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Indigenous Techniques for
Assessing and Monitoring
Range Resources
World Agroforestry Centre
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‘Agroforestry Transformation’ throughout the developing world.
in East Africa
Occasional paper 02
i
Indigenous techniques for assessing and
monitoring range resources in East Africa
Dickson M. Nyariki
Aichi Kitalyi
Vivian O. Wasonga
Isaac M. Isae
Emanuel Kyagaba
Maynard Lugenja
ii
Correct citation: Nyariki DM, Kitalyi A,Wasonga VO, Isae I, Kyagaba E and Lugenja M.
2005. Indigenous techniques for assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa.
Occasional Paper no.2. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre.
Titles in the Occasional Paper Series aim to disseminate information on Agroforestry research
and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. Other publication series
from the World Agroforestry Centre include: Agroforestry Perspectives, Technical Manuals and
Working Papers.
Published by the World Agroforestry Centre
Eastern and Central Africa Programme
Relma in ICRAF project
United Nations Avenue
PO Box 30677, GPO 00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254(0)20 7224000, via USA +1 650 833 6645
Fax: +254(0)20 7224001, via USA +1 650 833 6646
Email: icraf@cgiar.org
Internet: www.worldagroforestry.org
© World Agroforestry Centre 2005
ISBN 92 9059 181 1
Photos: Icraf staff
Articles appearing in this publication may be quoted or reproduced without charge, provided
the source is acknowledged.
All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose
without written permission of the source.
The geographic designation employed and the presentation of material in this publication do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Agroforestry Centre
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning
the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Printed in Kenya
iii
Contributors
Dickson M. Nyariki is an Associate Professor at the University of Nairobi, Department
of Range Management. He holds a B.Sc. degree in Range Management and M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees in Agricultural Economics. Currently he heads the University of Nairobi’s
Department of Range Management. He has over 10 years of teaching and consultancy in
range management and range economics. Email: dicksonnyariki@yahoo.com
Aichi Kitalyi is a Development Specialist – Livestock and Farming Systems with the World
Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). She holds a B.Sc., M.Sc and PhD degrees in Agriculture with
speciality in animal nutrition and farming systems. She has over 25 years work experience
in livestock research and development in the Africa. Email: A.Kitalyi@cgiar.org
Vivian Oliver Wasonga is currently a PhD student at the University of Nairobi. He holds
a B. Sc. And M.Sc. in Range Management. He has about 10 years research and teaching
experience in range management and development in Kenya. Email: odhawa@yahoo.co.uk
Isaac Msofe Issae is the Assistant Director Range Management at the Ministry of Water
and Livestock Development Tanzania. He holds a diploma in Range Management, B.Sc.
Agriculture and M.Sc. Range Science. He has over 20 years work experience in rangeland
management in Tanzania. Email: iissae@yahoo.com.uk
Emmanuel Kyagaba is a Dean of Students with Mbarara University of Science and
Technology – Uganda. He has a B.Sc. in Botany and Zoology and an M.Sc. in Range
Management. He has over 16 years work experience on rangeland research and develop-
ment in Uganda. Email: emmanuelkyagaba@yahoo.com.au
Maynard Lugenja is a Freelance Consultant in Livestock and Natural Resources
Management. He has a M.Sc. in Range Science. He has over 30 years work experience in
range research and development in Tanzania.
iv
Abstract
Local knowledge, which refers to a social activity that has been set up primarily as
a result of local initiative, or techniques that are endogenously generated, enforced
and maintained has not been mainstreamed in rangeland development programmes
in the region. This paradigm unfortunately overlooks the fact that local knowledge
and experiences form the basis for local-level decision making in natural resource
management. Recently there has been increasing interest and understanding of
traditional knowledge systems in the fields of ethno-veterinary medicine but not so
in natural resource management. Consequently, the ecological integrity of the range-
lands is deteriorated because of increasing population growth, cultivation, over-
stocking, felling of trees, and other unsustainable resource utilization methods. In
recognition of the role of traditional knowledge in natural resource management and
sustainable development, case studies were conducted to document the traditional
methods used to assess and monitor the condition and trend of grazing lands in East
Africa by the Pokot and Il Chamus of Kenya, the Barabaig and Maasai of Tanzania,
and the Bahima and Ateso of Uganda. The results of this study support the theory
of the existence of complementary relationships between traditional techniques and
modern scientific knowledge.
Keywords
Indigenous knowledge, Range resources, Pastoral communities, Pokot, Il Chamus,
Barabaig, Maasai, Bahima, Ateso.
Indigenous techniques for assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa
v
Foreword
The rangelands of East Africa account for 79% of the total land area, which consti-
tutes the main source of the livelihood of its inhabitants and contributes to the
national economies as well as maintenance of the ecosystem.
Despite the importance of rangelands, ecological neglect has led to economic
deterioration. Solutions to the problems of economic stagnation and environmental
degradation in these areas have proven elusive, partly due to the exclusion of tradi-
tional knowledge systems from the development agenda. Local knowledge of these
ecosystems and the interrelations between climate and land resources should be
used to complement modern scientific knowledge.
In response, a study was conducted to bring together and make available the tradi-
tional ecological knowledge of several pastoral and agropastoral communties in
East Africa, namely the Il Chamus and West Pokots of Kenya, the Teso and Bahima
of Uganda and the Maasai and Barabaigs of Tanzania. These perspectives were
enriched by range scientists and development workers in a workshop held in Arusha
Tanzania, specifically to discuss the study findings.
To forecast weather, the studied communities depend solely on local knowledge,
drawn from several indicators including changes in vegetation, animal biology,
astrology and animal migratory patterns. Other techniques used to monitor range
resource found among the six communities was use of viscera. Such techniques
could have scientific basis and could be related to modern techniques based on
faecal profiling, which is currently used in early warning and monitoring system.
This report is an important tool for better understanding indigenous methods of
assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa, and will inform future
research aimed at improving rangeland management through the integration of
indigenous and conventional approaches.
Chin Ong
RELMA in ICRAF Project Manager
Indigenous techniques for assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa
vi
Abbreviations and acronyms
A-AARNET ASARECA-Animal Agriculture Research Network
ACTS African Centre for Technology Studies
AI Artificial insemination
ASARECA Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa
DEO District extension officer
EASZ East African Shorthorn Zebu
EPOS Environmental Policy Society
EWS Early warning system
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FEWS Famine early warning system
GIS Geographic information systems
GL-CRSP Global Livestock-Collaborative Research Support Program
GoK Government of Kenya
GTZ German Technical Co-operation
IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
ITI Indigenous technologies identified
KENGO Kenya Energy Non-Governmental Organizations
LEWS Livestock early warning systems
MAC Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives
NGO Non-governmental organization
NIRS Near infra-red spectroscopy
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – USA
ODI Overseas Development Institute
PINEP Pastoral Information Network Programme
PRA Participatory rapid appraisal
RELMA Regional Land Management Unit
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
Indigenous techniques for assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa
vii
Contents
Indigenous techniques for assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa
1. Introduction 1
2. Range resources of East Africa 3
Extent of the rangelands 3
Soils 3
Water 3
Vegetation 5
Wildlife 5
Livestock 6
Range vegetation attributes 7
Range animal attributes 8
Planning for range resource utilization
3. Conventional range resource assessment and monitoring 7
Recent advances in monitoring: Early warning systems 10
4. Methods of study 11
Data collection 12
5. Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus 13
Climate 13
Vegetation 14
Soils 17
Water 19
Range condition and trend 20
Animals 22
Institutional set-up 26
6. Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai 27
Climate 27
Soils 28
Vegetation 29
Water 31
Animals 33
Range condition and trend 36
Institutional set-up 36
7. Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso 38
Climate 38
Vegetation 39
Soils 41
Water 42
Animals 43
Institutional set-up 44
Summary comparison of assessment and monitoring techniques 44
Mitigation measures 44
viii Indigenous techniques for assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa
Table 2.1. Rangelands of East Africa 3
Table 4.1. Study areas and ethnic groups in the three East African countries 11
Table 5.1. Decisions made when change in botanical composition is undesirable 16
Table 5.2. Decisions made when unpalatable plant species are encountered 16
Table 5.3. Soil types suitable for grazing and crops 18
Table 5.4. Decisions made when soil fertility is declining 18
Table 5.5. Decisions made when water is inadequate 19
Table 5.6. Decisions made when water is bad 20
Table 5.7. Attributes and ecological factors considered in assessing range condition and
suitability for grazing, ranked in order of importance 21
Table 5.8. Ecological rating of range suitability for livestock grazing by the Pokot 22
Table 5.9. Decisions made when pasture is poor/overgrazed 22
Table 5.10. Attributes used in evaluating livestock performance ranked (in order of importance) 23
Table 6.1. Classification of soils and their occurrence by the Barabaig 28
Table 6.2. Classification of soils and their occurrence by the Maasai 28
Table 6.3. Evaluation of soil fertility by the Barabaig 29
Table 6.4. Attributes used by the Barabaig to determine grazing pressure 30
Table 6.5. Decisions made by the Barabaig when the quantity of water decreases 32
Table 6.6. Decisions made on diagnosing sick animals by the Barabaig 34
Table 6.7. Importance ranking of ecological and other factors by the Barabaig 35
Table 7.1. Seasonality pattern indicators 38
Table 7.2. Assessment of pasture condition by the Bahima and Ateso 39
Table 7.3. Assessment of the range by the Bahima and Ateso based on animal performance 43
Table 7.4. Comparison of techniques—The Bahima and Ateso vs. conventional methods 45
Table 7.5. Comparison of mitigation measures used by the Bahima and Ateso, and conventional methods 45
List of tables
8. General discussion of findings 46
Kenyan study 46
Tanzanian study 50
Ugandan study 52
9. Conclusions 54
References 58
Appendix 1. List of plant species with medicinal value mentioned by the Pokot and the Il Chamus 62
Appendix 2. List of some plant species mentioned by the pastoralists and their uses 63
Appendix 3. Participants list 64
1
To plan for rangeland management, the quality and
quantity of the biological and non-biological compo-
nents of rangeland ecosystems must be evaluated.
These components or resources include vegeta-
tion, animal populations (livestock and wildlife), rain-
fall, water sources, land or soils, and climate. Thus a
rangeland resource is anything on the rangeland that
has a value attached to it. The range manager—be it
a pastoral user or a manager trained in modern tech-
niques—must therefore know the current status of
these resources and their possible future changes in
relation to variations in the natural environment and
land use. To determine the current status of the range
resource base involves assessment, while to keep track
of the changes taking place in these resources over a
period of time entails monitoring. Once this has been
achieved, the data acquired are analysed to deter-
mine the direction of or trend in the change, so that,
if it is downward, remedial measures can be taken.
To achieve this, indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)
and/or modern techniques should be used.
The pastoral groups of Africa use a wide range of ITK
to manage natural resources of which to date very little
is documented (Brokensha and Riley 1980; Niamir
1994; Tadingar 1994). Early modern techniques for
range assessment, monitoring and condition clas-
sification had an ecological basis and were associ-
ated with different stages of secondary succession
(Dyksterhuis 1949; Parker 1954; Gates 1979; Wagner
1989). The inferred range condition is based on the
relationship of the present vegetation composition of
the sites. Site stability, grazing value, vegetation cover,
forage and carrying capacity are assumed to increase
as vegetation composition nears climax state. More
recently range classification and monitoring of range-
lands has also been done using diagnostic surveys
and geographic information system (GIS) methods.
These surveys and methods are used to characterize
the physical and socio-economic environment such
as drainage pattern, slope, soil quality and distribu-
tion, farming systems, land tenure and social and
cultural characteristics of human communities. Within
East Africa, range condition classification has placed
emphasis on periodic re-measurements of range
condition on permanent sample transects or plots
(Casebeer 1970; Skovlin 1971; Bille and Heemstra
1978; Kuchar et al. 1981; Herlocker 1994).
After almost a century of development activities in the
rangelands of East Africa, there are no ready solutions
to the pressing economic stagnation and environ-
mental degradation. To varying degrees, pastoralists
and agropastoralists who live in these areas have been
caught in a protracted crisis as a result of increasing
scarcity of natural resources and inappropriate tech-
nologies. This crisis in pastoral development led to
the proposition of a closer linkage between indige-
nous pastoral systems and knowledge, and modern,
scientific technologies to produce what Roling (1993)
termed ‘coupled systems’ comprising hard ecosystem
(i.e. range science) and a soft platform for making
decisions about that ecosystem (i.e. pastoral organi-
zation).
The term indigenous knowledge adopts the definition
of Rai and Thapa (1993) and refers to ‘an organiza-
tion or social activity that has been set up primarily
as a result of local initiative’. It refers to techniques
that are ‘endogenously generated, enforced and main-
tained’ or those that result from the ‘local adaptation of
methods from outside’. The term indigenous system is
used as opposed to a sponsored system. A sponsored
system is always initiated through an external interven-
tion such as by government agencies and non-govern-
mental organizations (NGOs). However, according to
Woytek and Gorjestani (1998), indigenous knowledge
is local knowledge that is unique to a given culture
or society. It forms the basis for local-level decision
making in natural resource management and a host of
other activities in rural communities.
1. Introduction
Introduction
2
As Warren (1986) observed, indigenous knowledge is
not necessarily simple. It does not exist in a cultural,
economic or political vacuum but always confronts
other knowledge systems. It is within the context
of contestation that, through a process of dialogue
and exchange, innovation and knowledge creation
will always operate (Scoones and Thompson 1993).
Therefore, potential disappearance of many indige-
nous practices could have a negative effect primarily
on those who have developed them and who make a
living through them.
Indigenous systems for natural resource management
invariably include both biological management and the
social arrangements by which access to the natural
resources are regulated. A lot of indigenous knowl-
edge is based on accurate, detailed and thoughtful
observations, collected and passed on over many
generations. It allows informed decisions to be made
by combining information and techniques to maximize
production and minimize risks (Brokensha and Riley
1980). According to Scoones and Thompson (1993),
‘rural people’s knowledge and agricultural science are
both general and specific, theoretical and practical,
value laden and context bound and influenced by rela-
tions of power’.
The understanding of pastoral ITK is gradually
increasing, especially in the fields of veterinary medi-
cine (Ole-Lengisugi 1994; Munyua et al. 1998; Mogoa
and Nyangito 1999;) and livestock husbandry (Farah
1996; Kyagaba and Farah 1996; Oba 1994; Mwilawa et
al. 1996; Noor et al. 1999), but is still limited for natural
resource management.
It is evident, therefore, that the pastoral groups in
Africa use a wide range of techniques to manage their
natural resources. These techniques are quite delib-
erate and adapted to the vagaries of pastoral environ-
ments (Niamir 1990). In appreciation of the importance
of indigenous knowledge in natural resource manage-
ment, and with a view to promoting these practices
and integrating them with conventional range manage-
ment for better results, this study was conducted to
investigate the indigenous range assessment and
monitoring techniques used in East Africa—Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda. The specific objectives were to
identify and document these indigenous techniques.
The study findings were enriched by range scien-
tists and development workers in a workshop held
in Arusha, Tanzania, specifically to discuss the study
findings (Appendix 3).
This report contains nine chapters. Chapter 1 consists
of the introduction of the subject matter. It presents
the descriptions and definitions of the main terms used
and introduces the various chapters.
Chapter 2 provides an indication of the extent and
description of the range resources in the three East
African countries, while Chapter 3 discusses the main
range attributes considered in the assessment and
monitoring of range resources. Chapter 3 also provides
a discussion of the inventory, survey and planning for
range resource use.
The methods of study are discussed in Chapter 4.
Studies were carried out in selected range areas among
a number of pastoral communities taken as represent-
ative cases. The approaches used to evaluate indig-
enous knowledge in the three countries were generally
the same, with minor differences depending upon the
different characteristics of the selected localities and
communities.
Chapters 5, 6 and 7 give the results of the studies in
the three countries. The results are organized on the
basis of the range attributes considered for assess-
ment and monitoring.
Chapter 8 presents a discussion of the findings while the
final chapter provides the conclusions made, offering
suggestions for use of the findings. Suggestions to
strengthen both the application of indigenous knowl-
edge alongside modern techniques to enhance benefi-
cial outcomes are given.
Introduction
3
Extent of the rangelands
The range areas of East Africa constitute a basic
resource, the use and orderly development of which
demands an understanding of the nature and role of
each of the components of the ecosystem. Rangelands
in the three countries of East Africa cover a vast area
(Table 2.1). Although most of these areas fall in the
semi-arid to arid lands they contribute significantly
to the national economies, supporting large propor-
tions of human, livestock and wild life populations,
and considerable amounts of biodiversity (Shayo and
Turuka 1987; Kariuki and Letitiya 1996; GoK 1996;
Herlocker 1999; Mugarura 2001). The rangelands in
Uganda present an entirely different set of conditions
and problems in the context of rangeland use and
animal production than those in Kenya and Tanzania,
because of higher altitude and rainfall and therefore
more favourable conditions for agriculture.
Soils
The rangeland soils of East Africa are highly variable.
They are generally of light to medium texture, low in
organic matter (fertility) due to low density of plant life
and low microbial activities. They are normally shallow
and often stony and sandy. They have a low cation
exchange capacity (CEC), are prone to compaction
and capping, and are highly susceptible to erosion. In
addition, because the soils are inherently shallow, they
have a limited capacity to store water. Poor soil struc-
ture and texture combined with sparse vegetal cover at
the onset of the rains, makes the soils highly erodible,
thus increasing the susceptibility of the land to degra-
dation. However, there are isolated pockets of volcanic
soils (alluvial/colluvial clays) in some rangelands that
can be cropped. Black cotton soils (Ferralsols) also
occur in some parts, but are avoided because they
are difficult to cultivate using traditional methods, and
have problems of salinity and sodicity. Phosphorus is
the main limiting mineral in black cotton soils due to
its immobilization, rendering it unavailable to plants
(Jaetzold and Schmidt 1983).
Water
Water availability in the rangelands is one of the major
constraints to development. Sources include ground
water from boreholes, and surface water from dams,
pans and reservoirs, whose costs are a limiting factor.
Vast areas of the rangelands serve as watersheds that
receive precipitation that eventually drains into rivers
and small streams, or sinks into the soil to replenish
springs and groundwater reservoirs. For example,
2. Range resources of East Africa
Range resources of East Africa
Total land area (‘000 km) Proportion under rangelands (%)
Kenya 582 87
Tanzania 886 74
Uganda 208 62
Total 1,680 79
Table 2.1. Rangelands of East Africa
Source: Pratt and Gwynne 1977
4Range resources of East Africa
High rainfall
Study sites in the three countries embedded in the eco-climatic zones map (Pratt & Gwynne 1977)
5
Kenya’s rangelands form part of the six major water
catchments: the Kerio, Ewaso Nyiro, Mara, Turkwel,
Tana and Athi river systems, which originate from the
highland massifs. The main rivers are subject to high
and low seasonal flows that show increasingly dramatic
variations and silt loads as cultivation and deforesta-
tion increase in the highland areas. The rivers are also
increasingly regulated, as dams are constructed to
generate hydroelectric power.
The tributaries of the main systems used in the range-
lands are ephemeral. The surface water resources
are available for short periods during and after rainy
seasons. Surface water can persist in natural or artificial
river pans, but it is unpredictable even where seasonal
river flows originate from highland rains. Groundwater
potential is highly variable in both quantity and quality
and is being depleted at an ever-increasing rate. The
soil/vegetation complex on which precipitation falls has
a major influence on the quality and quantity of water
available. Land-use practices can affect the flooding of
streams and rivers; silting rates of reservoirs; bacteria
and sediment counts in reservoirs, streams and rivers;
springs, rivers and stream flow rates; and the quality
of water from overland flows that can be trapped in
reservoirs. Water will continue to be a limited range-
land resource due to rapid growth in human population
as well as the depletion of the groundwater reserves at
an ever-increasing rate.
Vegetation
Vegetation is an important resource in the rangelands
as it provides over 85% and 95% of the total feed
requirements of domestic (cattle, sheep, goats and
camels) and wild ruminants, respectively. The vegeta-
tion comprises grasses (both annual and perennial)
and shrubs. Trees are rare and if present are often
found along laggas, land depressions and hills.
