter. Pollen loads from traps were collected at each visit. Multiresidue analyses were performed in pollen to search residues of 36 different molecules. Specific analyses were conducted to search fipronil and metabolites and also imidacloprid and metabolites. Residues of 19 searched compounds were found in samples. Contamination by pesticides ranged from 50 to 0%. Coumaphos and tau-fluvalinate residues were the most concentrated of all residues (mean concentrations were 925.0 and 487.2 microg/kg, respectively). Fipronil and metabolite contents were superior to the limit of detection in 16 samples. Residues of fipronil were found in 10 samples. Nine samples contained the sulfone compound, and three samples contained the desulfinyl compound. Residues of imidacloprid and 6-chloronicotinic acid were found in 69% of samples. Imidacloprid contents were quantified in 11 samples with values ranging from 1.1 to 5.7 microg/kg. 6-Chloronicotinic acid content was superior to the limit of quantification in 28 samples with values ranging from 0.6 to 9.3 microg/kg. Statistical tests showed no difference between places of sampling with the exception of fipronil. Possible origins of these contaminations, concentration and toxicity of pesticides, and the possible consequences for bees are discussed.
Concerns have been raised that invertebrate pollinators of crops and wild plants are in decline as a result of modern agricultural practices, habitat degradation, and introduced pests and diseases. This has led to demands for a response by land managers, conservationists and political decision makers to the impending 'global pollinator crisis'. In questioning this crisis, it becomes apparent that perceptions of a pollinator crisis are driven mainly by reported declines of crop-pollinating honeybees in North America, and bumblebees and butterflies in Europe, whereas native pollinator communities elsewhere show mixed responses to environmental change. Additionally, few staple food crops depend on pollinator services, and most crops that do are grown at small scales in diversified agro-ecosystems that are likely to support healthy pollinator communities, or in highly managed systems that are largely independent of wild pollinators. Consequently, justifying conservation action on the basis of deteriorating pollinator services might be misplaced. Nevertheless, existing initiatives to monitor pollinators are well founded, given the uncertainty about the dynamics of pollinator populations.
The honeybee genome has substantially fewer protein coding genes ( approximately 11 000 genes) than Drosophila melanogaster ( approximately 13 500) and Anopheles gambiae ( approximately 14 000). Some of the most marked differences occur in three superfamilies encoding xenobiotic detoxifying enzymes. Specifically there are only about half as many glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) and carboxyl/cholinesterases (CCEs) in the honeybee. This includes 10-fold or greater shortfalls in the numbers of Delta and Epsilon GSTs and CYP4 P450s, members of which clades have been recurrently associated with insecticide resistance in other species. These shortfalls may contribute to the sensitivity of the honeybee to insecticides. On the other hand there are some recent radiations in CYP6, CYP9 and certain CCE clades in A. mellifera that could be associated with the evolution of the hormonal and chemosensory processes underpinning its highly organized eusociality.
Pollination and Floral Ecologyis the most comprehensive single-volume reference to all aspects of pollination biology--and the first fully up-to-date resource of its kind to appear in decades. This beautifully illustrated book describes how flowers use colors, shapes, and scents to advertise themselves; how they offer pollen and nectar as rewards; and how they share complex interactions with beetles, birds, bats, bees, and other creatures. The ecology of these interactions is covered in depth, including the timing and patterning of flowering, competition among flowering plants to attract certain visitors and deter others, and the many ways plants and animals can cheat each other.Pollination and Floral Ecologypays special attention to the prevalence of specialization and generalization in animal-flower interactions, and examines how a lack of distinction between casual visitors and true pollinators can produce misleading conclusions about flower evolution and animal-flower mutualism. This one-of-a-kind reference also gives insights into the vital pollination services that animals provide to crops and native flora, and sets these issues in the context of today's global pollination crisis.Provides the most up-to-date resource on pollination and floral ecologyDescribes flower advertising features and rewards, foraging and learning by flower-visiting animals, behaviors of generalist and specialist pollinators--and moreExamines the ecology and evolution of animal-flower interactions, from the molecular to macroevolutionary scaleFeatures hundreds of color and black-and-white illustrations.
The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of honeybees and their associated products
as biological indicators of the presence of lead, cadmium, copper, iron and zinc in the environment.
Samples were collected from four different Egyptian regions with different anthropogenic activities namely,
Kafr El-Sheikh, El-Mehala El-kobra , Kafr El-Zayat and Al-Fayoum during spring and summer
honey harvest 2010. Differences in the concentrations of heavy metals in fresh honey collected during
spring and summer honey harvests were observed. Cadmium was found completely absent in fresh honey
summer harvest collected from all apiaries. However, the values of Cd in honey samples harvested during
spring from the four apiaries exceeded the maximum admitted level (0.05 ppm). In addition, the content
of Pb in honey during summer exceeded the maximum admitted level (1.5 ppm) only at Kafr El-zayat.