Soon after the rains, much of the rangelands is covered
with grass. Productivity varies greatly in space and
time, and is dependent on rainfall. Reliable sources
of high quality grass in sufficient quantities are small
and widely scattered. Isolated blocks of hills and
river floodplains are key areas within the annual cycle
of pastoralism and wildlife migrations as dry season
grazing areas. Without these high-productivity areas,
many pastoral systems would not be sustainable.
Woody vegetation is less affected by rainfall variability,
but the density of tree and bush cover is low. Woody
vegetation is also extremely important for livestock
and wildlife. For instance, strips of riverine woodland
along seasonal rivers are important dry season grazing
resources, and in dry years may be essential for the
survival of pastoral groups. Trees and shrubs provide
forage, firewood, building wood, herbal medicines and
shade. Degradation of wood resources occurs locally,
but elsewhere the needs of low population densities
are met.
Wildlife
The rangelands provide the primary habitat for a wide
range of land-dwelling wild animals highly valued for
tourism (aesthetic value) and game ranching. Most
wildlife is found under natural grazing conditions and
includes big game, small mammals and birds. Today,
most East African wildlife resources, national parks,
game reserves and much of the tourist infrastructure
are found in the rangelands. Adventure or ecotourism
is based on the rangelands because of the spectacular
scenery and panoramic wilderness in some of these
areas. In many places where increasing areas are under
conservation management and hunting is controlled,
income from game and associated recreation facili-
ties exceeds that from domestic animals (Nyariki and
Ngugi 1999).
Unfortunately, many game species are currently endan-
gered; they have either been decimated or eliminated
by hunting or by habitat destruction due to overgrazing
and other human activities. Populations of some wild-
life species are at healthy levels, while others have
been severely depleted by poaching.
Range resources of East Africa
6
Livestock
Livestock remain an important resource of the East
African rangelands. Currently, livestock populations in
Kenya are estimated at over 30 million head (WRI 1992).
The rangelands support 60% of the cattle, 70% of the
small stock, and 100% of the camels in the country
(GoK 1996; Kariuki and Letitiya 1996; Herlocker 1999).
Livestock are probably more important than any other
source of livelihood because pastoralists rely on them
for subsistence.
In Tanzania, most of the national herd—15.6 million
cattle, 10.6 million goats and 3.5 million sheep—
belongs to the pastoral/traditional livestock sector. The
sector accounts for about 43.1% of the national cattle
herd (6,723,600 head) and provides most of the meat
and milk consumed in Tanzania (MAC 1996; Mwilawa
et al. 1996). Like in Kenya, the traditional system is
characterized by ownership of large stock numbers,
uncontrolled livestock movement, communal grazing,
traditional husbandry practices, absence of animal
records, undeveloped identification methods, and
continuous breeding. The system is found in the range-
lands and semi-arid areas including parts of Arusha,
Iringa, Shinyanga, Singida and Dodoma.
The national livestock herd in Uganda is estimated at
4.2 million cattle, 3.3 million goats and about 1 million
sheep. About 700,000 cattle are kept under semi-
nomadic pastoral systems in the semi-arid regions.
Ankole cattle, kept by the Bahima, contribute about
23% of the total herd (Mugarura 2001).
Overgrazing in Maasai rangelands (Tanzania).
Range resources of East Africa
7
3. Conventional range resource assessment
and monitoring:
key attributes and their use in planning
Basic to range resource assessment and monitoring
is an understanding of the characteristic attributes
of the resources. Some of these attributes are those
related to soils, rainfall, landscape and vegetation.
The most commonly assessed and monitored range
attributes are those related to vegetation, although
animal attributes are sometimes considered as well.
Specifically, these include biomass, cover of the soil
by plants, and height, quality, frequency and abun-
dance of plant species.
Range vegetation attributes
Biomass
Biomass is the weight of organic matter per unit area.
The organic matter normally includes the weight of
herbage above ground, dead organic matter, mature
trees and animals. The measurement of biomass is of
great value to the range manager and may be the most
important determination of biological range attribute.
Usually, the unit of area in vegetation measurement
is a square metre. The plants are clipped, dried to a
constant weight in a laboratory and then weighed.
Plant biomass for larger areas is then calculated by
extrapolation.
Cover
The proportion of the soil surface covered by vegeta-
tion is referred to as cover. There are various types of
cover: basal cover (per cent soil surface occupied by
the bases of plants), litter/mulch cover, rock cover and
tree canopy or foliage cover. Several techniques are
used to measure cover. They include estimation by
eye, measurement of plants intercepted along a line,
point measurements, sampling in plots or transects
and, in extensive areas, the step-point procedure. The
relative proportion of total cover contributed by each
species roughly represents their relative importance
in the vegetation. The botanical composition of the
different species can be assessed using these tech-
niques. Studies have shown that species composition
based on cover is similar to that based on biomass
(Heady and Heady 1982). Cover also measures soil
protection so that, as cover increases, there is reduced
water loss, raindrop erosion and exposure to wind and
runoff flow. Thus, cover is a useful attribute in range-
land assessment.
Abundance
Abundance is generally used to refer to the number
of plants per unit area. However, a more specific term
is density. To measure plant abundance, individual
plants by species, in plots marked out in an area, are
counted. Abundance can be used to show the spatial
distribution of a species in time. Abundance is not
closely related to biomass or cover because individual
plants differ greatly in size during growth from habitat
to habitat and from species to species.
Frequency
The frequency sampling method records the species
present/absent in each sampled plot/quadrat. The
plots/quadrats, which differ in size depending on the
type of vegetation, allow for a quick survey of a large
area. The main value of measuring frequency is to show
the distribution of species. Species distribution can be
important for the study of certain kinds of rangeland
problems. The frequency of indicator species could be
used to identify sites that need special attention.
Conventional range resource assessment and monitoring: key attributes and their use in planning
8
Height
Plant height has ecological importance. For example,
only plants below a certain height can be browsed by
certain livestock and wildlife species (Schwartz and
Schultka 1995). Some species, such as the giraffe and
camel, can browse higher than others, such as the
gazelle and goat. Tall grass may provide better cover
than short grass.
Quality
On the basis of palatability, nutrient content or other
attribute, plants of better quality are preferable to
those of poor quality. High quality forage plants, for
example, are an indication of a range of high produc-
tive potential, say in livestock production. Other quality
characteristics are those related to wood density and
type, translating into, say, the quality of charcoal or
timber produced.
Range animal attributes
The attributes of range animals considered for assess-
ment and monitoring are similar to those of plant/
vegetation—mainly biomass, abundance or diver-
sity, composition, distribution and productivity. For
example, total biomass of large herbivores (and the
biomasses of many individual species) closely reflects
average annual rainfall, although this relationship may
be locally modified by soil fertility, through its influence
on forage quality and productivity, and the availability
of surface and ground water (Herlocker 1999). The
more arid the rangelands the less animal biomass they
can support. Animal biomass may also be a reflection
of the fertility of soil. Thus, given similar rainfall, fertile
soils tend to support higher herbivore biomass than do
soils of low fertility. For example, the miombo woodland
of southern Tanzania, characterized by highly leached,
infertile soils, frequent fires and limited surface water
supplies, is relatively poor as a large mammal habitat.
However, the Themeda grasslands of south-western
Kenya, which are associated with more fertile soils and
more evenly distributed rainfall, are noted for the abun-
dance and diversity of wildlife supported.
Planning for range resource
utilization
Inventory and planning of the utilization of range
resources requires a series of decisions about meas-
urement and analysis. Analysis involves measuring
the presence or absence, number, length/height etc.
of a species, for example. These measurements are
used in three main stages. The first stage is esti-
mating attributes as discussed above: biomass, cover,
density, abundance, frequency, height, and number of
species and others. The second stage is interpretation.
This requires calculating and summarizing the raw
data so that the relationships between the attributes
within the plant community or ecosystem become
clear. For example, the percentage species composi-
tion, usually calculated from data on mass or cover,
gives a measure of relative importance of species that
is not readily seen in the field data. Other second-
stage (or second-order) characteristics include relative
dominance, pattern of species and exclusiveness to a
stand or community (fidelity). The third-order synthesis
involves applying the summarized data to compari-
sons among plant communities, range pastures, range
sites and ecosystems.
To be useful, measurement of range vegetation should
be related to the location of sites. Land survey and
mapping are used and involve photogrammetry. This
is the use of aerial photographs, remote sensing, and
interpretation of photographs taken from satellites.
Aerial photographs must be large enough (scales of
between 1:10,000 and 1:50,000) to show habitats,
range sites, pastures and geographical features. While
this scale is possible with photographic enlargement
and aerial flights close to the ground, determination
of species composition, biomass etc. would require
extensive ground investigation. This is where indige-
nous knowledge and assessment could play an impor-
tant role.
The main use of aerial photographs in range resource
inventory and planning is in delineating and describing
range sites. These are units that respond uniformly
Conventional range resource assessment and monitoring: key attributes and their use in planning
9
to treatments such as seeding and bush control. For
example, evaluation of range condition and range
trend should be on the basis of site. Range condition
is the state of health and vigour of a range in relation
to its full productive potential, and range trend is the
direction of change in range condition.
Resource inventory includes survey and measurement
of vegetation, animal populations and geography. The
information gained is transferred to maps to show
distribution at a scale that can be used to plan land
use. The evaluation of resources includes assessing
their condition in relation to potential, improvement or
deterioration, and sociological aspects (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1. Range resources and their inventory.
Conventional range resource assessment and monitoring: key attributes and their use in planning
10
Recent advances in monitoring:
Early warning systems
The Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support
Program (CRSP) Livestock Early Warning System
(LEWS) in East Africa has developed a monitoring
strategy. The strategy largely relies on the spatial
extent and stratification of the region’s climate based
on historical weather data adjusted for elevation and
proximity to bodies of water. The programme presup-
poses that because many areas in the world are expe-
riencing changing drought frequencies and temporal
shifts in precipitation and temperature, the traditional
coping strategies for agropastoralists are not appro-
priate for the changing conditions. LEWS is an attempt
to develop innovations to characterize, monitor,
analyse and communicate the occurrence of droughts
throughout the world.
While this is a good scientific innovation, there are
no well-developed communication frameworks with
pastoral communities that provide information valued
by community leaders and individuals in a manner that
would result in rational and proactive decisions. In any
case this innovation cannot substitute the pastoralists’
decision-making system based on farm-level observa-
tions because, like any other reconnaissance method,
the finer detail on the condition of the range is achieved
by looking at parameters at farm level. The ground
truthing used in LEWS adopts conventional sampling
and research methods, and is yet to incorporate the
parameters used by the indigenous people.
The key technology in the LEWS system is near
infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) which can
be used to indicate the dietary protein and energy
status of cattle, sheep and goats from faecal scans.
This technology, combined with weather and remote
sensing information from the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration – USA (NOAA) climate
prediction centre, is used to provide information on
emerging pastoral conditions six to eight weeks
earlier than the monitoring system based on moni-
toring markets and human and livestock condition
(Ndikumana et. al. 2000). The LEWS programme
provides pastoral information to the monthly reports
of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development
(IGAD) and has developed an organizational structure
to reach the grassroots. It is, however, not clear yet if
the pastoral communities are able to access, interpret
and make use of this information.
Conventional range resource assessment and monitoring: key attributes and their use in planning
11
Country District Ethnic group Altitude (m) Rainfall (mm) Livestock
species kept
Farming systems
Kenya Baringo Pokot and
Il Chamus
900–2700 Highlands: 1200–1500
Low lands 300–700
Cattle, camels and
small stock
High agricultural potential –in west
and south-west. Drier east and south-
eastern dominated by pastoral system.
Tanzania Monduli Maasai 600–2900 600–800 Cattle, sheep,
goats and donkeys
Pastoral system.
Hanang Barabaig 1000–2000 500–900 Cattle, sheep,
goats and donkeys
Large-scale farming in the highlands and
pastoral farming system in the lowlands.
Uganda Mbarara Bahima 1210 750–1000 Ankole cattle
mainly
Perennial and annual crops found in
the wetter areas of the district, but the
pastoral system dominates the drier
areas.
Katakwi Teso 1000–1200 750–1000 Cattle, sheep and
goats
Agropastoral system, where most of the
land is still under customary communal
tenure.
4. Methods of study
The approaches used to evaluate the indigenous
knowledge in the three countries of East Africa were
generally similar. However, there were minor adjust-
ments in each country influenced by the uniqueness
of the specific geographical areas selected and ethnic
groups surveyed. Regardless of these differences, the
areas and the communities studied are assumed to
represent the typical rangeland attributes and pastoral
communities that use range resources in the respective
countries of East Africa. Thus, the results are expected
to be plausible.
Table 4.1 describes the study areas in the three coun-
tries. One common characteristic of the six ethnic
groups is their resistance to change and attachment to
traditional livestock keeping.
Methods of study
Table 4.1. Study areas and ethnic groups in the three East African countries
12
Data collection
The study methodology used several methods to
collect information. These were extensive literature
review; a semi-structured questionnaire to obtain
specific information on parameters used to assess the
environment; discussions with key informants to obtain
a broad appreciation of range ecology and indigenous
range management; and focus group discussions to
assess if there was a consensus on the knowledge
used. Supporting information was obtained from field
observations.
A combination of methods was applied. This involved
the administration of a questionnaire (quantitative
methods), focus group discussions and in-depth inter-
views with key informants (qualitative techniques).
The unit of study in the survey was a household, used
in the broad sense (i.e. homestead). Considering that
homesteads in the study area were far apart, simple
random sampling as a technique was very expensive.
Cluster sampling was adopted using the local council
as a cluster. Randomizing was then done from the
selected clusters.
Quantitative data were analysed to obtain frequencies
which were then used to draw conclusions. The quali-
tative information from focus group discussions and
key informants was used to help interpret the quantita-
tive data.
Ranking using ordinal scales was used, basing on the
importance of parameters as reported by the respond-
ents. The parameters were assigned using an average
rank. When equal sums occurred, an average rank was
assigned to both.
Methods of study
Discussion with villagers Maasai, Tanzania
13
5. Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya:
The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
The Pokot and Il Chamus communities in Kenya
have both similarities and differences in the way they
assess and monitor the various range resources. The
similarities are probably because these communities
share the same home range, and therefore have a lot
in common in terms of ecological experience with the
range ecosystem.
Climate
The Pokot and the Il Chamus acknowledge that climate
is the most important factor affecting livestock produc-
tion and agriculture. They are able to monitor climatic
trend, and therefore put in place adaptive survival
strategies by constantly observing:
• Rainfall
• Clouds
• Temperature
• Wind
Indicators of climate change
The Pokot and the Il Chamus attribute certain ecolog-
ical changes to downward trends in climate. According
to them, current observations as compared to the past
that indicate climate change are:
• Low and unreliable rainfall resulting in low water
levels in rivers, lake and pans, and permanent rivers
becoming intermittent
• Fewer and scattered clouds
• Frequent and prolonged droughts
• Increased temperatures
• Stronger winds (a lot of dust in the air)
• Invasion of grasslands by woody species
• Lack of forage
• Reduced animal and crop production
Both the Pokot and the Il Chamus regard rainfall as the
most critical climatic factor, the driving force behind
their daily operations, and by far the most significant
constraint to life in range areas. They are able to fore-
cast impending drought or rain using the following
indicators:
• Atmospheric indicators - density of cloud and direc-
tion of wind
• Biological indicators - phenological changes in
plants and behavioural changes in animals
• Astrological indicators - appearance of certain
stars
• Cultural indicators - observation of the viscera of
slaughtered animals
Indicators of rain
The common signs of approaching rain for both the
Pokot and Il Chamus are:
• Strong winds blowing from east to west in the case
of the Pokot and from west to east (Kabarnet to
Laikipia) in the case of the Il Chamus
• Shedding of pods and formation of new leaf buds
by Acacia tortilis in the case of the Pokot and shed-
ding of leaves by Balanites species (lowei) among
the Il Chamus
• Roars of the ostrich (akales) at night
• Bulls running excitedly, especially in the afternoons,
and pointing their heads towards the direction of
the on-coming rain (east for the Pokot, west for the
Il Chamus)
• Sounds of excitement from the woodpecker (tiltil)
• The appearance of a group of four stars (merelot)
and six stars (remetom)
• Forecast from the ‘experts’ who read the entrails
(kwanyan in Pokot) of slaughtered animals
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
14
The Pokot use the following as signs of approaching
rain in addition to those listed above:
• Formation and gathering of thick clouds
• Ripening of fruits of Salvadora persica (locally known
as asiokonyon)
• Clustering of safari ants
• The reluctance of the animals to drink
In addition to the common indicators, the Il Chamus
also use the following as signs of on-coming rain:
• Lightening from the south
• Flowering of Acacia tortilis (‘iltepesi’) and Salvadora
persica (‘sokotei’)
• Praying zebra (ritualistic sounds of zebra)
• Croaking of frogs expecting water
• When the male (len’goni) and female (lobon’g) stars
move towards each other—it rains as soon as they
meet
Indicators of drought
The Pokot and the Il Chamus communities use the
following signs to indicate impending drought:
• Shedding of leaves by most Acacia trees, including A.
mellifera (‘talamong’ in Pokot and ‘iti’ in Il Chamus),
A. nubica (‘anyua’ in Pokot), A. tortilis (‘ses’ in Pokot)
and A. reficiens (‘iljorai’ in Il Chamus)
• Animal weight loss
• Reading of the entrails of slaughtered animals
• Strong winds blowing from west to east for the
Pokot and from east to west for the Il Chamus
• Failure of the four stars and six stars to appear
• Clear skies or few clouds
In addition, the Pokot use the following as indicators
of drought:
• Production of flowers by A. mellifera
• Production of green pods (sakaram) by A. tortilis
• Excretion of hard dung by the animals
• Reduced milk production, kicking and refusal of
calves by their mothers
The Il Chamus use the following additional signs:
• Migration of flamingos (roriti) from Lake Bogoria to
Lake Turkana
• Swarming of bees (lmaren) from the lowlands to the
highlands
• Hibernation of the termites (lan’ga) and ants (lasai)
• Sounds of an owl
Drought mitigation strategies
As soon as the Pokot and the Il Chamus realize that
there is impending drought, they adapt various miti-
gation strategies. The herds are split and dispersed
into home-based (lepon in Pokot) and satellite herds
(sorok in Pokot). Herding becomes a priority to ensure
enough milk. Circumcised boys (muren in Pokot, el
moran in Il Chamus) prepare for long distance move-
ments and move with the satellite herds to distant
dry season grazing pastures where they establish
the satellite camps (cheporiok in Pokot). Women and
children collect pods, lop trees (yepow in Pokot) and
reserve forage supplements for the home-based herds.
Sometimes young men move to towns to look for jobs
and women visit their relatives to look for food.
Vegetation
Vegetation characterization
The Pokot and the Il Chamus classify the range into
two broad categories—the highlands (masop in Pokot,
supuko in Il Chamus) and lowlands (keu in Pokot,
ilpurkel in Il Chamus). They base the eco-physiognomic
classifications of the range on the following factors:
• Topography
• Climate
• Soil type
• Dominant vegetation type
Based on the physiognomic vegetation types, the
Pokot and the Il Chamus further subdivide the two
ecological range categories into grasslands (kurosus in
Pokot, ngonjin’gngelen’g in Il Chamus) and bush lands
(kurosoko in Pokot, ngonjinetimbene in Il Chamus).
Grasslands are suitable for grazers while bush lands
are suitable for browsers. Ngujit refers to grass while
mbene means browse. The masop (Pokot) are lands
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
15
found at higher altitudes than, and with vegetation
types different from, the keu. Masop are character-
ized by black sticky soils as opposed to the red loamy
soils found in the keu. The Pokot perceive masop as a
cold place (kornyo kakit) that is ‘not good for livestock’.
Conversely, they refer to keu as a warm place (kornyo
layat) which ‘likes the animal’ (kornyo chameitich).
The masop are normally composed of Commiphora
trees as the dominant species. Other species include
Terminalia species (‘koloswo’) and Dodonea viscosa
(‘tapolokwa’). The keu are dominated by Acacia
species and are preferred for livestock grazing. The
lowlands are characterized by different grass and
woody species such as Aristida adscensionis (‘chel-
wowis’), Eragrostis superba (‘chaya’), Cynodon plec-
tostachyus (‘seretion’), Setaria verticellata (‘amerkwia’),
Acacia tortilis (‘ses’), A. mellifera (‘talamong’), Boscia
salicifolia (‘likwon’), Boscia coriacea (‘sorichon’),
Salvadora persica (‘ashokonyon’) and Balanites aegyp-
tiaca (‘tuyunwo’).
For the Il Chamus, supuko is a hilly and cold place,
characterized by black loamy soils. The common
woody species in the highlands include Albizia
anthelmintica (‘mukutani’), Terminalia species (‘ilbugoi’)
and Ficus thornningii (‘elngaboli’); the grasses include
Cenchrus ciliaris (‘loiupub’) and Cymbopogon species
(‘ilgurume’). The supuko is associated with a number
of deadly diseases, and is therefore not good for live-
stock. In contrast, ilpurkel is a warm place that is good
for livestock. Ilpurkel are low-lying areas character-
ized by red clay and sandy soils. The common grass
species found in the lowlands are Cynodon plectos-
tachyus (‘longeri’) and lamara, annual herbs are lote
and lameruaki, and browse species include Acacia
mellifera, A. tortilis, Salvadora persica, A. reficiens and
Balanites aegyptiaca.
Botanical composition
Both the Pokot and the Il Chamus perceive the knowl-
edge of botanical composition as a vital tool for evalu-
ating range suitability for livestock grazing. According
to most, knowledge of plant species is useful for:
• Determining the dominant plant species—with
respect to dietary requirements of and suitability
for different animal species
• Identifying preferred and undesirable plant
species—key plant species and poisonous plants
• Determining the type of range—whether annual or
perennial, and therefore deciding when to graze
Identifying medicinal plants
The Pokot recognize that different animal species
have different feeding habits and prefer different
plant forms. Cattle and sheep, which are grazers,
prefer grassland while goats and camels, which are
browsers, prefer bush land. The herders are able to
identify the preferred forage species and distinguish
between those that fatten livestock and improve their
condition (e.g. Cynodon plectostachyus and Eragrostis
superba), and those that are good for milk produc-
tion (e.g. Pennisetum meziunum (‘amarkuation’) and
Echinochloa haploclada (‘amaranyon’)). The Pokot are
also able to identify poisonous plants, e.g. Tribulus
terrestris (‘asikuruyon’). Through such knowledge
herders can tell whether a given range is suitable for
their herds or not. This is done through regular moni-
toring and judging of the changes in the composition of
key plant species. The responses from the informants
revealed that they have a rich knowledge of plants with
medicinal and other values. Some of those with medic-
inal value include Zanthoxylum chalybeum (‘songowo’),
Albizia anthelmintica (‘mukutan’), Salvadora persica
(‘asokonyon’) (Appendixes 1 and 2).
The community is aware that certain grass species like
Eragrostis superba, Chloris gayana (‘amerkuan’) and
Hyparrenia rufa (‘puresongolion’) have either decreased
in abundance or disappeared. The members of the
community agree that there has been a general disap-
pearance of perennial grasses and increased bush
encroachment, thereby forcing them to keep more
goats (browsers) than before.
The Il Chamus are able to recognize the key peren-
nial grass species such as Cynodon plectostachyus,
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
16
Cechrus ciliaris (‘lokorengok’) and Chloris gayana
(‘ilperesi’) which are preferred for milk production,
annuals like Tribulus terrestris (‘lameruaki’) and key
browse species, for example, Indigofera spinosa
(‘atula’), Balanites aegyptiaca and Acacia tortilis. The
herders can identify poisonous plant species, for
example, Datura stramineum (‘ildule’) and Tribulus
terrestris, which cause indigestion and bloat in
animals.
The Pokot and Il Chamus herders take several meas-
ures when they realize that changes in plant species
composition have made the range unsuitable for live-
stock grazing (Table 5.1).
Decision Respondents (%)
Pokot Il Chamus
Changing direction of grazing 52 57
Scouting for and moving to better pastures 48 43
Nutritive value of forage
The nutritive value of pasture is assessed through
observations made as soon as the animals retire from
grazing. According to the two communities, the indica-
tors of good quality pasture are:
• Green, loose and big dung
• Chewing cud
• High milk production
• Deep/heavy breathing by animal at night
• Aggressive bulls and increased mating frequency
• Smooth and shiny animal coat
• Rapid animal weight gain
Plant palatability
The Pokot and the Il Chamus assess forage palatability
on the basis of plant indicators and animal cues, such
as:
• Forage species abundance
• Time spent by feeding animal on a given species
• Feeding speed/vigour
• Animal selectivity - animals select only preferred
forage species
The herders rely to a large extent on animal signals
to identify preferred forage species. They are aware
that the animals heavily utilize palatable species and,
therefore, these species decrease faster in abundance
than the unpalatable ones. Animals also feed with more
vigour and spend more time on palatable species than
they do on the unpalatable ones. The responses elicited
by the poor quality of pasture and an encounter with
undesirable plant species are presented in Table 5.2.
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
Table 5.2. Decisions made when unpalatable plant species are encountered
Decision Respondents (%)
Pokot Il Chamus
Changing direction of grazing 45 45
Scouting for and moving to better pastures 32 32
Burning the pasture 23 20
Table 5.1. Decisions made when change in botanical composition is undesirable
17
Soils
Soil taxonomy
The soil classification system used by the Pokot and
Il Chamus is based largely on surface and subsurface
characteristics, namely:
• Colour
• Texture
• Workability/consistency
In Pokot, soil names start with nyon’gony (soil) while
among the Il Chamus the soil names start with ngulupo.
This is followed by adjectives describing the type of
soil in terms of the properties of its top layer. On the
basis of colour, both communities are able to identify
four types of soil:
• Black soil (nyon’gony cho noroyon in Pokot, ngulupo
narok in Il Chamus)
• Red soil (nyon’gony cho birech in Pokot, ngulupo
nanyuki in Il Chamus)
• Brown soil (nyon’gony chemelaprech in Pokot,
ngulupo ngiro in Il Chamus)
• White soil (nyon’gony cho relach in Pokot, naibor in
Il Chamus)
Using texture as the basis of description, they classify
soil into three main types:
• Sandy soil (ngayam in Pokot, sunyai in Il Chamus)
• Stony soil (nyon’gony ngokowon in Pokot)
• Clay soil (nyon’gony cho topulule in Pokot, ngulupo
nasipa in Il Chamus)
• Loamy soil (ngulupo in Il Chamus)
They further classify soil into sticky and non-sticky
depending on its workability.
Soil suitability for grazing, crops and
other uses
Soil suitability for grazing and crops is based on:
• Colour
• Texture
• Workability
• Water retention capacity
• Slope
• Depth
Based on their knowledge of soil classes, the commu-
nities are able decide the best use of a particular soil
type (Table 5.3). The Pokot recognize red loamy soil as
suitable for grazing and refer to it as producing ‘sweet
grass’. This type of soil is also known to have good
water retention capacity and can therefore sustain the
growth of grass into the dry season. Black clay soil,
however, is described as muddy and sticky when wet
and it cracks upon drying, thereby ‘choking the grass’.
The herders associate the gravelly soil (angirimition)
with paralysis in kids.
The Pokot agree that deep loamy soils are the most
suitable for cultivation. They also point out that soils on
flat ground are preferred because they lose less water
through surface runoff than soils on the slopes. While
some regard black clay soil as the best for growing
crops, associating the black colour with a lot of organic
matter, most believe that either red or brown loamy soils
are the best for crops since they are non-sticky and easy
to cultivate. The herders are aware that sandy soils lose
water and become dry faster than other soil types, and
are therefore not good for crops. However, some have
no idea about soil for crops. Red clay soil is used for
plastering the houses (go) because of its stickiness.
The Il Chamus decide on the best use of a particular
soil based on their knowledge of the characteristics of
different classes of soil as defined by colour, texture
and workability. The ngulupo ngiro and ngulupo
nanyuki, meaning ‘soils that like grass’, or ngulupo
nacham ngichu, meaning ‘soils that like livestock’,
are preferred for livestock grazing. The majority (70%
in this study) are aware that red/brown loamy soil is
the best for grazing. Some think black clay soil is
best while others either have no idea or consider all
types of soil suitable for grazing. Many (40% in this
study) regard brown and red loamy soils as the best for
growing crops; they reason that, unlike black clay soil,
brown and red loamy soils are light and non-sticky and
therefore easy to cultivate. Others believe black clay
soil is good for crops (Table 5.3). The herders agree
that whereas sandy and loamy soils are suitable for
millet, cowpeas and sorghum, maize does well in clay
soils. They also use both red clay soil and soil from
anthills for plastering houses (nkaji).
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
18
Table 5.3. Soil types suitable for grazing and crops
Use Soil type Respondents (%)
Pokot Il Chamus
Grazing Red loamy
No idea
Black clay
Grey
62
26
10
2
70
17
13
-
Crops Red/brown loamy
Black clay
No idea
38
32
30
40
35
25
Soil fertility trend
The Pokot and the Il Chamus mostly evaluate soil
fertility by observing the growing plants using the
following indicators:
• Water retention capacity of the soil
• Soil depth
• Colour of the soil
• Plant vigour—size and colour of the leaves, and size
of the fruits and seeds
• Forage production—plant density
• Crop yield
• Presence of certain plant species
They evaluate plant vigour by observing the size and
colour of the leaves, and size of the fruits and seeds.
Dark green and broad leaves, and big fruits and seeds
are indicators of a fertile soil. Plant density is used
to indicate forage production; high grass density,
meaning high forage production, indicates a fertile soil.
The reverse is true for a poor soil. Black and deep soils
with high water retention capacity are considered to
be fertile. The presence of certain plant species such
as Cynodon plectostachyus (‘longeri’ in Il Chamus),
Amaranthus thunbergii (‘kaptanya’ in Pokot, ‘ilkamasi’
in Il Chamus) and Solanum nigrum (‘chepkration’ in
Pokot) is interpreted to mean fertile soil. Berlaria titn-
ensis (‘lobilibili’ in Il Chamus), Cyperus rotundus, Grewia
bicolor (‘sitet’ in Pokot) and striga species are indicative
of poor soil. The Il Chamus also believe that the pres-
ence of certain other plants such as Commelina bhen-
galensis (‘ngaiteteia’) and Indigofera species (‘atula’) is
an indication of fertile soil. The mitigation measures for
declining fertility are presented in Table 5.4.
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
Table 5.4. Decisions made when soil fertility is declining
Type Decision Respondents (%)
Pokot Il Chamus
Pastoralists Moving to other pastures 100 100
Agropastoralists Moving to virgin land
Applying animal waste
80
20
83
17
19
Soil erosion
Some of the features identified by the Pokot as indica-
tors of soil erosion include:
• Presence of rills and gullies
• Exposed stones
• Silting in pans, rivers and lakes
• A lot of dust in the air
The Il Chamus also recognize rills, gullies and high
levels of dust in the air as indications of soil erosion.
These communities do not usually make an effort to
protect or conserve soil.
Water
Water availability and quantity
Sources of water for the Pokot and Il Chamus include
rivers and streams (lalua in Pokot, wuaso in Il Chamus),
pans (loturo in both languages), dams (takar in Pokot)
and shallow wells (akuicha in Pokot, lare in Il Chamus).
The Pokot also have access to boreholes and the Il
Chamus to Lake Baringo (mparingo). High variability
in rainfall makes the amount of expected rain uncer-
tain, with most rivers and streams in the region being
seasonal. Surface water is only available when it rains
and for a short period afterwards. Therefore water
supply in these areas is limited in time and space.
According to the two communities, three aspects
mainly indicate the availability of water:
• The presence of big, tall and green trees
• Evergreen vegetation
• The presence of certain plants such as Acacia
xanthophloea, Ficus thornningi (‘simotwo’ in Pokot,
‘iln’gaboli’ in Il Chamus) and evergreen Tamarindus
indica (‘oron’ in Pokot), which are indicators of a
high water table
Because of the scarcity of water in the Pokot and Il
Chamus territories, the available water is closely moni-
tored and managed for livestock and human consump-
tion. The quantity of water available is monitored at
source by regular assessment of:
• Level/depth
• Volume
• Extent of silting
A long stick regularly dipped into the river, dam, pan
or waterhole is used to monitor the depth of water and
silt. Assessing the extent of exposure of the riverbed
helps assess the volume of water; silting in pans and
dams is another way of monitoring the quantity of
water available. The communities also make use of
certain representative stones on the riverbed whose
level of exposure helps to monitor both the volume of
flow and the depth of water. Decisions made by stock-
owners when they realize water is not enough for their
herds are presented in Table 5.5.
Water quality
The Pokot and the Il Chamus assess the quality of
water on the basis of:
• Colour
• Turbidity
• Odour
• Taste
• Temperature
• Infestation by parasites and insect larvae
Most use unpleasant colour, bad odour, mud, bad taste
and infestation by parasites such as leeches (ilmolok in
Il Chamus), and insect larvae as indicators of bad water
both for livestock and human consumption. Some of
the Pokot, however, argue that there is no bad water
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
Decision Respondents (%)
Pokot Il Chamus
Digging more wells/water holes, looking for other sources or desilting wells 70 64
Splitting the herds 30 36
Table 5.5. Decisions made when water is inadequate
20
for livestock, even though they also support the idea
that unpleasant odour, greenish/bluish colour, and the
presence of parasites and insect larvae in water are
indicators of bad quality. While cattle prefer salty and
warm water, goats are very selective and take time to
accept salty water.
The Il Chamus contend that livestock prefer dirty brown
water, as found in rivers during the rainy season. They
refer to this type of water, which they claim to contain
salt (mbolyei), as ‘red water’ (ngare nanyuki). This salty
water is said to be good for livestock and is described
as ‘water that likes livestock’ (ngare ngacham ngichu).
The herders believe that for human consumption,
clean, clear, odourless, sweet, cold water is preferred.
Taste is considered a critical attribute of water quality.
Depending on taste, the Pokot classify water into three
main categories:
• Salty/brackish water (bou cho bo bartin)
• Sour water (bou cho mindirile)
• Sweet water (bou cho anyine)
The Pokot believe that bou cho anyine gives livestock
good health and all livestock species prefer drinking
it from the dam (takar). In contrast, bou cho mind-
irile is regarded as ‘bad water’, and is not preferred
by animals. It is widely agreed in the community that
salty, warm and brown water as found in rivers during
floods is highly preferred by livestock; during the rainy
season, river water is believed to carry a lot of minerals
eroded upstream and is therefore healthy for the
animals. The pastoralists make several decisions when
they realize that water is of poor quality (Table 5.6).
For human consumption, they purify dirty water using
Maerua subcordata (chepliswo in Pokot, lamayoki in Il
Chamus). The roots are used to stir turbid water, which
is then allowed to settle, thereby obtaining clean and
clear drinking water. Sometimes grass is used to sieve
turbid water.
Water distribution
The indicators of poor distribution of water, according
to the Pokot and the Il Chamus, are:
• Distance to water source
• Distribution of people and their livestock in relation
to water source
• Condition of pasture surrounding a water source
The pastoralists dig more water holes when they realize
that water is poorly distributed.
Range condition and trend
The Pokot and the Il Chamus regard animal body
condition, productivity and health as perfect reflections
of the range condition. They evaluate range condition
on the basis of overall animal performance (rumen-fill,
coat condition, milk production, weight gain, animal
health and mating frequency) and ecological factors
(forage availability, distance to water, disease inci-
dences, parasite infestation and security). However,
the suitability of range for grazing is evaluated on the
basis of ecological factors only.
While they monitor the trend of range condition by
assessing animal performance and ecological factors,
most of the pastoralists use animal performance as the
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
Table 5.6. Decisions made when water is bad
Decision Respondents (%)
Pokot Il Chamus
Looking for other sources 52 45
Digging fresh wells/waterholes 48 55
21
Table 5.7. Attributes and ecological factors considered in assessing range condition and suitability for grazing,
ranked in order of importance
Decision Attributes Suitability for grazing
Pokot Il Chamus Pokot Il Chamus
Animal performance
Forage availability
Plant vigour
Distance to water
Disease incidences/parasite infestation
Security
Topography/accessibility
1
2
-
3
4
5
-
1
2
2
3
4
5
5
-
1
-
2
3
4
-
-
2
-
1
3
4
4
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
primary factor in evaluating range condition (Table 5.7).
They regard rumen-fill as a decisive feature indicating
whether pasture is overgrazed or not. As long as the
animals still show a full rumen, they do not consider
pasture overgrazed.
Even though overall animal performance is ranked first
as an indicator in the evaluation of range condition
among the Pokot, rumen-fill comes first as an indi-
cator of whether pasture is overgrazed or not; until the
time a considerable reduction in rumen-fill is observed,
pasture is not declared overgrazed. However, the deci-
sion to move from a poor to a better pasture is always
arrived at after considering both animal performance in
the current pasture and ecological factors in the next
pasture. Good animal performance and favourable
ecological conditions are regarded as indicative of a
good range, the reverse being true for a poor range.
The pastoralists use changes observed in the attributes
shown in Table 5.7 to monitor range condition trend.
An improvement in animal performance, increase in
forage production, reduced distance to water, reduced
disease incidences, and reduced parasite infesta-
tions are indicators of improved range condition. The
reverse is true for a downward trend in range condi-
tion. The Pokot argue that there is no excellent range,
since during the wet season when there is plenty of
forage, water, milk and increased birth rates, there are
also high incidences of disease, heavy infestation of
parasites and many predators.
According to the Il Chamus, a full rumen is a sign of
animal satisfaction and a good range. Similarly, an
increase in milk production, rapid weight gain, abun-
dance of forage, and water availability indicate an
upward trend in range condition. When forage is not
enough, an animal will show signs of dissatisfaction—
the animal will not be willing to return home early, and
once home, will want to graze at night. A drop in milk
production is indicative of both poor range and poor
health. Animal unrest during milking and kicking of the
calf also indicate dissatisfaction and little milk. The
herders also agree that an unhealthy herd implies poor
range. When biting flies and other parasites are present
the animals will be restless and scratching constantly;
this causes a drop in milk production. The herders also
know that stony, slippery, steep and rugged areas are
only accessible to goats and not to cattle and sheep,
and that a good range is one that is accessible to live-
stock. Predators like lions and leopards are a security
threat and areas in which they are present are therefore
avoided. The range suitability ratings were given by
both communities as good, fair and poor, depending
on the status of ecological factors (Table 5.8).
22
Table 5.8. Ecological rating of range suitability for livestock grazing by the Pokot
Condition Ecological attributes
Good
Fair
Poor
Adequate forage, short distance to water, and rare disease incidences
Adequate forage, short distance to water, and many disease incidences
Inadequate forage, long distance to water/lack of water, many disease incidences, and many
predators
The pastoralists do not agree on the measures to take
when pasture is poor/overgrazed (Table 5.9). Some
scout for and move to better pastures; others burn the
pasture to regenerate growth and kill parasites such
as fleas, ticks and lice; and others split their herds to
spread the grazing pressure on the range.
Animals
Animal performance
Both the Pokot and the Il Chamus monitor animal
performance through regular assessment of:
• Body condition - full rumen, coat condition and
weight gain
• Productivity - milk production and birth rate/mating
frequency
• Health - disease incidences and parasite infesta-
tion
Good animal performance is reflected by good body
condition, high productivity and good health. The
factors considered by the two communities when
assessing animal performance are presented in Table
5.10.
While milk production and mating frequency/birth rate
are the main indicators of productivity, animal health is
specifically evaluated on the basis of disease incidence
Table 5.9. Decisions made when pasture is poor/overgrazed
Decision Respondents (%)
Pokot Il Chamus
Scouting for and moving to better pastures 56 64
Burning pasture 28 28
Splitting herds 16 8
and parasite infestation. The pastoralists relate good
animal performance to good range condition; improve-
ment in overall animal performance is perceived to be
the result of an upward trend in range condition, and
the reverse is true for a downward trend.
When the body condition of an animal is poor and
productivity is low due to disease, most pastoral-
ists treat the animal; if not, the herders scout for and
move to better pastures. Others scout for and move to
a better pasture immediately they notice that animal
performance is poor.