Bee gathered pollen heavy metal contents were higher during spring when compared with those during
summer. Cadmium content in pollen collected during spring exceeded the maximum admitted level (0.3
ppm) at all locations except at El-Mehala El-kobra. The reported concentrations of heavy metals decreased
in the following order: honey bee workers > pollen > honey. These results indicate that honeybees
and, to a lesser extent, some of their products (pollen and honey), can be considered as bioindicator of
environmental pollution with heavy metals.
A simple and fast multiresidue method has been developed to determine 48 pesticides within the major groups of pesticides (organohalogen, organophosphorous, pyrethroids and organonitrogen) in representative samples of locally produced honey, in Bauru (State of São Paulo, Brazil) during 2003–2004. The recovery results found ranged from 76% to 95% and the limits of detection were lower than 0.01 mg/kg for gas chromatography with electron impact mass spectrometric detection in the selected ion monitoring mode (GC–MS-SIM). The results indicated that most pesticides found in the samples belonged to the organohalogen and organophosphorous groups and lower levels of residues of some organonitrogen and pyretroids were also detected. Malathion residues were detected in all the samples, in a high concentration, owing to its applications to control dengue mosquitoes in the area studied.
This paper presents the atmospheric occurrence and seasonal variations of the most frequently detected organophosphorus insecticides (OPs) and their OP oxon degradation products at Bratt's Lake, Saskatchewan in the Canadian Prairies (April 2003 to March 2004, January-December, 2005) and at Abbotsford in the Lower Frazer Valley (LFV) of British Columbia from May 2004 to December, 2005. During 2005 there were 10 OPs, 8 OP oxons, and 6 other OP degradation products measured. The most frequently detected OPs were chlorpyrifos, malathion, and diazinon. At Bratt's Lake the highest atmospheric concentrations were observed for chlorpyrifos, with maximum concentrations observed during July and August in 2003 showing much higher concentrations than those from 2005. This was related to its usage for grasshopper control in the province. At Abbotsford, diazinon and malathion were observed in much higher atmospheric concentrations than chlorpyrifos. Concentrations reached maximum in spring for diazinon and summer for malathion. This study is the first reported study of seasonal variations of OP oxons with their parent OP. Chlorpyrifos oxon concentrations during July were generally low, indicating strong local source contributions. The chlorpyrifos oxon/chlorpyrifos ratio and diazinon oxon/diazinon ratio showed a strong seasonal variation with increasing ratio from spring to summer which was attributed to increasing sunlight hours. Malathion oxon/mathion at both sites was similar and relatively constant throughout the year. The oxon/thion ratio represents a good indicator of age of source or contributions from local versus regional atmospheric sources.
The frequency of occurrence and relative concentration of 44 pesticides in apicultural (Apis mellifera) matrices collected from five French locations (24 apiaries) were assessed from 2002 to 2005. The number and nature of the pesticides investigated varied with the matrices examined-living honeybees, pollen loads, honey, and beeswax. Pollen loads and beeswax had the highest frequency of pesticide occurrence among the apiary matrices examined in the present study, whereas honey samples had the lowest. The imidacloprid group and the fipronil group were detected in sufficient amounts in all matrices to allow statistical comparisons. Some seasonal variation was shown when residues were identified in pollen loads. Given the results (highest frequency of presence) and practical aspects (easy to collect; matrix with no turnover, unlike with bees that are naturally renewed), pollen loads were the best matrix for assessing the presence of pesticide residues in the environment in our given conditions.
The book presents honeybees as a model system for investigating advanced social life among insects from an evolutionary perspective.Originally published in 1985.The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These paperback editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.
Two groups of eight honey bee colonies were fed with two different concentrations of imidacloprid in saccharose syrup during summer (each colony was given 1 litre of saccharose syrup containing 0.5 microg litre(-1) or 5 microg litre(-1) of imidacloprid on 13 occasions). Their development and survival were followed in parallel with control hives (unfed or fed with saccharose syrup) until the end of the following winter. The parameters followed were: adult bee activity (number of bee entering the hive and pollen carrying activity), adult bee population level, capped brood area, frequency of parasitic and other diseases, mortality, number of frames with brood after wintering and a global score of colonies after wintering. The only parameters linked to feeding with imidacloprid-supplemented saccharose syrup when compared with feeding with non-supplemented syrup were: a statistically non-significant higher activity index of adult bees, a significantly higher frequency of pollen carrying during the feeding period and a larger number of capped brood cells. When imidacloprid was no longer applied, activity and pollen carrying were re-established at a similar level for all groups. Repeated feeding with syrup supplemented with imidacloprid did not provoke any immediate or any delayed mortality before, during or following the next winter, whereas such severe effects are described by several French bee keepers as a consequence of imidacloprid use for seed dressing in neighbouring cultures. In any case, during the whole study, mortality was very low in all groups, with no difference between imidacloprid-fed and control colonies. Further research should now address several hypotheses: the troubles described by bee keepers have causes other than imidacloprid; if such troubles are really due to this insecticide, they may only be observed either when bees consume contaminated pollen, when no other sources of food are available, in the presence of synergic factors (that still need to be identified), with some particular races of bees or when colonies are not strong and healthy.
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