Animal breeding
Breeding management among the pastoral Pokot and
Il Chamus entails selection and (or) culling of breeding
animals while maintaining the best male to female
ratio. The bull to cow ratio among animals kept by the
Pokot is normally 1:40 whilethat for animals kept by
the Il Chamus is 1:50. The buck to doe ratio is 1:25 and
1:20, respectively. While all the females are allowed to
breed, male animals are selected according to specific
criteria, namely (in order of importance):
• Body frame/size
• Milk production of their mothers and daughters
• Strength of their calves
• Temperament
• Hide markings and colour
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
23
Table 5.10. Attributes used in evaluating livestock performance ranked (in order of importance)
Attribute Rank
Pokot Il Chamus
Rumen-fill
Coat condition
Milk production
Weight gain
Animal health
Mating frequency/birth rate
1
2
3
4
5
5
1
2
3
3
4
5
Pastoralists usually focus on the fertility of female
animals as opposed to other qualities. However, the
herders argue that until mating it is not possible to
tell a fertile animal from an infertile one. The following
observations are regarded as signs of infertility in
female animals:
• Delayed conception—if a heifer conceives long after
all the age mates
• Low mating frequency
• Irregular heats episodes
The Pokot control animal mating only when a male is
thought to have bad traits. Such an animal is castrated.
The Il Chamus usually control mating during the dry
season when there is lack of forage. Bulls are sepa-
rated from cows; a piece of skin called ljoni is tied
around the reproductive organs of the rams to block
mating; and goats naturally abstain from mating during
drought. Both communities castrate animals after 2 to
3 years of service to avoid inbreeding. Castrated bulls
and sterile cows are usually fattened and exchanged
for heifers, while the castrated and infertile small
stock are slaughtered to provide meat for the family.
Castration is usually done to coincide with the onset of
rains to ensure enough forage for the castrates.
Animal health
Through their ethnoveterinary systems, the Pokot and
the Il Chamus can prevent and treat specific animal
diseases. They make either one or more of the following
observations to arrive at a conclusion that an animal is
sick:
• Rough coat—standing hair
• Lack of appetite
• Coughing
• Frequent lying down
• Failure to chew cud
• Abnormal discharge from the eyes
• Lameness
• Running nose
• Drooping head
• Excess secretion of saliva
In the Pokot community, when an animal shows symp-
toms of an unknown disease (tongunot), traditional
herbs are administered on a trial-and-error basis.
However, the herders are able to differentiate a disease
from a mere condition caused by feed poisoning.
According to them, foaming from the mouth and a
swollen rumen indicate a condition caused by feeding
poisonous plants. The most prevalent diseases in the
area, according to the herders, are foot-and-mouth
(nguarian), East Coast fever (tilis) and black quarter
(lukuricha). They had no cure for nguarian and tilis until
the introduction of modern veterinary medicine. Some
of the herbal remedies used by the herders are given
in Appendix 1. To treat lukuricha, the leaves and bark
of Boscia salicifolia (‘likwon’) and Zanthoxylum chaly-
beum (‘songowow’) are pounded and soaked in water
before being orally administered to a sick animal. For
fractured and dislocated limbs, rafts (ropa) made from
the bark of Acacia trees are tied around the fracture
(kiil) to keep the bones in place until they heal.
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
24
Although modern health care exists alongside the tradi-
tional medicine, the Il Chamus dichotomize illnesses
into those that are handled best by traditional and by
modern medicine therapy. However, the decision on
whether to use the modern or traditional treatment
depends on:
• Accessibility to medicine
• Cost involved
• Past experience with a similar illness
Pharmaceutical drugs are used only when they are
affordable or readily available, otherwise herbal reme-
dies are the most commonly used because they are
cheap. The most common disease in Il Chamus terri-
tory is trypanosomosis (cheptikon), transmitted by the
tsetse fly (lojon’goni). Treatment of trypanosomiasis,
which is a wasting disease in cattle, involves admin-
istering a concoction of boiled roots of lauraki and
lemunyi (scientific names not identified), and bleeding
the affected animal at the jugular vein to drain ‘bad
blood’. For diarrhoea, which is common in sheep,
a concoction of boiled roots of Salvadora persica is
administered orally; and for contagious caprine pleu-
ropneumonia (ikipei), a concoction of crushed leaves of
sukuroi (scientific name not identified) soaked in water
overnight and mixed with soda ash (sodium sequicar-
bonate) is orally given to the sick animal.
The Il Chamus believe that the prevalence of diseases,
presence of disease vectors, and heavy infestation
by parasites such as fleas, ticks and lice are indica-
tive of a poor range. The response from the herders is
usually to scout for better pastures and escape from
such risks.
Animal/land interactions
The success of the pastoralists stems from well-
adapted principles and strategies designed to over-
come the harsh and variable conditions dominant in
arid areas. These adaptive strategies include:
• Keeping mixed-species herds
• Herd splitting, based on class and species
• Rotational grazing—division of the range into wet
and dry season pastures
• Pasture deferral
• Feed supplementation (an’gich in Il Chamus)
• Polygamy
Keeping mixed-species herds is used to match the
diversity of plant species; cattle are grazers while goats
and camels are browsers that utilize browse at different
heights. The Pokot also use this strategy as insurance
against droughts; goats and camels are more drought
resistant than cattle, and are therefore able to survive
prolonged droughts.
Herders split and manage their livestock as different
herding units based on animal species and class
because each species and class has its own herding
requirements. The herding strategy practised is care-
fully designed to ease pressure on the pastures
around the homesteads and also to optimize the use
of different ecological niches. Their livestock herds are
divided into home-based herds, locally called lepon by
the Pokot and itelekwa by the Il Chamus, and satellite
or nomadic herds, known as sorok (Pokot) or edura (Il
Chamus).
In the Pokot grazing system, the home-based herds,
which include the goats, calves (lukuyan), lactating
cows (oboe), and sick animals, are left at home during
the dry season grazing movements. Besides being the
main source of meat for members of the family who
remain at home, the small stock have lower dietary
requirements than cattle do. The small stock can there-
fore survive on the usually over-utilized pastures around
the homestead. However, the calves and sick animals
are restricted to home pastures because they are not
able to walk long distances while lactating cows are left
behind to provide milk for the children, women, the sick
and the elderly. The lepon is managed by young girls
between the ages of 7 and 18 years (tibin). The satellite
or away herd is usually composed of bulls (kiruk), dry
animals (lukuyot), heifers (maser) and castrates/steers
(ein). Managing the satellite herd involves trekking long
distances and systematic grazing movements between
different pastures. This is the responsibility of uncir-
cumcised boys between the ages of 10 and 15 years
(karachin) and circumcised boys.
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
25
The grazing pattern and mobility among the Pokot is
dependent on the location and distance between dry
season and wet season grazing areas. Dry season
grazing areas are perennial pastures with permanent
water sources, as found on the hills. The pastoral-
ists move to these areas as soon as the sources of
surface water in the lowlands dry up and the forage
is exhausted (June and January). The lowland areas
usually provide wet season grazing for livestock, not
far from the main camps (kau). They are often over-
utilized and mostly dominated by annual grasses. The
Pokots refer to annuals as ‘weak grass’, indicating that
the annual grasses only last a few weeks after the onset
of rains, and that such species cannot support live-
stock during drought. Movements from the dry season
grazing areas to the wet season areas usually occur in
March and October. Grazing management and control
therefore involves livestock movements between the
dry season (kimei) and wet season (ten’get) pastures
and communal deferral (suschokiripe) of some pastures
as insurance against drought.
Among the Pokot certain pastures, mostly on the hills,
are used as traditional grazing reserves. These areas,
locally referred to as karantile, are closed on orders from
the elders (kipsus) who are responsible for enforcing the
regulations related to the use and management of grass
for drought (suschopkemei). Also forming part of the
management of the karantile are boys assigned to guard
these reserves (kirosin). These boys answer directly to
the kipsus and report any herder who violates the regu-
lations regarding the use of the deferred pastures.
The Pokot also practise feed supplementation espe-
cially during droughts when forage is inadequate. They
lop trees such as Balanites (‘tuyunwo’) and Acacia
species, collect Acacia tortilis pods, and cut grasses
such as Eragrostis superba and Cenchrus ciliaris
(‘chelwowis’) mostly for the home-based herds.
Pokot men marry many wives to provide herding
labour. The wives of one man have their homesteads
situated in different ecological niches to spread risk,
expand grazing ground and achieve optimum use of
the grazing resource.
The Il Chamus keep cattle, sheep and goats in the
ratio of 3:5:2. This kind of herd structure ensures
optimum use of different forms of plant life. Different
species serve different purposes. While cattle are kept
mainly for milk among other important social, cultural
and economic reasons, goats and sheep are the main
sources of meat for pastoral households. Mixed-
species herds are also used as a risk management
strategy; goats are known for their high fecundity and
resistance to drought as compared to both cattle and
sheep.
The nomadic herd of the Il Chamus is composed of bulls
(loingoni), dry cows (konanemelopi) and heifers (ndawa
potoro). The home-based herd is composed of calves
(ndawa kunyinyi), small stock, sick animals, lactating
cows (kelepi) and one bull (loingok). Unmarried boys of
15 years of age and above (el muran) are responsible
for the nomadic herds. During drought (ngolong) the Il
Chamus, just like the Pokot, make several movements
with the nomadic herds across the dry season grazing
reserves, sometimes as far as 50 km and beyond. Boys
of 10 years and below (el chukut) herd the home-based
animals. These herds usually move within a radius of
a few kilometres from the main camps to avoid over-
grazing. An area around the main camps covering up
to several square metres is reserved for grazing calves,
lambs and kids. They make seasonal grazing move-
ments to ensure that different ecological niches are
utilized. The grazing pattern in Il Chamus territory is
divided between those areas where dry season stock
movements centre on swampy (ilmanie) areas, and
those regions where dry season movements are to
the hills at the base of the Laikipia escarpment. The Il
Chamus, just like the Pokot, move to dry grazing areas
during the months of June and January, and return
to the wet grazing areas in March and October. Their
grazing pattern is influenced by:
• Forage availability
• Water availability
• Stock diseases
• Settlement patterns
During the wet season (lari), grazing is limited to the
areas around the homesteads (enkang). The traditional
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
26
pastures reserved and used during drought when there
is inadequate forage are referred to as karantili. Deferral
(kekeringop ngujit) is enforced by a council of elders
called elbayeni oripngujit, who levy heavy fines on
herders who defy the rules and regulations governing
the use of deferred pastures.
When livestock bomas become heavily infested with
parasites, they have to be shifted elsewhere. Such
strategies also ensure optimum use of different ecolog-
ical niches of the range.
Just like the Pokot, the Il Chamus supplement the diet
of their animals especially during droughts. The feed
supplements include:
• Lopped leaves of Balanites species
• Leaves, pods and flowers of A. tortilis
• Leaves of Ficus species
• Cynodon plectostachyus
Institutional set-up
The institutional set-up of the Pokot is one in which
the household heads/elders take a central part in deci-
sion making. Women, children and unmarried men
may only report certain observations, but stay at the
periphery of the process of decision making. Children
are mostly responsible for herding while women, apart
from performing other domestic chores, are respon-
sible for milking, taking care of young stock, treating
small stock, and fetching forage for young stock and
sick animals kept at the homestead. The reasons
surrounding the decisions to move across grazing
areas is usually entrusted to the herdsboys (muren) and
the owners of the stock. The head of the household or
the herdsboy does the ecological scouting (karkara) for
pasture, but the decision to move is the sole respon-
sibility of the head of the household. Decisions are
always made at the household level except in the case
of insecurity, when communal consent is necessary.
In the Il Chamus community, division of labour within
the family is largely on the basis of sex and age. In
livestock production, a woman’s role, apart from doing
virtually all the daily domestic chores, is milking the
animals and managing the itelekwa herd. The el moran
are responsible for herding the edura herd and also
reporting any abnormal observation in range condi-
tion and animal performance. The decision on herd
management is traditionally a responsibility of the head
of the household who is a man (women household
heads were not easily identifiable). If the herders realize
that pasture is poor/overgrazed, the el moran scout
for better grazing, an exercise they call kebon’gatan
ngujit. The head of the household or elderly persons
in the family decide on the next move after the scouts
have reported their observations. Decision making,
just as in the neighbouring Pokot community, is done
at household level.
Range assessment and monitoring in Kenya: The case of the Pokot and Il Chamus
27
6. Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania:
The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
The Barabaig and the Maasai share a common home
range in the East African Rift Valley. The Maasai are
found in Monduli District, Arusha Region, which
stretches from the Kenya-Tanzania border, whereas the
Barabaig are further south in Hanang District, Manyara
Region. Though known to be traditional enemies, they
form the main pastoral community of Tanzania, and
the two communities have a lot in common in livestock
and range management practices.
Climate
Weather forecasting
The Barabaig use clouds, temperature and winds to
determine the onset of the rainy season. Heavy and
black clouds, humid conditions and easterly or west-
erly winds are indicators of the onset of long or short
rains. The weather is so important to the Barabaig that
it is part of the greetings when two people meet. Apart
from family matters, the Barabaig ask one another
about important events related to rain, the health of
animals, livestock auction prices, water and the stage
of pasture development. These events change with the
four Barabaig seasons, namely: early rains (domeda)
in November to December; long rains (muweda) in
February to April; cold season (meahoda) in May to
July; and dry season (geaida) in August to November.
Through the greetings, one person finds out the state
of the other person’s grazing areas. This helps the
person decide whether to shift to the new area or not.
The Maasai also have the ability to forecast weather
trends. They do this by observing the position of the
stars, atmospheric temperatures and rainfall patterns.
Many elderly men and the warrior (morani) age group
share this knowledge. Sunny and hot conditions fore-
cast heavy rains, while cloudy and cold conditions
forecast little or no rains at all.
The east to west positioning of the group stars fore-
cast the onset or end of the rainy season. The stars
are positioned in the east during the dry season and
in the west before the start of the rains. If no stars are
sighted and the rains are sporadic, crops and pasture
wither fast. The sighting of stars leads to good crops
and pasture establishment even if weather fluctuations
develop.
Many birds inhabit wild caves. When they start flying
and circling around the caves they also signal the
approach of the rainy season.
The rainfall regime is well patterned. If rains do not
persist up to early April, a minor drought is predicted.
This would result in animals being in poor condition.
Conversely, good rains extending past the month of
April are an indication of increased biomass produc-
tion, and animals are expected to be in good condi-
tion. The Maasai also believe that the occurrence of
drought is cyclical. In Longido area it is expected to
occur once every 10 years. In the recent past serious
droughts have, in fact, been experienced in this area in
1977, 1987 and 1997.
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
28
Plant and animal indicators
According to the Barabaig, the flowering of some
plants (e.g. Commiphora species (‘ishipone’)) indicates
the onset of the rainy season. The singing of some
birds, e.g. ostriches and guinea fowls (daemg’anda),
and croaking of toads (udaghambagajamu) is also an
indication of the onset of rains.
In the past, the emigration of game animals and birds
in the area was used as an indicator of the onset of
the rainy season. Also used is the increase in water
levels in wells and springs and movement of a group
of stars (jaega). The Barabaig regard the establishment
of Oxagonum species (‘mbigili’) as a sign of poor/low
rains. Fast establishment and subsequent seeding
and seed maturation is a sign of a poor rainy season.
A good rainy season, however, is predicted by an
outbreak of armyworms.
Among the Maasai, the extent of flowering in vegeta-
tion, especially of Acacia trees, reflects the amount of
rainfall received and relates to the quantity of pods that
would be produced in the season. Goats relish pods
during the dry season and they are a valuable source
of protein supplementation. Good flowering therefore
indicates a good season that leads to animals in good
condition.
Soils
Soil classification
The Barabaig and the Maasai classify soils on the basis
of colour. The Barabaig identify the following soils on
their range:
• Black
• Red
• White
• Dark
• Dark brown
These soils are found on plains (mbugas), plateau, high
areas and flat areas (Table 6.1). The colour of the soil
informs the livestock keeper on the nature of drainage,
organic matter content and productivity level.
The Maasai distinguish two soil types within their home
range, closely resembling those at the soil series level.
They are the red sandy loams (orpumi/osanyai) and
black sandy loams (engusero). These soils are asso-
ciated with certain physical features, such as foot-
hills (orpumi/osanyai) and lowlands (engusero) (Table
6.2). The colour of the soil depends on organic matter
content of the soil.
Table 6.1. Classification of soils and their occurrence by the Barabaig
Soil class (based on colour) Location on catena
Black (ashangwajanda) Plains (mbugas)
Red (segedarire) Plateau (flat)
White (eshish) High and flat areas
Brown (gwanyeideayi) High areas
Dark brown (dushang’wajanda) Flat areas
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
Table 6.2. Classification of soils and their occurrence by the Maasai
Soil class (based on colour) Location on catena
Red sandy loams Foothills
Black sandy loams Lowlands
29
Soil fertility
The attributes the Barabaig use to assess the fertility
of soil are shown in Table 6.3. They (47% in this study)
evaluate soil fertility by observing the establishment of
pastures and crops. High fertility soils exhibit tall and
healthy plant growth, dense cover, dark green vegeta-
tion and fast plant regeneration after a grazing cycle.
Individual plants exhibit high degrees of producing
suckers/tillers, and greenness of the vegetation extends
well into the dry season. Some of the Barabaig (31%
in this study) observe the health of animals to estab-
lish the fertility status of soils, while others use plant
indicators such as the presence of Cynodon dactylon
(‘ngarojika’), Acacia tortilis (‘rabanghaed’) and a certain
shrub (‘sinida’).
Sparse vegetation, paleness of vegetation and low
regeneration ability are an indication of soils with low
fertility. Such soils produce inadequate grazing and
the encroachment of low feed value species such
as Aristida species and Chloris virgata (‘haroroid’) is
common.
Soil uses
Different types of soils are used in different ways to
sustain the Barabaig and Maasai range and livestock
productivity and subsequently their own lives over
space and time. The suitability of soils for grazing and
crop production is based on:
• Existing species of grasses and trees
• Distance from crop fields
• Distance from water—not more than a 3-hour
grazing distance
• Whether previously burnt
Table 6.3. Evaluation of soil fertility by the Barabaig
Attribute Respondents (%)
Establishment of pastures and crops 47
Animal health 31
Plant indicators 22
All soils generally provide some form of pasture for
grazing. Another major use of soil is crop production
by the Barabaig agropastoralists. The black and dark
brown soils are suitable for sunflower, beans, onions
and maize while the red soils are suitable for maize,
finger millet and sorghums. Red soils are also used
for building residential houses/livestock corrals, while
white soils are used to hang beehives.
Vegetation
Vegetation characterization
The pastoral Barabaig and Maasai have the ability to
classify different vegetation types based on physiog-
nomic characteristics. The knowledge enables them to
effectively plan for the use of the existing vegetation by
different classes of animals. They also classify vege-
tation on the basis of forage availability to livestock.
Since forage availability is dependent on the type of
soil and its inherent fertility status, the Barabaig have
three types of vegetation associations:
• Balanites-Acacia (‘sawachanda-nyashochanda’)
and Pennisetum-Hyparrhenia (‘gharosk-sabaled’)
associations on mountain ranges
• Commiphora-Acacia (‘ishopone-barjomoda’) and
Eragrostis-Aristida (‘nyatka-hararoid’) associations
on mbugas (‘tindiga’)
• Acacia and Cenchrus-Pennisetum associations on
the plateau
According to the Maasai, there are two vegetation
associations based on soil types and physical features.
One is an Acacia drepanolobium, A. nilotica (‘olklorit’),
Pennisetum mezianum (‘asangai’) and Setaria species
association on the foothills. The second is a Balanites
aegyptiaca (‘ngosawai’), A. robust (‘olera’), Grewia
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
30
bicola (‘ositeti’), Cynodon plectostachyus and Setaria
species association on lowlands.
Quantity of pasture
Both the Barabaig and the Maasai assess the potential
of a grazing area based on:
• Botanical composition
• Plant vigour
• Biomass
• Cover
• Growth form of the grazing areas
Once the head of the household reaches a new pasture,
he looks at the height and type of plant species in the
area. Particular emphasis is placed on open grazing
with well-distributed tree layers, interspersed with
different grass layers. He also looks at the density of
the plants. The best density of the grass layer is tall to
medium tall; this makes good grazing. After introducing
the animals, the vigour, biomass and cover attributes
are monitored through animal performance (gut-fill, milk
production and productivity of grass species), height,
greenness and tillering ability. The woody species are
monitored by the degree of sprouting, and the produc-
tion of new leaves and pods. After grazing for some
days, the head of the household assesses the produc-
tivity of the pasture by monitoring animal perform-
ance. On the basis of animal performance, especially
milk production, the head of the household moves the
animals to new pastures when the quantity of grazing
declines. Most Barabaig use stubble biomass and
botanical composition (78% and 77%, respectively, in
this study) to determine grazing pressure. Others use
biomass, vigour and cover (Table 6.4).
Table 6.4. Attributes used by the Barabaig to determine grazing pressure
Attribute Respondents (%)
Stubble biomass 78
Vigour 59
Biomass 67
Cover 60
Botanical composition 77
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
The Maasai are aware that different livestock species
browse shrubs and trees at a certain height. Beyond
this height the branches of the trees and shrubs are
harvested by chopping. The cover of different plants is
observed in terms of:
• Tussock size
• Spreading ability through runners
• Seed production
The herders look for an increase in the area covered
by the base of the plant, runners producing vegeta-
tive materials at short distances from the mother plant
and germination of some seeds from the mother plant
within the area covering the entire soil surface at peak
season. For woody plants the Maasai observe pod
production capacity. Early in the season, herdsboys
observe the grasses, trees and shrubs that sprout with
the onset of the rains. The presence of a variety of
plant species (grasses and legumes) is an ideal grazing
site for the Maasai.
Quality of pasture
The Barabaig and Maasai pastoralists assess the
potential of a grazing area in terms of its quality—nutri-
tive value and palatability. These methods are similar
to rapid appraisal techniques and have been used
for many generations by the pastoralists and have
sustained their production systems. However, as they
are at present, these techniques need to be improved
and streamlined into conventional science.
Once livestock have entered a new grazing area, the
herdsmen monitor the quality of grazing by observing
the immediate responses of the animals to the pasture.
31
• Piped water (man-made)
• Valley dams (natural)
Sources of water vary depending on the location of the
village and topography.
Quality of water
The Barabaig and Maasai communities monitor the
quality of water for human consumption by observing:
• Colour
• Smell
• Presence of foreign materials
• Weight of water
The Maasai have three quality classes:
• Clean water from the springs
• Water that tastes good
• Water that is polluted
In both communities, water that is clear in colour, with
no smell and devoid of debris is suitable for human
consumption. When the quality of water is unsuitable
for human consumption, the Barabaig add ash to the
water and let it stand overnight. On the next day the
clear water at the top is removed leaving the dirt at the
bottom. The Barabaig observe the animals to monitor
the quality of water for livestock consumption. If the
animals do not fall sick within a few days of drinking
the water, the quality is said to be satisfactory.
Quantity of water
The Barabaig assess and monitor the quantity of water
by observing the different sources in relation to the
population of livestock, while the Maasai observe the
degree of flow from springs and the number of animals
that can be watered per day and per season. For
shallow wells the Barabaig look at:
• Degree of flow
• Depth of the well
• Degree of congestion of the animals at the wells
• Number of holes that discharge water in the well
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
The animal factors observed include:
• Gut-fill
• Animal activities in the morning before they are
taken to pastures
• Milk production
• Smoothness of faeces
In the long term, the quality of grazing is monitored in
terms of:
• Number of heifers that come on heat for the first
time
• Libido in bulls
• Body condition of dry cows and calves
A change in calving intervals and the number of calves
dropped on the pasture indicate the long-term quality
of grazing.
During the course of grazing, plants that are grazed
first are usually palatable (also referred to as desirable
or decreaser plants), such as Cenchrus ciliaris (‘erikari’
in Maa), Pennisetum mezianum (‘eruke’ in Maa) and
Digitaria microphylla (‘engapuru’ in Maa). Over time,
the low quality (undesirable or increaser) plants, which
include herbaceous and woody plants, increase.
Animals rush for palatable plant species and resist any
attempts to move them out. The palatable species are
grazed intensively (close to the ground).
Water
Sources of water
The Barabaig and the Maasai identify water sources,
their exploitation and their uses to enhance the pasto-
ralists’ ability to obtain suitable water for both livestock
and human consumption. Water is obtained from one
or other of the following, depending on season or
availability:
• Rivers and streams (natural and seasonal)
• Natural springs (seasonal)
• Shallow wells (man-made)
• Lakes (natural)
• Springs—the main source of water
• Boreholes
32 Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
Table 6.5. Decisions made by the Barabaig when the quantity of water decreases
Attribute Respondents (%)
Shift to other water sources 69
Dig shallow wells 14
Ferry water to livestock 14
Separate livestock water sources from those of the people 3
A good well should not dry out. It should be available
all the year round. For rivers and streams, the following
are observed:
• Rate of flow
• Size of the dam
• Area of the catchments
Continuous flow is a good indication of the quantity
of water available. In addition, through experience, the
Barabaig can make an eye estimate of the extent to
which the dam is usually filled in bad and good years
and the rate of water consumption, matching the
number of livestock with the quantity and amount of
precipitation received.
The decisions made by the Barabaig when the quan-
tity of water decreases are shown in Table 6.5. Most
of the herders (69% in this study) move livestock to
other water sources when water is inadequate at the
grazing areas. Others meet the water quantity require-
ments by digging shallow wells, ferrying water from
distant areas and separating water sources for human
use from those for livestock.
Distribution of water
The Barabaig monitor the distribution of water by
assessing the sources of water in the dry and wet
seasons. As the dry season sets in, the tempo-
rary water sources dry out resulting in poor distribu-
tion. Consequently, in the dry season the only water
sources available are lakes and dams. Therefore live-
stock keepers have to trek long distances to water their
livestock. Under these circumstances watering is only
possible every other day. The distance to water in the
dry season varies depending on the location of the
villages. The range is between 2 and 3 km in Mureru
and 7 and 10 km in Gehababieg villages. In bad years
livestock keepers are forced to move to other areas/
districts like Kondoa where there are permanent water
sources and pastures. In the wet season the sources of
water include lakes, natural springs, pools and seasonal
streams, and therefore water is well distributed.
In the Maasai grazing areas water is generally poorly
distributed. Thus, individuals have made efforts to
develop private waterholes in temporary grazing areas.
The major water sources for Longido Division are the
natural springs, small dams and piped water.
Availability of water
The Barabaig monitor the availability of water by
assessing the sources of water in the dry and wet
seasons. In the rainy season, the pastoralists observe
the extent of the individual lakes, and, based on their
experience, determine whether the amount of water
held in the lakes would be sufficient for a certain period
of the season. In the dry season they observe the
extent of the remaining area of the lake (water source),
and can determine with some certainty the degree of
water sufficiency for the season.
Generally the Barabaig and the Maasai recognize
the availability of water in an area by the presence of
green grass during the dry season, soil moisture in the
topsoil, and presence of some indicator plants, e.g.
Ficus species (‘mkuyu’ in Maa) and A. tortilis. In addi-
tion, the presence of some butterflies and of natural
springs, as shown by the holes dug by elephants, is
indicative of the presence of water.
33
Animals
Barabaig and Maasai pastoralists use several indige-
nous techniques to assess and monitor herd perform-
ance. These techniques help them to identify areas for
intervention. The problem associated with the use of
these techniques is that they are subjective and need
the experience of herdsmen to apply them effectively.
Animal productivity
The pastoralists assess the productivity of an adult
animal by observing:
• Hair coat
• Feeding behaviour
• Appearance
The hair coat of a healthy animal is usually smooth
and shiny and the animal is usually a good feeder and
is appealing to the eye. For young animals, livestock
keepers look at the size of the calves at birth. The calf
is usually large and continues exhibiting such features
throughout the yearling stages (for both male and
female calves). It is usually long, strong, lean, with a
wide frame (for heifers), and has a small head, a small
hump pointed backwards, and exhibits high libido (for
bull calves). For a lactating cow, it usually produces a
lot of milk, has an udder with good conformation, has a
complete number of teats, is appealing in appearance,
has a well-built body, is very active, and comes from
a reputable line. The bull is usually good looking and
starts breeding at an early age, is from a reputable line,
is active, has a pendulous scrotum, has two testicles,
has a good appetite to ensure continued body build-
up, and has no parents in the herd. For castrates, the
body must be large, well structured and fast growing.
Physical condition of animals
According to the pastoralists, the physical condition of
animals is assessed by generally observing:
• Hair colour
• Finish
• Neck muscles
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
Usually a good body condition has a shiny hair colour,
well-structured body finish, and a short and stout
neck. For cows the pastoralists observe the udder,
legs and voluntary weaning of calves. A large, full and
extended udder, strong legs, and voluntary suckling of
calves exhibit good body condition in cows. Bulls and
steers in good condition are aggressive, alert, whole-
some and attractive. Any departure from the attributes
of good body condition is usually treated as bad body
condition. This is manifested in emaciation of the body,
rough hair coat, dull appearance, protruding hump and
horns, sharp horns at an early age, enlarged external
lymph nodes, deformities (legs, eyes and limbs), poor
appetite, low live weight and poor milk production.
Animal health
The Barabaig and the Maasai assess the health of their
animals by observing:
• Appetite
• Feeding behaviour
• Hair density on the skin
• Animal activities
• Milk production
• Strength of the animal
• Libido
A healthy animal has a good appetite, feeds well, has
shiny skin hair covering the entire body, is active, has
high milk production, is well built, and has a high libido.
The opposite is true for an unhealthy animal. Enlarged
lymph nodes are also used to identify unhealthy
animals. They lag behind other animals; they have
dry muzzles, diarrhoea, anorexia leading to emacia-
tion, laboured breathing and are unthrifty. Unhealthy
animals also exhibit inflammations, coughing, fever,
wounds, blood stained urine, and hard faeces that
contains fibrous materials.
The combined knowledge of plants and animals has
placed the pastoralists in a position to manage live-
stock well. They are able to diagnose diseases and
treat them. For example, to treat a cough, plant liquor
is administered through the mouth of the sick animal
34
using a guard funnel. The dosage is repeated the next
day if the animal does not recover during the night.
Drenching a sick animal with sour milk is used to treat
cases of plant poisoning with grass species. To treat
bloat, caused by a legume (Trifolium species), a sharp
piece of metal is used to pierce the rumen.
About half of the Barabaig population (47% in this
study) diagnose sick animals and treat them using
traditional techniques, a figure substantially higher
than that of those who seek modern veterinary treat-
ment (38% in this study) (Table 6.6).
Selection and breeding
The two pastoral communities of Tanzania practise
a continuous breeding system. For every 10 mature
cows, there is a fully-grown bull to mate with the
female animals as they come on heat. All the females
have access to a bull all the year round.
Bulls that are retained in the herd are usually selected.
Such bulls are healthier than other bulls, active since
yearling and well framed (rectangular). They have short
horns, tall hind and fore quarters, large testicles and a
high growth rate. They are selected from a reputable
line, are attractive in colour and preferably have a
herding trait. If they are selected from the herd, all their
parents are normally removed from the herd to avoid
inbreeding.
The ability of a heifer to reproduce is monitored by
assessing the number of times it is bred and how
active the heifer is in the herd. The inability of the heifer
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
Table 6.6. Decisions made on diagnosing sick animals by the Barabaig
Attribute Respondents (%)
Treating sick animals using traditional methods 47
Seeking advice from veterinary officers 38
Shifting the herd to another area 6
Culling sick animals 6
Supplementing animals 3
to reproduce is monitored by observing how fast it is
growing, how early or late it is mounted in relation to
its counterparts, how often it comes on heat, how its
reproductive organs are placed, and how it walks.
The Maasai choose animals based on both meat and
milk production as suitable breeding stock. In addi-
tion to the above, other characteristics considered are,
twinning ability, sire/dam size, posture, milk poten-
tial, size of udder and well-placed testicles. To avoid
inbreeding, bulls/bucks are bought from or exchanged
with neighbours’ animals. It is normal practice to sell
or castrate all males not selected for breeding. Infertile
females once identified are culled.
Animal/land interactions
Grazing pattern
As the dry season sets in (in May), the Barabaig house-
hold head surveys for dry season grazing. The selec-
tion is based on topography, soil fertility, and the crop
residues and type of pastures available. Other factors
considered are suitability for the period, availability,
adequacy and proximity of water to livestock, and
farmers’ acceptance of other livestock keepers in their
areas. The area selected is usually green and consists
of grasses and legume plants, has good cover and is
interspersed with trees. When the head of the house-
hold is satisfied that the pasture is suitable for the
animals, the herd moves into the area. Cattle (plus
calves) and donkeys (for carrying luggage) go on the
first trip and goats and sheep follow. Sheep and goats
are not moved to new grazing areas if the grazing
conditions are not suitable for them. Once on the new
35
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
pasture, the quantity and quality of grazing and overall
suitability of the area for livestock are monitored using
livestock performance indicators—milk production,
absence of diseases and other observations the live-
stock keepers make. Calves, small stock and sick
animals are usually grazed near the homestead, under
the attention of women, whereas cattle and donkeys
are sent to distant pastures. The first areas to be
grazed are the homestead pastures and crop residues
(up to the end of June or July). In August to November,
the livestock graze in any other open areas where there
are pastures. When the open areas are exhausted, they
move to distant areas (e.g. Balangda Lelu, Gidagamono
wheat farm, Babati, Singida and Manyoni) where there
is water and pastures.
Since water is scarce in the Barabaig plain, most of the
permanent water is too salty for livestock and people
to drink. From August to November herdsmen there-
fore dig wells in areas surrounding Lake Balangda
Lelu. These wells draw on less salty water found below
ground level. After cleaning a well for the season, a
herdsman places a tree trunk that can hold his weight
over the mouth of the well, draws water using a bucket
and pours it into a reservoir built on the ground with
mud from the well. The water then runs by gravity
into a trough, which is also built from the mud from
the well. Sticks are usually driven into the ground and
woven together forming a low fence impervious to
water and strong enough to resist use by many cattle
daily throughout the dry season. In this way livestock
do not pollute the water supply with their feet, dung
or urine.
Table 6.7. Importance ranking of ecological and other factors by the Barabaig
Attributes Rank
Vegetation
Availability of water
Freedom from diseases and predators
Availability of salt
Proximity to veterinary services
1
2
3
4
5
With the onset of short rains (November to December)
the head of the household surveys for wet season
grazing. Livestock keepers move away from lowlands
and farming areas to avoid floods and conflicts between
farmers and livestock keepers. The areas chosen for
grazing are usually not far from the homestead to allow
members of the family to participate in farming activi-
ties. The selection is based on topography and type
of soil. Areas with red and white soils are suitable for
livestock grazing in the wet season. The area selected
has good cover, strong grasses and legumes with
interspersed tree species.
The animals are moved to homestead pastures within
one kilometre for small stocks. However, as pastures
diminish near the homestead, the animals are moved
to mbugas away from water sources until February (i.e.
the start of the long rainy season).
For the Maasai, the availability of dry pastures, tempo-
rary shelter and seasonal availability of permanent
water govern their dry season grazing. Movement
starts in August when pastures near homesteads are
already depleted. Animals move to seasonal grazing
areas (ronjo) about 12 km away. From the camp they
have a grazing range of another 10 km.
Wet season grazing is governed by permanent settle-
ments and availability of permanent water and social
amenities (schools and hospitals). Movements start
in March when the Maasai return to the village. In so
doing, the ronjo grazing unit is rested from grazing.
36
family and a council of joint members of different clans
(getabaruku) tackles issues that are beyond the clan.
A special committee screens issues that cut across
different clans (makchameda). High-level decisions
are made unanimously and no individual is allowed to
depart from other members’ views.
The Maasai community is organized around the kinship-
clan age set network, with self-contained ecological
units with well defined boundaries called olosho. This
is the basis for the social, political and economic deci-
sion making. Decision making in the community is
linked on risk avoidance, risk spreading and mutual
help. The herdsboys make daily decisions as to where
the animals go while at the temporary camp coupled
by the cues of the animals to decide where to graze
for the day.
The role of women in the Barabaig and
Maasai communities
Barabaig women are involved in herding livestock (if
children have moved out), removal of dung in corrals,
and diagnosis of diseases when livestock have
returned home. They treat sick animals in collabora-
tion with their husbands, collect medicinal plants, cut
and haul fodder for calves and sick animals, carry out
poultry husbandry, and wash kids and lambs infested
with fleas. The women are responsible for milking,
processing and marketing of milk products, and
fetching water for sick animals, kids and lambs in the
dry season. Barabaig women are also responsible for
skinning carcasses, drying hides and skins, tanning
leather, embroidery, and preparing hides for ropes and
for family bedding. They carry household belongings
when moving to new areas, collect blood after piercing
animals, prepare blood meals and collect firewood.
The role of the Maasai women in the household is limited
to domestic chores, milking, taking care of young
stock, and fetching water and grass for calves and sick
animals. Women also process milk into yoghurt and
ghee. Performing these tasks entails knowledge, skills
and techniques acquired over many generations under
the supervision of older women. Animals are milked
once a day and the milk is collected in small gourds. To
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
Range suitability for grazing
Among the main ecological factors—vegetation, freedom
from diseases, availability of water and range suitability
for animal performance—the Barabaig consider vegeta-
tion the most important, followed by the availability of
water and freedom from diseases (Table 6.7).
In the Maasai community, young men (moran) are sent
out to scout for suitable grazing areas. The criteria for
suitability include availability of pasture, trees/shrubs
with green leaves, fruits, flowers and pods, water and
cattle dips. Once the elders confirm the area as suitable,
movement begins immediately. A few milking cows are
left behind, otherwise the whole herd is moved to tempo-
rary camps (ronjo) about 12 km from the homestead.
Range condition and trend
The assessment of range condition by the Barabaig
and the Maasai is subjective. It entails assessing
species composition of palatable (desirable) species,
forbs (herbaceous) and woody vegetation. A rangeland
in good condition has a high plant density of palatable
species, minimal bare ground, good litter and good
animal performance. A rangeland in fair condition has
few palatable species, a declining biomass produc-
tivity and little cover. Poor rangeland is characterized
by lack of palatable plants, plant cover and litter, and is
dominated by woody and herbaceous plants.
Institutional set-up
The Barabaig are horizontally divided into generation
sets. Every Barababanda (singular for Barabaig) is
also a member of the clan that is unified by a male
lineage traced to a common founding ancestor. The
clan is the largest corporate body of Barabaig society.
The basic social unit of the Barabaig is the polyga-
mous family made up of a man, his wives, children and
possibly some close relatives. As already shown, the
head of the household determines grazing strategy
and marketing. He also has authority over domestic
matters and decides on household movements, labour
allocation and expenditure returns from livestock sales.
The clan (hulanda) tackles issues that are beyond the
37
Men are mostly responsible for providing parental guid-
ance to children, but women are sometimes consulted.
Decisions like sending children to school is the respon-
sibility of both parents. As mentioned above women
are responsible for embroidery. Bead embroidery is a
tedious technique and involves sorting out small beads
and fixing them neatly in desired patterns on neck-
laces, bangles, ear laces, head laces and garments.
Longido women have formed a handicraft organization
and are part of the Longido eco-tourism circuit. This
has contributed to improving the economic welfare of
the members.
Animal management
In grazing management, herdsboys regulate animal
movement in relation to pasture availability. The elders
usually recognize and reward herdsboys who, at the
end of the day, return home early with animals with
full guts.
Once satisfied that the productivity of animals is low,
the head of the household moves his livestock to other
areas, seeks the advice of livestock officers, supple-
ments the livestock (with salt, pods and pumpkins),
sells unthrifty stock and/or buys replacement stocks
with the money from stock sales. In addition, the
Maasai traditionally treat the sick castrate bulls that
do not qualify to remain in the herd; such animals are
slaughtered for tribal ceremonies, such as weddings.
Dipping is done to reduce the burden of ticks.
Range assessment and monitoring in Tanzania: The case of the Barabaig and Maasai
give the milk a special aroma, the inside of the gourd
is treated with specially incensed wood pellets. The
calves are kept separately and are released during
milking to suckle so as to let down milk. They are
usually allowed to suck two teats while the remaining
two are being milked. The milk is emptied into bigger
gourds and stored as yoghurt, while the rest is proc-
essed into ghee. This is a tedious procedure where the
women churn the milk in gourds for many hours before
the separation of ghee takes place.
In the Maasai community, it is men who own livestock.
The exception, however, is where a few milk cows are
allocated to individual wives who then become respon-
sible for the upkeep of these animals, particularly the
calves. Women have little indigenous knowledge about
common animal diseases. Men, however, are knowl-
edgeable about livestock diseases such as East Coast
fever (katen) (whose outbreak is experienced in the dry
season), contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (oremiti),
black quarter (emburwa), lumpy skin disease (eririi) and
foot-and-mouth disease (majive). Men provide clinical
services while women are only supposed to report
about sick animals and assist in buying medicines
using money earned from the sale of milk and other
products.
38
7. Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda:
The case of the Bahima and Ateso
The Bahima of Mbarara District, south-western Uganda
and the Teso of Katakwi in north-eastern Uganda are
found along what is described as the Uganda cattle
corridor or the rangelands of Uganda. These range-
lands are slightly wetter than those of Kenya and
Tanzania and therefore the communities studied in
Uganda are less nomadic than those of Kenya and
Tanzania. Therefore the rate of sedentarization, which
has an effect on range management, is growing faster
in the Bahima and the Teso communities.
Climate
The pastoralists, especially the Ateso, observe weather
patterns based on:
• Wind
• Clouds
• Animal behaviour
According to the experience of the elders of Katakwi,
when the winds blow from the west to the east, they
will bring rain. Farmers prepare for planting. When the
winds blow from the east to the west, it means that
the dry season is still on. Gentle winds usually depict a
transition in weather, either from dry to wet or from wet
to dry. During this transition period, the mornings also
tend to be very cold.
The stars are another aspect that is closely observed
and monitored and is used to determine planting time.
The stars are visible at sunset and seven of them are
conspicuous towards the morning during February
and March. These always coincide with the planting
season. The Ateso also use the colour of the moon
to predict rain. When the moon appears and turns
reddish brown by the time it is full, the community
expects plenty of rain.
There are similarities and differences between conven-
tional techniques and those used by the Bahima and
the Ateso to assess and monitor climate (Table 7.1).
Table 7.1. Seasonality pattern indicators
Attribute Interpretation by Bahima Interpretation by Ateso Conventional use
Winds North to south bring rain;
south to north bring dry spell
East to west means rain is expected; west to east means
drought expected; gentle winds indicate transition in
weather
Wind direction used
Temperature — Cold mornings indicate transition in weather pattern —
Colour of moon — Brown full moon shows season with plenty of rain Use unknown
Wild herbivores When seen on the range
shows good season
When seen on the range shows good season Animal migrations are
used in conventional
science
Stars Unrecorded Visible at sunset shows planting time Unknown
Birds Hornbills vocalize just before
the onset of the wet season
Birds of prey (kites and eagles) abundant in dry season,
hornbills vocalize just before the onset of the wet season
No interpretation found
Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso
39
Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso
Vegetation
Vegetation characterization and trends
Vegetation characterization by both the Bahima and
Ateso is understood more by composition than struc-
ture. They are also able to differentiate structural char-
acteristics based on the shrub and herb layers of the
vegetation. Because the Bahima traditionally rear and
cherish cattle, which are grazers, they have specific
preference for open grassland (orwera).
The pastoralists are able to tell the trends in pasture
condition. Most Bahima (64% in this study) indicate
that pasture condition has declined while the majority
of the Ateso (78% in this study) think that the pasture
condition has improved (Table 7.2). Very few (4% in
this study) have observed an increase in the preva-
lence of some weeds, especially striga (emoto), in
sorghum fields. The difference in opinion arises out of
the different levels of management intervention. Some
have exclusive rights to their land and have incor-
porated conventional management techniques on
the land over a relatively long period. Those recently
settled in the Bahima area, for example, assess the
range as declining since they are still trying to adapt to
producing from a restricted area.
According to the Bahima, weed encroachment has
been observed. The following weeds, starting with the
most important, are common:
• Cymbopogon afronardus (‘omutete’)
• Acacia hockii (‘obugando’)
• Vernonia campanea (‘kyakuyambaki’)
• Lantana camara (‘ekihukye’)
• Capparis species (‘kagyenzanda’)
In the Ateso area, the following grasses dominate and
are used to identify the type of grassland:
• Hyperhenis species (‘asisinit’)
• Themeda triandra (‘emaa’)
• Sporobolus pyramidalis (‘echilaboi’)
• Cynodon dactylon (‘emuria’)
• Panicum maximum (‘edinyot’)
There is an increase in the relative abundance of weeds
in the Bahima territory. The invasion of Lantana camara
for instance has increased over the last decade while
Acacia hockii, which has been a component of the
range, has increased in abundance and spread. The
invading grass, Cymbopogon afronardus (‘omutete’),
has proliferated in the recent past. Those who were
old enough in the early 1960s remember being told by
their parents that at one time this grass was so rare
Table 7.2. Assessment of pasture condition by the Bahima and Ateso
Pasture condition assessment Respondents (%)
Bahima Ateso
Improving 30 78
Declining 64 4
No change 6 18
40 Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso
that people would move long distances to collect it for
medicinal purposes. It is now observed to be rapidly
colonizing a large area.
The Bahima appreciate the seasonality pattern in
pasture condition. During the dry season the condition
deteriorates rapidly and the pastoralists have adapted
by reducing the herd size. This is a recent practice
because, until recently, the pastoralists used to migrate
with their herds either southwards into the Kagera
Region of Tanzania or shift northwards, sometimes as
far north as Lake Kyoga. To date some of these pasto-
ralists move their herds into Lake Mburo National Park
when the available grazing is depleted and the water
sources have dried up. A few still move southwards
towards the Tanzanian border. A respondent who had
moved with a herd from a neighbouring district and
opted to settle said, “I avoided the flat areas because
I knew they were likely to flood during the wet season
and the good pasture would get spoilt. So my land had
to have a gentle slope. The areas in the steep slopes
dry very fast after the onset of the rainy season. I opted
for open grassland because the thickets do not allow
much grass. Our grazing land has only recently been
invaded by woody species.”
The dominant plant species are used by the Ateso to
identify the type of grassland. Trees and shrubs within
the rangeland are also used to classify the range. The
most common woody species in the area include:
• Acacia hockii (‘ekisim’)
• Acacia siberiana (‘etirir’ or ‘etirok’)
• Albizia coriaria (‘etekwa’)
• Annona senegalensis (‘ebolo’)
• Butyrospermum paradoxicum (‘ekungur’)
• Combretum collinum (‘ekuloin’)
• Dichrostachys cineria (‘etira’)
• Diospyros mespiliformis (‘ekum’)
• Euphorbia candelabrum (‘epopong’)
• Ficus glumusa (‘ebiyong’)
• Ficus sur (‘edurukoi’)
• Ficus sycomorus (‘eborborei’)
• Grewia mollis (‘eparis’)
• Lannea barteri (‘etit’)
• Mumusopis kummel (‘elepolepo’)
• Pilostigma thorningii (‘epapai’)
• Sapium ellipticum (‘elipilepo’)
• Sclerocarya birrea (‘ekajikaj’)
• Tamarindus indica (‘epeduru’)
• Ximeria americana (‘elamai’)
• Zizyphus abyssinica (‘esilang’)
The Ateso closely follow the trends in the relative
abundance of Combretum collinum, Acacia hockii,
Butyrospermum paradoxicum and Euphorbia cande-
labrum. They assess the botanical composition from
their knowledge of the various plant species in the
range.
Vegetation palatability and value
The Bahima are able to keep track of the good pasture
species on the range. Most (68% in this study) observe
the readiness with which livestock accept a given
species. However, the rest contend that palatability is
relative and depends on season. The palatable species
during the wet season, starting with the most palat-
able, are:
• Brachiaria species (‘ejubwe’)
• Chloris gayana (‘orunyankokori’)
• Hyparrhenia species (‘emburara’)
• Themeda triandra (‘emburara’)
• Loudetia kagerensis (‘eyojwa’)
• Sporobolus pyramidalis (‘ekasi’)
The Ateso agropastoralists assess the palatable plant
species and observe livestock preferences. Animals
spend more time feeding on palatable species than on
the unpalatable ones. The palatable species decrease
faster in abundance than the unpalatable ones. Others
use a combination of both animal cues and relative
species abundance. The Ateso consider the following
among the top palatable species:
• Hyparrhenia species (‘asisinit’)
• Chloris gayana (‘ekode’)
• Panicum maximum (‘edinyot’)
• Pennisetum mezianum (‘esirito’)
• Cynodon dactylon (‘emuria’)
• Themeda triandra (‘emaa’)
41
Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso
The Ateso agropastoralists know that Sporobolus
pyramidalis (echilaboi) has very low palatability. When
the palatable species on the range decline, the pasto-
ralists generally shift to other areas. Both groups of
pastoralists think that Brachiaria species and Chloris
gayana are the most palatable and these plants are
mainly abundant during the wet season. According to
the pastoralists, there are species that are only grazed
when the palatable species have reduced. These
include Loudetia kagerensis and Sporobolus pyrami-
dalis. Cymbopogon afronardus is grazed when there is
extreme herbage shortage. Some pasture species that
were once abundant have declined in relative abun-
dance, especially Themeda triandra and L. kagerensis.
These species are valued not only for grazing but also
as bedding for the pastoralists and calves and snuff for
fumigating utensils and repelling flies.
Plant biomass estimates
Most Bahima and Ateso pastoralists use stubble
height to assess vegetation biomass in the herb layer.
A few use a combination of both stubble height and
bare patches to assess forage amount. In Nyabushozi,
where communal land holdings have tremendously
diminished, the Bahima pastoral community is able
to differentiate pasture condition in relation to levels
of management. They are, for instance, able to use
stubble height to assess forage quantity. Both the
Bahima and Ateso are equally able to assess vegeta-
tion cover according to the number and size of bare
patches on the range. When the grass has been
grazed to a certain low level, the animals are moved to
a different part of the range.
Soils
Soil classification
The pastoral group in Nyabushozi characterizes soils
according to texture and colour. Sandy soils (orush-
enyi) and clay soils (kabumba) form the extremes of
the classification. Clay soils are regarded as inappro-
priate for pasture growth because they are prone to
water logging in the wet season and caking in the dry
season. Sandy soils in the lower slope are preferred for
grazing. The sandy loam soils and clay loam soils are
used for crops.
The Ateso of Katakwi believe that soils are generally
uniform except around termite mounds, cattle bomas,
and in the swamps. They also classify soils according
to texture. The major categories are sandy soils, loam
soils and clay soils. Clay soils are mainly found in the
swamps. According to the focus group discussions,
both good pastures and crops are produced in the
loam soils, while sandy soils are of low productivity.
Dark humic soils near the swamps are also regarded
as fertile.
Use of plant indicators to assess soil
fertility
Native plants are used by the Bahima to identify the
suitability of soils for pasture and other crops. Various
plants are used but the most common ones are:
• Acacia hockii and A. gerradii—used to determine
where to establish banana plantations
• Combretum species—indicate where it is not
possible to grow bananas
• Themeda triandra—good for annual crops espe-
cially cereals (millet)
In the Ateso area, certain plants indicate soils that
are not fertile and therefore not good for crops. For
example, striga is an invader (weed) that destroys
sorghum. Combretum collinum, Acacia hockii, and
Butyrospermum paradoxicum indicate areas that are
good for crops and pasture. The vigour of herbs is the
first consideration when assessing soil fertility. The
amount of forage produced and the level of crop yield
are also considered in assessing the fertility.
42 Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso
Soil colour as fertility indicator
Some of the soil fertility indicators used by the Bahima,
mainly based on colour, are:
• Dark well-drained soils are regarded as good for
perennials
• Brown soils with no clods are regarded as good for
annuals, especially cereals
• Sandy soils are good for root crops
Dark soils are preferred for perennial crops, especially
bananas, which are a recent introduction in the area.
The dark soils in the slopes are very good for bananas,
while the brown soils are used for annual crops, espe-
cially cereals. Millet grows very well and the yields are
good. Perennial crops are usually preferred in areas
close to permanent water sources, mainly permanent
swamps and streams. The Ateso agree that soils near
permanent water sources have a higher potential for
crop production. These are mainly the dark humic
soils.
Soil suitability for grazing
The Bahima prefer the lower slope for grazing in the
terrain with undulating slopes, while they reserve the
middle slope for crop production. The upper slope is
regarded as unsuitable for crops and grazing.
However, most Ateso use the season to judge suit-
ability for grazing. During the wet season, (April to
September) animals graze on the plains and as the
dry season advances (October to March), the grazing
extends to the swamps.
Soil erosion
The Bahima and the Ateso notice and are quite aware
of soil erosion. Natural erosion is recognized by a fairly
large cross-section of the Bahima (48% in this study)
and is explained by the deep valleys (enssa) along the
hill slopes. The community agrees that erosion has
increased; this is attributed to population increase.
Recent gullies (empazo) form along cattle trails
(ebihandagazi) on steep slopes. However, most of the
Ateso (66% in this study) do not think that soil erosion
is a big problem. Sheet erosion occurs in cropland and
minimal erosion takes place along animal tracks near
settlements.
Water
Water availability
The Bahima used to move in search of pasture and water
but this movement pattern is no longer possible. They
have now adopted water-harvesting techniques mainly
based on excavating valley tanks and farm ponds,
and use of boreholes. They are able to select sites for
locating water points by considering the soils, topog-
raphy and the general drainage pattern of the area.
The pastoralists can tell the type of soil that retains
water. They select clay soils because there is minimum
loss of water through seepage. The sandy soils allow
water loss (ekimizi). The quality of water is judged by the
colour and smell. Bad odour usually comes from decom-
posing organic matter. This is repulsive to livestock and
ultimately leads to vegetation growth in water.
In the Ateso area the sources of water are:
• Rain
• Swamps
• Shallow wells
• Valley dams
During the rainy season, rainwater collects in some
depressions. The small depressions (aipwor) last a
short time while the big ones (apucat) keep water well
into the dry season. The most common water sources
are the shallow wells (ecol) and temporary springs
around swamps (ekucoi), on which they depend during
the rainy season. Boreholes, where available, are used
around settlements.
Water quality
The readiness with which livestock (cattle in particular)
accept water is associated with several factors, such
as salinity and temperature. The Bahima pastoralists
believe that cattle are attracted to water that tastes
salty (amanure). They also believe that when water
43
Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso
is very cool, especially in the wells that are under a
shade, cattle will not readily drink it. The herders prefer
water points that are exposed to the sun. According to
one herder their water is generally bad. The colour is
never clear and when ponds are dug they easily fill with
silt and dry early in the dry season. When cattle drink
this water, they get infected with flukes. The pastoral-
ists are now aware that when they put blocks of rock
salt (rwabareire) in the water the ‘worms’ die and the
animals are safe.
The Ateso use the following parameters to assess
water quality for livestock:
• Salinity
• Turbidity
• Oiliness
During the dry season water reduces and swamp
water becomes muddy and turbid. Some of the swamp
water has an oily layer with a bad odour. Livestock will,
however, take whatever water is available, especially
during the dry season. Borehole water is regarded as
the only clean water source for human consumption.
Animals
Animal performance
The pastoral Bahima and Ateso assess and monitor the
range condition by using indicators of animal perform-
ance (Table 7.3). The Ateso keep mainly the short East
African Zebu cattle, local goats and sheep of unknown
breeds while the Bahima mainly keep the Ankole long
horned cattle. The Ateso also consider a range that is
full of biting flies as being in poor condition.
Animal/land interactions
The Bahima and Ateso can assess the impact of
grazing pressure on the range and the environment in
general. In the case of the Bahima, overgrazing (okuku-
nduza) is recognized. The Bahima assess overgrazing
by observing the height of pasture, number of cattle
trails (ebihandagazi), and occurrence of bare patches
(emparamata). These are attributed, in order of impor-
tance, to:
• Overstocking
• Drought
• Population increase
• Reduced grazing land
The Bahima pastoralists (58% in this study) consider
animal body condition an important indicator in
assessing the range. However, a decline in animal body
condition is observed in advanced stages of declining
condition of the range if the animals still have access
to drinking water. Overgrazing is largely blamed on
drought. As long as there is no prolonged drought, the
pasture remains sufficient.
The Bahima believe that when wild herbivores—espe-
cially the zebra, eland, and impala—move close to
where cattle graze it is a sign that the quality and value
of grass is good. It is an indication that there will be
enough pasture and water. When the wildlife migrate
back to Lake Mburo National Park, the herders know
they are likely to move their herds as well.
In the Ateso area, the reduction in livestock numbers
has led to an increase in the amount of herbaceous
biomass and an increase in palatable species. Where
the people and livestock have been forced to stay
Pasture condition assessment Rank
Bahima Ateso
Milk production
Rumen-fill
Weight gain
Coat condition
Mating frequency
1
2
3
4
5
4
2
1
3
5
Table 7.3. Assessment of the range by the Bahima and Ateso based on animal performance
44 Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso
communal decision-making structures. The decision-
making mechanism has an age-set structure with
the elderly men (40 years and above) taking the lead.
However, the decision on where the animals should be
taken for grazing mainly depends on the herdsboys
who follow both animal cues and proximity to water for
that decision. The issue of security has now become
very important and herdsmen have to minimize the
risks of being attacked by raiders.
Summary comparison of
assessment and monitoring
techniques
A comparison of a number of assessment and moni-
toring techniques used by the Bahima and the Ateso
with conventional ones, with respect to vegetation,
soils, water and animals is given in Table 7.4.
Mitigation measures
Various mitigation traditional techniques used by the
Bahima and the Ateso as mitigation measures are
compared with conventional methods in Table 7.5.
in restricted areas due to insecurity, overgrazing is
noticed and the decision taken to change the grazing
area is based on the concern for the declining range
and animal performance. Before insecurity set in, the
decision to move was greatly influenced by seasonal
patterns, with clearly preferred areas for grazing
during the dry and wet seasons. Like in the case of the
Bahima, the presence or absence of wild animals also
tells the Ateso a lot about the condition of the range.
According to the Ateso community, the large mammals
are now rare. When antelopes come from the swamps
to the open grassland, it implies a good season. When
birds (kites and eagles) soar high in the skies, then the
dry season will persist. The presence of certain birds,
especially the hornbill (achabi), implies the onset of the
wet season.
Institutional set-up
The traditional mechanisms for making decisions
among the Bahima have changed greatly over the
years. All the Bahima now privately own land and
therefore decision making beyond the household level
is not applicable. The Ateso, however, use a large part
of the range communally and therefore have some
45
Table 7.4. Comparison of techniques—The Bahima and Ateso vs. conventional methods
Resource type Technique among the
Bahima
Technique among the
Ateso
Conventional technique
Vegetation type Structure, composition Structure, composition Structure, composition
Vegetation value Milk yield, weight gain Weight gain Chemical composition
Plant palatability Livestock preference Livestock preference Livestock preference
Plant biomass Stubble height Stubble height Dry matter production
Vegetation trends Weeds, stubble height Weeds, stubble height Composition, cover, vigour
Soil classification Colour, texture Colour and texture Texture, structure, colour
Soil fertility Indicator plants, plant vigour Indicator plants and plant
vigour
Chemical analysis, plant vigour
Water quality Turbidity, odour, flukes Turbidity, odour pH, conductivity, turbidity,
odour
Water availability Surface water and flow Surface water Surface and ground water
recharge
Animal productivity Milk production, weight gain Weight gain, milk productivity Milk production, weight gain
Animal condition Rumen-fill, coat condition Rumen-fill, coat condition Rumen-fill, coat condition
Animal fertility Mating frequency Libido or mating frequency Calving intervals and
percentages
Range assessment and monitoring in Uganda: The case of the Bahima and Ateso
Deficit Bahima Ateso Conventional
Vegetation biomass Migrate, destock, separate
herds
Migrate Destock, supplementary
feeding
Vegetation value Migrate Migrate Supplementary feeding
Vegetation palatability Migrate, night grazing, sprinkle
salt on pasture
Migrate Species introduction,
supplementing
Soil fertility decline Shifting cultivation, animal
manure
Shifting cultivation Rotation, natural and
artificial fertilizer
Water shortage Excavate tanks, move herds Move herds, dig shallow wells Surface storage, boreholes
Water quality—flukes Add rock salt - Anthelmintic drugs
Water quality—turbidity None None Filtration
Animal performance—
low productivity
Separate herds, give local
medication
Use reserve pasture, give
native medication
Various nutritional, breeding
and medical intervention
Table 7.5. Comparison of mitigation measures used by the Bahima and Ateso, and conventional methods
46
8. General discussion of findings
The three East African studies gathered information
on indigenous range assessment and monitoring
techniques used by the Pokot, Il Chamus, Barabaig,
Maasai, Bahima and Ateso communities with respect
to climate, soils, vegetation, water, animal factors,
animal-land interactions, and suitability ratings. Other
aspects considered included range condition and
trend, preferential grazing areas, institutional set-up in
decision-making, and the role of women.
Kenyan study
This study indicated that pastoralists make use of
several indicator signs to forecast impending drought
or rain. These indicators can be categorized into
four groups: biological indicators—phenological and
behavioural changes in plants and animals, respec-
tively; astrological indicators—movements and posi-
tion of stars; atmospheric indicators—density of cloud
and direction of wind; and cultural indicators—obser-
vation of the viscera of slaughtered animals.
The pastoralists use their knowledge of their environ-
ment to follow changes in climate and to make weather
forecasts. The focus of monitoring the climatic trend
recorded in this study is based on familiar, observ-
able environmental changes that are nearest in time,
space and relationship to the pastoralists. Using
this method gives the pastoralists a much shorter
warning time (that may not allow for timely response
to drought) than does the conventional early warning
systems (EWS) currently used in the region. While the
focus of monitoring among the pastoralists has only
up to a maximum of three weeks lead time, the live-
stock early warning system (LEWS) in conjunction with
the famine early warning system (FEWS) is capable of
giving 6 to 8 weeks warning. This allows the pasto-
ralists to adequately prepare for impending drought
and to recover rapidly from the effects of the disaster.
Therefore, developing an integrated approach that
incorporates the additive effects of the two systems
would be appropriate and beneficial to the pastoral
systems.
The LEWS project in the five countries of eastern
Africa (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda)
addresses risk by adapting the already successful tech-
nologies from the USA to the situation in East Africa.
The project is aimed at increasing the response time on
the forecast of drought and famine and allowing policy
makers to visualize the impact of their interventions on
food crises. The project has integrated a series of tools
developed at the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station
into existing early warning systems to provide more
timely and better information to pastoralists, action
agencies, researchers and policy makers.
The LEWS is based on near infrared spectroscopy
(NIRS) faecal profiling technology with advanced
grazing land and crop models. NIRS is used to scan
faecal samples to predict the diet of free-ranging live-
stock. This tool provides an objective and reliable indi-
cator with an early warning capability when interfaced
with a geographic information system. NIRS faecal
profiling has potential for compatibility with pastoral
communities since the indicator (livestock faeces) is
one for which an indigenous knowledge system is
already in existence (Ndikumana et al. 2000). In this
system, weather data from the FEWS data dissemina-
tion system, along with El Niño and southern oscilla-
General discussion of findings
47
General discussion of findings
tion (ENSO) data from the NOAA Climate Prediction
Centre, are spatially linked with PHYGROW and the
agricultural policy environment extender (APEX) model.
PHYGROW is a hydrologic-based model that predicts
rangeland forage production, runoff and herbivore
grazing in rangeland ecosystems. APEX predicts crop
yields, runoff and erosion from cropland models to
predict emerging forage/crop conditions and likely
future conditions of forage supply and grain yields
relative to known livestock density and planting dates
within monitoring areas. The model is sensitive to
animal selectivity of plant species and translates these
processes into animal production in terms of stocking
rates. The information obtained is validated through
intensive and frequent monitoring of vegetation and
livestock responses on validation sites established in
the five countries.
Adaptation of these technologies is aimed at providing
high quality information that will significantly increase
response time to emerging crises and the capacity of
the regional institutions to respond. The advantages of
LEWS over the traditional systems are:
• It has the ability to predict responses such as
impending livestock mortality by kind and class
of animal, losses in forage supply and decline in
milk production. This allows more flexibility in deci-
sion-making from the household level to the policy
maker.
• It provides more response time for drought fore-
casting.
• It has the capacity to detect changes in the well
being of free-ranging livestock earlier than normally
detected by pastoralists or crisis monitoring organi-
zations.
The eco-physiognomic classification of the range used
by the Pokot and the Il Chamus communities is closely
comparable to the approach used in conventional
range science. They classify range on the basis of
climatic factors, topography, dominant plant species
and soil type. Areas with different soil, topography and
climate are likely to have different vegetation, which
would support different species of animals depending
on dietary requirements. They also respond differently
to management practices. This criterion is similar to
that used by the Ariaal of northern Kenya (Oba 1994),
who also classify range into two main categories—the
highlands and lowlands—which are perceived to be
different in topography, climate, soil and vegetation
types. Based on these eco-physiognomic classes, the
pastoralists make decisions pertaining to range suit-
ability for a given livestock species. The pastoralists
further sub-divide these categories into grassland and
bush land, referring to a range dominated by grass and
browse species, respectively, and which is preferred by
and suitable for cattle (grazers) and goats (browsers),
respectively.
Modern range scientists closely link the knowledge
of plant species composition to vegetation succes-
sion and the climax concept as used to explain range
condition rating. Conversely, this study reveals that
pastoralists perceive the knowledge of botanical
composition in more practically applicable and inter-
pretable terms. They use such knowledge to evaluate
range suitability for livestock grazing with regard to the
knowledge of dietary requirements of different animal
species, preferred plant species, and poisonous and
medicinal plants. These findings are comparable to
those of Sindiga (1994) and Makokha et al. (1999),
who reported that the Maasai and the Pokot have an
extensive knowledge of range plants and the species
that are preferred by livestock and which are undesir-
able. However, the pastoralists depend primarily on
animal wisdom and cues to make certain judgments,
such as those pertaining to forage palatability, where
the decision on the direction of grazing relies on the
animals. This leads the herders to areas of palatable
and preferred forage species.
48 General discussion of findings
The assessment and monitoring of soil fertility status
among the Pokot and the Il Chamus is based on both
soil and plant attributes. The soil classification system
used is similar to that of the Iraqw of Mbulu and Karatu
districts of Tanzania (Msanya and Mwaseba 2000). In
contrast to the conventional soil classification system,
this indigenous system makes use of observable
surface and sub-surface physical soil features. It is
quicker and easier to use than the usually complicated
conventional soil taxonomy criteria which include a
description of the whole soil profile and its chemical
properties. The suitability of soil for a particular use
is also decided on the basis of the surface character-
istics. This indigenous approach, however, overlooks
some of the important chemical and physical soil
properties such as pH, structure and bulk density that
are equally and sometimes more crucial than just the
surface attributes. Unlike the conventional criteria, the
Pokot and the Il Chamus, apart from considering a few
physical surface and sub-surface attributes, assess
soil fertility indirectly through plant indicators such
as vigour, productivity and presence of certain plant
species. The conventional and indigenous techniques
can therefore complement each other.
The findings of this study indicated that there is little
effort to improve soil fertility among the pastoral-
ists with the exception of a few agropastoralists who
sometimes apply animal manure to the exhausted
fields instead of shifting to virgin lands. However, this
apparent lack of incentive to conserve soil could be
due to the communal land tenure system which tends
to create an attitude of maximizing individual gains at
the expense of conservation, a phenomenon described
as the ‘tragedy of the commons’ (Sandford 1983).
Water is a major constraint to both livestock and
crop production in the semi-arid rangelands. Water
management is, therefore, crucial in these areas which
receive no rainfall for a greater part of the year. The
focus of monitoring the quantity, quality and distribu-
tion of water is fairly comparable to the conventional
approach except for the method used. While the quan-
tity of water at source is conventionally assessed by
taking accurate measurements using calibrated instru-
ments, the pastoralists make use of less exact visual
estimations such as the extent of exposure of the
riverbed to measure volume, and unmarked sticks to
measure depth of water and the level of silting. The
quality is assessed on the ability of human senses to
judge the colour, turbidity, odour, taste, temperature
and presence of parasites. The traditional assess-
ment of water quality overlooks the presence of
certain chemical properties that cannot be detected in
this way but could render water unfit for both animal
and human consumption. Responses received in this
study reveal that quality assessment would only be
meaningful when there is plenty of water and there is
freedom of choice. During droughts quantity is given
priority over quality.
Most responses indicated that water was inadequate
and of poor quality the pastoralists dig more or fresh
wells/waterholes. These waterholes are carefully dug
at specific sites and intervals to avoid the concentra-
tion of people and animals at such points. Land degra-
dation at key sites has been as a result of the crea-
tion of many concentration points (open-access areas)
such as water sources provided by the government
and NGOs in areas that used to be wet season grazing
areas. This attracts livestock from water deficient areas
and increases pressure on the pastures. The pastoral-
ists argue that this has led to the resource being over-
exploited and the pasture being unable to regenerate;
this was ensured formerly through seasonal rotation of
the herds.
The Pokot and the Il Chamus monitor animal perform-
ance through regular assessment of animal body
condition, productivity and health. These indicators are
known by the pastoralists to be sensitive to ecological
and biological changes. This approach of evaluating
animal performance is comparable to that used by the
Rendille, Ariaal and Samburu of northern Kenya (Oba
1994).
While conventional breeding management takes into
account the selection of both female and male animals
49
General discussion of findings
for breeding, the Pokot and the Il Chamus select only
male animals for breeding while all the females are
allowed to mate. The females are evaluated after mating
on the basis of fertility. Male animals are selected
according to specific criteria including physical and
genetic qualities. However, they are also subjected to
post-mating evaluation depending on the qualities of
their offspring. These findings agree with those of Noor
et al. (1999) who found a similar practice among the
Somali and Borana of Moyale District, Kenya.
The most critical aspect of food security in pastoral
systems is that of keeping livestock healthy to sustain
people who are dependent on them. The pastoralists
face the problems of livestock health including general
diseases, ectoparasites and helminths. The find-
ings of this study are in agreement with those of Ole-
Lengisugi (1994) with the Maasai of Tanzania, Kaendi
(1997) with the Tugen in Kenya and Noor et al. (1999)
with the Somali and Borana of Kenya. The extensive
knowledge of animal disease symptoms among the
pastoralists is matched with equally good knowledge
of plants with medicinal value. Through this wealth
of knowledge, the Pokot and the Il Chamus manage
livestock diseases without complete dependence on
pharmaceutical medicines. Although conventional
medicine exists alongside traditional health care, the
Pokot and the Il Chamus rely mainly on herbal reme-
dies to treat sick animals. This is similar to what was
reported by Wanyama (1997) about the Samburu of
Kenya. The decision on whether to use the modern or
traditional medicine depends on the accessibility of
medicine, the cost involved and past experience with
similar illnesses. In most cases, modern health care is
sought only when the disease is unfamiliar. However,
it is also clear that, apart from the common diseases
whose symptoms are known, traditional medicine is
sometimes used on a trial-and-error basis.
As observed by Farah (1996), the intimate knowledge of
the environment common to many pastoralists allows
a great flexibility in decision-making and an enhanced
ability to utilize all resources available. The findings
of this study indicate that traditional assessment and
monitoring of grazing resources is, to a great extent,
dependent on the concept of spatial and temporal
heterogeneity of rangelands, where the use of pasture
by livestock is designed in a way that ensures use of
different ecological sites at the peak of their forage
production. The use of pasture by livestock is moni-
tored and balanced with the productivity and potential
of the ecosystem. This occasions grazing movements
that are aimed at achieving optimum use of different
ecological niches. Unlike the conventional approach,
indigenous range management takes into account the
daily variability and spatial heterogeneity at the micro-
level when matching range potential to livestock use.
The results of the survey showed that pastoralists
concentrate their management efforts at key sites such
as dry season grazing reserves (swamps and hills) and
areas with special palatable species. The beneficial
effects of management of such small but crucial sites
are believed to eventually trickle down to the larger
ecosystem.
In conventional range science evaluation of range
condition is almost entirely based on the plant and
soil attributes—plant vigour, plant species composi-
tion, plant and litter cover and erodibility. Conversely,
animal performance (rumen-fill, coat condition, weight
gain, milk production, health and mating frequency/
birth rate) is the main focus of assessing range condi-
tion among pastoralists. However, while the decision
to move from a given pasture to another is dependent
on animal performance in the current pasture, the
choice on the next pasture depends on its ecological
condition. These findings concur with those of Oba
(1994), who reported the same kind of approach of
evaluating the range among the Rendille, Ariaal and
Samburu of northern Kenya. The Pokot and the Il
Chamus use rumen-fill to tell whether pasture is over-
grazed or not; as long as the animals still show a full
rumen, the herders feel the pasture is not overgrazed.
However, over-reliance on rumen-fill as an indicator of
range condition could result in misleading judgments;
an animal’s rumen could be full, sometimes, regardless
of obvious observable ecological deterioration.
50
Women and children, despite forming only 11% and
12% of the respondents, respectively, in this study, play
a central role in the management of natural resources.
Although they are not allowed to make decisions per
se, they are seen to hold very crucial positions in
the process of decision making. Besides performing
pivotal domestic roles, women and girls manage the
home-based herds. They milk the animals, feed and
treat the sick animals and also suggest measures
to be taken depending on their observations on the
grazing resource and animal performance. Boys are
responsible for the management of the satellite herds
and scouting for pasture. Therefore, both women and
herdsboys provide crucial information to the decision
makers (heads of households, usually elderly men). It
is also clear from this study that women and children
play an important role in managing part of the pastoral
herds (the young, sick and milking animals) and should
therefore be allowed to participate, especially in deci-
sion-making processes in livestock management.
Tanzanian study
The findings of the Tanzanian study show that the
Barabaig and the Maasai use a number of indigenous
technologies. For example, the use of soil colour to
classify soils is explained by the fact that the attribute
is observable and has been established over many
years. Colour suggests to the livestock keeper the
prevailing condition of pasture. USDA (1957) also
found that the colour of soil informs on drainage, the
amount of organic matter in the soil and the general
level of productivity. These communities therefore use
different soils for different activities on the basis of
colour.
The vegetation existing on the Barabaig and Maasai
plains forms the bulk of the feed for the ruminants.
Herlocker (1999) reported that indigenous grasses
and other plant species have contributed greatly
to improving livestock, crops and rangeland forage
production in East Africa and elsewhere in the world.
This knowledge can be expanded to broaden the
scope and understanding of conventional range and
animal husbandry science. Herbage quantity and
quality plays a vital part in providing sufficient carbo-
hydrates, and in the efficiency and profitability of live-
stock enterprises. Vegetation is intimately involved in
the management of soil by changing the microclimate
near the surface of the soil. To ensure that animals are
healthy and productive, efforts are made to ensure
that they have access to different pastures at different
periods (Lane 1996).
Areas of intervention aimed at improving fodder quality
(nutritive value) like planting leguminous and fodder
tree species are likely to be adapted easily since they
increase biomass, cover, nutritive value and eventually
animal performance. Herdsboys or herdsmen are actu-
ally range resource managers since they plan, monitor
and evaluate its use. Herding is the art of guiding and
conducting livestock (Niamir 1991). Training the herds-
boys in conventional range management technologies
may enhance their ability to manage their resources.
Sources of water are exploited in terms of quality,
distribution, availability and quantity because water is
needed for efficient use of the range and for the health
of the animals. Under conventional range management
practices, water is used as a technique to distribute
livestock over the range. Water comprises 70% to 90%
of animal body weight (Reaves and Henderson 1963).
The importance of water to livestock has been reported
by Stoddart et al. (1975) who indicated that forage
intake in sheep in Australia declined in the second day
after watering. Therefore, wherever possible water is
provided daily for livestock (Stoddart et al. 1975; Lane
1996).
The Barabaig and the Maasai use the dual purpose
East African Shorthorn Zebu cattle in their livestock
production economy. The pastoralists have come up
with a breed that is adapted to environmental condi-
tions in Hanang District and Longido by selecting bulls
and females over the years. The breed survives on
coarse feed that other types of cattle would not survive
on. The breed is also capable of walking long distances
without water. The use of individual animal perform-
General discussion of findings
51
ance to assess the quantity and quality of pastures is in
line with the conventional range management methods
of measuring animal performance (Launchbaug and
Owensby 1978). Cattle require that both quantity and
quality of grazing be adequate to meet their mainte-
nance and reproduction (Lugenja 1982). The compo-
nents of greatest importance in grazing behaviour
include time spent grazing, the rate of biting during
grazing and the size of the individual bites of herbage,
all of which combine to determine herbage intake.
Generally, beef cattle graze for 7 to 14 hours a day and
when it is hot the time spent grazing is reduced drasti-
cally (Weaver and Tomaneck 1951; Dwyer 1961; Zemo
1968; Stricklin et al. 1976).
The abundant grazing resources in terms of herbaceous
and woody species have enhanced the grazing rota-
tion practised by the Barabaig and the Maasai. These
resources are of high feed value and their diversity in
space and time has made it necessary for the pastoral-
ists to practise transhumance. This system maximizes
the production potential of the various plant species at
different stages of vegetative growth (Lane 1996).
The wet areas and lowlands are used in the dry season
because they are not accessible in the rains. These
areas are therefore partly reserved for dry season
grazing. Animals graze in all other areas because of the
suitability of the soils, availability of forage and water,
and freedom from disease.
The use of animal performance and suitability of a
grazing area by the Barabaig and the Maasai is similar
to what is practised by their Kenyan and Ugandan
pastoral counterparts. It is also in line with the obser-
vation made by Morley (1978), who supported the idea
that many attributes of pastures, animals and those of
animal products should be taken into account.
Grazing animals affect pasture by trampling and fouling
and this results in patches. The relationship between
the amount of pasture present and animal performance
probably varies between the species and seasons of
the year. However, Morley (1978) noted that pasture
available reflected palatability rather than pasture
growth, so that at times the more herbage there is the
lower the performance of the animals that graze it.
Herd splitting is a common feature in pastoral commu-
nities in East Africa. In Tanzania it is shown to improve
the utilization of the range resource by different classes
of livestock. The technique can be assimilated into
specialized production systems like cow-calf, weaners
and fatteners depending on management objectives,
since these are practices that are relevant to modern
beef ranching.
Transhumance defers the use of certain blocks of
pastures under two rainfall regimes. Research is
needed on this technique to determine its merits so
that it may be integrated into conventional range prac-
tices. This is important because a considerable amount
of ecological and socio-economic information is still
lacking (Herlocker 1999). The reasons for deferment
should particularly be explicitly understood and more
sophisticated rotational grazing systems developed
and incorporated into the indigenous grazing systems.
Information on how much stubble height should be
left on deferred pasture, percentage cover and condi-
tion rating criteria are the expected outputs from the
research studies which would provide guidance to
range scientists designing grazing resource utilization.
The Barabaig and the Maasai, just like the other four
pastoral communities studied, believe vegetation is the
most important factor when assessing the suitability
of grazing because it is a reflection of the suitability
of the environment as a whole. Oba (1994), in a study
in northern Kenya, noted that pastoralists consid-
ered water the most important factor when ranking
ecological factors with respect to range suitability.
However, the final suitability rating was based on live-
stock performance (Oba 1994). This concurs with the
perceptions held by the Barabaig of high milk produc-
tion on the first day of grazing on a new pasture.
The Barabaig and the Maasai use vegetation, soil,
water and animal resources in different combinations
to decide on the range suitability for animal perform-
General discussion of findings
52
ance. This was slightly different from what Oba (1994)
observed in northern Kenya where the pastoralists
used common indicators for animal body condition.
Favourable rating was based on high milk produc-
tion, full rumen, increased mating frequency and rapid
weight gain. The pastoralists moved when the rating of
animal performance was unsuitable.
The most import range resource in determining range
condition and trend among the Barabaig is vegetation,
followed by water, animal and soil resources. However,
under conventional range management, all compo-
nents of range condition classification (soils and vege-
tation) are considered simultaneously (Stoddart et al.
1975).
Institutional set-up and the organizational hierarchy of
decision making of the Maasai, as observed by Massaro
(1989), sets a precedent for organized farmer groups/
associations. This is a focus area for formulating, plan-
ning and implementing range resource management
plans. Territorial organization encompassing geograph-
ically bounded sections, which are self-contained
ecological units with well-defined boundaries (olosho),
is an element that can be used to promote an attitude
of land ownership among the Maasai.
The decision by pastoralists to move animals to new
grazing areas when the current grazing area is not
suitable for animal production in terms of stubble
biomass, plant vigour, biomass production, cover,
botanical composition and nutritive value is in line with
Launchbaug and Owensby (1978). The quality of the
new grazing area is considered suitable if it is uniformly
covered with dense and adequate pastures and if it
can maintain the health of the grazing animals.
Ugandan study
The Bahima and the Ateso agropastoral communities
of Uganda have developed in-depth knowledge of
their range resources. These communities can iden-
tify which type of vegetation is best for livestock and
which areas are suited for one type of livestock and
not another. Both communities monitor the availability
and distribution of the palatable and nutritious plants
species on the range.
The communities are aware of the distribution of the
various vegetation types and the type of crops and live-
stock that are favoured by these soils. Both the Ateso
and the Bahima classify the soils according to texture
and colour. Although the classification lacks the finer
detail used in conventional classification, the decisions
on land utilization are based on a clear consideration
of the potential of the various soil types in time and
space. The mitigation measures taken as a response
to changes in the given indicators are definitely influ-
enced by other factors such as land tenure. Destocking
is, for instance, one of the measures taken in response
to pasture shortage in the Nyabushozi study area. This
decision is easier taken where there are exclusive land
tenure rights. In the Ateso community, where land is
still communally managed, the immediate response is
to shift to another area of pasture, leaving the other to
regenerate.
The agropastoral communities know that there are
native plants that have similar nutrient requirements
as crops. These are used as indicators of soil fertility
and various crops are selected based on the perform-
ance or occurrence of some of these native plants. The
impact of the various land use practices on the soil is
also well understood. The communities appreciate the
erodibility of land but go further to assert that natural
erosion has occurred over the years even without
human interference in the areas. The Bahima, because
of grazing in undulating terrain, recognize that some
of the deep gorges in the area are a result of naturally
occurring erosion and not of recent human impact.
The suitability of the land for crops and grazing is influ-
enced by, among other factors, climate, and the agro-
pastoral communities appreciate that this contributes
to the potential of the land. This makes it necessary to
understand the ecological and sociological factors that
enable these agropastoralists to successfully exploit
the rangelands.
General discussion of findings
53
Water is probably the most crucial resource in the range-
lands. Both communities single out this commodity as
being crucial for the survival of livestock and humans.
Although these are common observations, the people
closely assess the available water resources and
monitor the spatial and temporal distribution of the
resource. This to a large extent determines the pattern
of utilizing the other resources especially pasture. The
quality of surface water in the two study communities
is ranked as poor. The communities base their assess-
ment of water quality on colour, odour and taste. The
quality is also associated with the effects the water
has on consumers, like in the case of liver fluke infes-
tation identified by the Bahima. The knowledge used
to assess the quality of resources is therefore robust
and the decision-making process is flexible. The agro-
pastoral communities know that they cannot get a
range in perfect condition and therefore use the avail-
able resources with contingency measures in place.
Local herbal anthelmintic drugs are used when the
water is suspected to be or is contaminated. Proper
understanding of indigenous range management
practices can be achieved if their ecological basis can
be incorporated into research themes and the soci-
ological approaches used to understand the role of
range administration.
The communities cherish livestock keeping and there-
fore, among other parameters, appreciate livestock
performance. The other factors within the produc-
tion system such as availability of water and pasture
remain important only when translated into good
animal production. The Bahima regard milk production
as the most critical indicator of range condition prob-
ably because milk was once their staple food. High milk
production indicates that livestock (mainly cattle) have
had enough feed and water and are in good health.
Mating frequency is regarded as an important indicator
because a suitable range is believed to increase libido
among bulls. The difference in ranking animal perform-
ance between the Bahima and the Ateso can be attrib-
uted to what is considered the main product in the
production system. With the Ateso, meat production
is of higher importance and crop production is more
traditional in Ateso than in the Bahima community.
Contrary to the views held by conventional science,
the pastoral communities in these areas are able to
closely assess and monitor resource trends. The agro-
pastoralists in Katakwi, for instance, realize that cattle
raiding by the Karamojong has led to under-utiliza-
tion of the range by livestock and generally agree that
other than the area around the settlement camps, the
amount of pasture on the range has increased. The
Bahima are aware of and appreciate overgrazing. They
are also aware of the reasons why it occurs. Shrinkage
of the rangeland, curtailed mobility, and large herds
are considered some of the reasons for overgrazing.
The introduction of perennial crops, especially banana
plantations, in the agropastoral areas of Nyabushozi
is partly a result of the realization that animal manure
improves the performance of crops. The pastoral
communities recognize livestock/environment interac-
tions, and decisions are taken after careful ecological
and socio-economic considerations.
The indigenous institutions have probably been the
most dynamic in responding to changing situations.
These institutions previously acted to ensure the
sustainable use of pasture. They defined the rights
over tracts of land, formulated rules and regulations
for their management, and imposed sanctions on
defaulters. In both communities, the indigenous insti-
tutions have been rendered ineffective. Sedenterization
of the formerly nomadic Bahima has shifted the deci-
sion-making machinery to individual households. The
household head makes most of the decisions related
to the use of resources on the land. Among the agro-
pastoral Ateso, the indigenous institutions have been
weakened by cattle raiders, making insecurity an
important factor in range resource use.
General discussion of findings
54 Conclusions
9. Conclusions
The findings of the studies in the three East African
studies indicated that pastoralists and/or agropasto-
ralists have a sound knowledge and understanding
of their environment. The findings also showed that
pastoralists have appropriate managerial skills and
adaptive strategies in animal husbandry and natural
resource management. Furthermore, the traditional
systems recognize and use several kinds of range
improvement tools and techniques: fire to regenerate
growth, reduce parasite infestation and kill undesirable
plant species; mixed-species herds to make optimal
use of all ecological niches; and mobility to disperse
grazing pressure. Through these indigenous tech-
niques and knowledge, the pastoralists have been
able to survive in their unpredictable environments,
where conceptualization of ecological processes takes
different forms and dimensions ranging from observ-
able attributes to superstitious beliefs. The knowledge
and techniques are passed from one generation to the
other through social gatherings such as kirurot in the
case of the Pokot or asat lengam in the case of the
Il Chamus. Intergeneration transfer is also achieved
through hands-on experience, demonstration, obser-
vation and story telling at home.
Pastoral communities have a well-developed and
effective indigenous range assessment and moni-
toring system according to the existing conditions and
management problems of the local rangelands. These
techniques are based on easily observable parameters
that have evolved as warning mechanisms to mini-
mize the risks and maximize the benefits of livestock
production and local resource management.
While differing in finer details, the assessment and
monitoring techniques of the different pastoralist
groups have a lot in common. They are all, for instance,
well grounded in the indigenous knowledge repertoire,
which evolves as conditions and responses change.
There is a remarkable difference in the assessment
and monitoring of the range largely because of the land
tenure regimes. The Ateso of Uganda, for example,
generally promote relatively equitable access to the
resources to all members of the community, including
the poorer and socio-politically weaker ones. The use
of local pasture resources is regulated by the enforce-
ment of well defined and mutually agreed upon rights
and rules, backed by various social controls and sanc-
tions. The Bahima, have tended towards private owner-
ship of land and have incorporated techniques that are
closely related to conventional science in an attempt
to address the challenges of maximizing production on
restricted land area.
These studies confirm that the pastoralists/agropas-
toralists keenly observe the range resources, contra-
dicting the view that is generally held that they are
simple exploiters of these resources. The pastoralists
are conservation oriented, concerned with maintaining
the productivity of the local resource area at a suffi-
ciently high level to meet their long-term needs, often
foregoing the use of resources to allow regeneration.
Indigenous techniques are generally effective, but
there are situations when they may not be optimally so.
Many indigenous systems concern themselves more
with the utilization of resources and less with biolog-
ical management objectives as reflected in the miti-
55
Conclusions
gation measures undertaken by the agropastoralists
of Uganda. Herd mobility and shifting cultivation are
the main mitigation measures when the resources are
inadequate. This is not sustainable given the increasing
pressure on the resources. The indigenous techniques
sometimes fail to effectively achieve agronomic or
silvicultural objectives—such as increased regenera-
tion of preferred species. There are also problems of
climate, topography and soil erosion, all of which lack
easy solutions.
For a number of decades, government policies on range
resource management have discouraged indigenous
practices. This has undermined the local people’s initi-
ative, role and responsibility for local resource manage-
ment. Nevertheless, the fact that these systems have
persisted in the affected communities bears witness
to the adaptability and sustainability of the indigenous
techniques in the understanding of the rangeland and
overall environmental conditions. The relative similarity
in the attributes used in assessment and monitoring of
the rangelands is evidence that societies under similar
environmental stress tend to share mechanisms for
regulating access and for managing resources in a
sustainable manner.
The local indigenous systems often face challenges
brought about by external conditions that require
further changes and adaptation. The sedenterization
of pastoralists and agropastoralists is one such chal-
lenge that has led to the communities incorporating
many ideas and information from conventional science
through purely local initiatives. Destocking as a miti-
gation measure during water and pasture scarcity, for
example, is a recent phenomenon that arose when the
communities realized that the traditional movement
patterns were no longer possible. Indigenous resource
assessment systems are therefore generally dynamic;
they respond to changing situations.
The indigenous technical knowledge identified in these
studies forms the basis for local-level decision-making
pertaining to food security, natural resource manage-
ment, animal health, and a host of other vital activities
of the rural poor. It is therefore important to recognize,
identify, validate and document the indigenous pastoral
techniques with a view to integrating them into main-
stream range management. Recognition of the tradi-
tional techniques and practices would not only restore
the confidence of pastoralists in their own traditional
knowledge and skills but would also lead to the pres-
ervation of unique indigenous knowledge.
The studies have shown that, among other factors, the
use of colour to classify soils, though it seems simple,
is a technique that has resulted in sustainable utiliza-
tion of the range resources as a whole. The technique
can be used as a basis for the formulation of land
capability classes. These classes if used consistently
with grazing resources would result in improved utiliza-
tion of vegetation, water and animal resources.
Being able to identify and classify soils and plants is
vital to understanding the way these resources are
used. The existence of plant associations in different
ecological sites makes it possible to have a variety
of niches that are invaluable to livestock in different
grazing seasons. This knowledge could be used to
56
gration of the indigenous techniques with conventional
range resource management. This should be done as a
way of increasing the effectiveness, acceptability and
success of development interventions that are aimed
at improving food security and livelihoods not only
of the pastoralists but also of all rural communities.
However, while emphasizing the integration of indig-
enous knowledge with scientific range management
techniques, several factors need to be considered:
• There is need to develop and present the current
early warning system signals in familiar ecological
and biological indicators that can be easily inter-
preted by the pastoralists. This would facilitate their
transfer into meaningful and timely management
decisions that ensure not only survival during but
also quick recovery after the disaster and sustain-
ability afterwards. An example is a recent innova-
tion in LEWS where NIRS faecal profiling is used
to scan faecal samples to predict the diet of free-
ranging livestock. This tool provides an objective
and reliable indicator with an early warning capa-
bility when interfaced with a geographic information
system. NIRS faecal profiling has the potential for
compatibility with pastoral communities since the
indicator (livestock faeces) is one for which indig-
enous knowledge is already in existence; in this
study, animal faeces/dung is used as an indicator of
forage quality.
• The conventional indicators used in monitoring
range condition trend should also be developed
and transformed to be closely related to the envi-
ronmental changes that are near in space, time
and relationship to the pastoralists to promote the
understanding and interpretation of the signals.
• The modern techniques of assessing and moni-
toring environmental changes should be used to
strengthen the existing traditional techniques and
practices to improve their effectiveness and promote
their adoption without inducing social imbalances.
• It is necessary to have an effective intergeneration
transfer of indigenous knowledge by developing it
in the local context and incorporating it into school
curricula and research; strengthening the traditional
information channels; and utilizing civil and religious
institutions to promote ITK.
Conclusions
initiate studies on soil-vegetation-water-animal rela-
tionships.
The availability of a number of sources of water for live-
stock and human beings is invaluable in diversifying
the use of water sources within reasonable distances
in the dry season. Water exploitation skills and knowl-
edge accumulated over years can be used as a basis
for a better water system in pastoral areas, particu-
larly for the dry season. Surface runoff would be more
fully exploited by constructing dams at suitable sites
through cost sharing in pastoral communities.
The knowledge of pastoralists on plant identification,
assessment of plant species, nutritive value, biomass
cover, animal performance, water quality and quan-
tity, animal health, and livestock productivity is an
area which can be explored to broaden the scope
and understanding of conventional range and animal
sciences.
Interventions aimed at improving fodder quality (nutri-
tive value) such as planting leguminous and fodder tree
species would complement indigenous knowledge
and are likely to be adapted easily since they enhance
increased biomass, cover, nutritive value and animal
performance. The knowledge of the pastoral commu-
nities on the genetic potential and herd splitting of
animals enables interventions in genetic improvement
through crossbreeding with heavy and quick maturing
breeds. This would increase the utilization of the range
resource by different classes of livestock. This tech-
nique can be assimilated into specialized production
systems like cow-calf and weaners, depending on
management objectives.
Pastoralists agree that not all indigenous techniques
are beneficial to the sustainable development of local
communities and not all traditional practices provide
the right solution for a given problem. However, it is
evident from the results of these studies that most of
the indigenous techniques and practices are accept-
able and are similar in approach to modern techniques.
Therefore, the most logical decision is to seek the inte-
57
• All the stakeholders (farmers, policy makers,
researchers and extension staff) should be involved
in problem solving strategies that touch on the
indigenous knowledge.
• Networking is necessary to share experiences with
other communities considering that indigenous
knowledge can be developed out of culture diffu-
sion and is not static.
• A participatory approach is essential to address
community-based cultural and socio-economic
needs, for example, involving the community in
identifying sites for drilling boreholes.
• A well-defined resource tenure system should be put
in place to give the pastoralists security of tenure
and the right to own land. This would make the
herders willing to conserve soil and practice sound
range resource management which is imperative
given the amount of pressure on natural resources.
• There is need to encourage the pastoralists to diver-
sify their economy and ease reliance on subsistence
livestock production so as to escape certain risks
which are associated with pure pastoralism.
• It is also necessary to strengthen research on
ethnoveterinary medicine and practice and to utilize
the knowledge on both traditional and modern
medicines to develop more effective remedies for
livestock diseases.
Conclusions
Bearing in mind the proposals listed above, there are
generally no comprehensive studies that have docu-
mented indigenous knowledge in rangeland manage-
ment in East Africa. The few studies that have been
carried out mainly present work that has been done in
the rangelands in terms of range productivity in respect
of animal productivity. This study has attempted to
document the indigenous range resource assessment
and monitoring techniques in six selected pastoral
and agropastoral communities. However, a further in-
depth examination of indigenous range management
practices, alongside an analysis of the problems the
herders are facing and the solutions they have worked
out, would enhance our understanding of the various
processes regarding range management. Specifically,
there is need for case studies on the various policies
that affect the economies and environments of the
pastoral and agropastoral communities.
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62 Appendix 1. List of plant species with medicinal value mentioned by the Pokot and the Il Chamus
Appendix 1.
List of plant species with medicinal value mentioned by the Pokot and the
Il Chamus
Species Disease Form of application
Salvadora persica
Salvadora persica
Grewia bicolor
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
Acacia tortilis
Cordia sinensis
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
Boscia Salicifolia
Boscia Salicifolia
Albizia anthelmintica
Terminalia brownii
*Lauruaki
*Leminyi
Boscia coriacea
*Sikirai
Acacia nilotica
Maerua decumbens
Teclea nobilis
Cordia sinensis
Acacia nilotica
Acacia species
Croton dicigamus
Maerua subcordata
*Sukuroi
Diarrhoea
Retained placenta
Retained placenta
Retained placenta
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea
Cough
Black quarter
Black quarter
Cough
Worms
Anaplasmosis
Trypanosomiasis
Trypanosomiasis
Eye disease
Eye disease
Eye disease
Abscess
Cough
Eye disease
Wounds
Fracture
Fertility disorders
Fleas
CCPP
Extract of boiled roots administered orally
Extract of boiled roots administered orally
Extract of boiled roots administered orally
Extract of leaves and bark soaked in water is administered
orally
Extract of boiled bark administered orally
Extract of boiled bark administered orally
Extract of boiled bark administered orally
Extract of leaves and bark soaked in water is administered
orally
Extract of leaves and bark soaked in water is administered
orally
Extract of boiled bark and leaves administered orally
Concoction from boiled bark and roots administered orally
as a dewormer
Extract of boiled bark administered orally
Extract of boiled roots administered orally
Extract of boiled roots administered orally
Powder from roasted and crushed seeds and leaves are
applied to the affected eye
Powder from roasted and crushed seeds and leaves is
applied to the affected eye
Raw fruits and pods are squeezed into affected eye
Smashed leaves is applied to the affected area, which is
later pierced to drain pus
Concoction of boiled of roots and honey administered
orally
Extract from crushed leaves soaked in water overnight is
applied to the affected eye
Concoction of boiled pods and bark soaked overnight is
applied to the affected area
An arm’s length of bark from Acacia tree trunk is tied on
either side of the fractured limb to straighten it
Extract from the boiled roots given orally
Extract from leaves soaked in water overnight is used to
wash the kids and lambs
Concoction of extract from crushed leaves soaked in
water and mixed with magadi soda is given orally
*Species not identified by their botanical names
63
Appendix 2.
List of some plant species mentioned by the pastoralists and their uses
Scientific name Pokot Il Chamus Use
Cynodon plectostachyus (G)
Maerua subcordta (S)
Zanthoxyylum chalybeum (T)
Echinochloa haploclada (G)
Boscia coriacea (T)
Acacia mellifera (T)
Grewia bicolor (S)
Salvadora persica (T)
Cleome gynandra (H)
Zizyphus mauritianaI (T)
Setaria verticellata (G)
Terminalia spinosa (T)
Balanites aegyptiaca (T)
Teclea nobilis (T)
Eragrostis superba (G)
Acacia tortilis (T)
Boscia Salicifolia (T)
Albizia anthelmintica (T)
Terminalia brownii (T)
Aristida adscensionis (G)
-
-
-
Acacia nilotica (T)
Maerua decumbens (S)
Cordia sinensis (T)
Eragrostis cilianensis (G)
Croton dicogamus (T)
Themeda triandra (G)
Hyparrenia rufa (G)
Cenchrus ciliaris (G)
Amaranthus spp.(H)
Indigofera spinosa (S)
Chloris roxburghiana (G)
Seretion
Chepliswo
Songowow
Amaranyon
Sorichon
Talamong
Sitet
Ashokonyon
Suriyo
Tilomwo
Amerkwia
Tikiti
Tuyunwo
-
Chaya
Ses
Likwon
Mukutan
Koloswa
Chelwowis
-
-
-
Kopkwo
-
-
Punyun
Kerelwa
Ngiriamatin
Presongoloion
-
Kaptanya
Amekunyan
Amerkuayon
Longeri
Lamayoki
-
-
Sericho
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Lowei
Llgalai
-
Lltepesi
-
Mukutani
Lbukoi
-
*Lauruaki (S)
*Leminyi (S)
*Sikirai (S)
-
Lamakwenyi
Salabani
-
-
-
-
Lokorengok
Llkamasi
Atula
-
Forage
Water purifier
Medicinal
Forage
Medicinal
Forage
Medicinal
Medicinal
Traditional vegetable
Forage
Forage
Forage
Medicinal
Forage
Forage and medicinal
Forage and medicinal
Forage
Medicinal
Medicinal
Forage
Medicinal
Medicinal
Medicinal
Forage and medicinal
Forage
Medicinal
Forage
Medicinal
Forage
Forage
Forage
Traditional vegetable
Forage
Forage
Shrub growth form (S); tree (T); grass (G); other herbaceous species (H)
*Species not identified by their botanical names
Appendix 2. List of some plant species mentioned by the pastoralists and their uses
64
Barklund Åke
Director
RELMA
E-mail: A.Barklund@cgiar.org
Burke Enid
Journalist
UN Retiree
E-mail: burke@net2000ke.com
Esmail A.O
Chief, Range Mangement Division
Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Dev.
P.O. box 34188
Nairobi, Kenya
Eyesus Solomon Gabere
Head of Animal Production & Range Management
Ministry of Agriculture
P.O. Box 266
ASSAB, Eritrea
El Atta Ali Hashim
Coordinator
DHP Sudan
E-mail: hasimelatta@yahoo.com
Issae I. Isaac
Ministry of Agriculture & Livestock Development
P.O. Box 9182
Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania
Email: iissae@yahoo.com.uk
Karukubiro Joshua
Pastoralist
Contact: Mr. E. Kyagaba
Mbarara University
P.O. Box 1410
Mbarara, Uganda
Kilongozi Nelson
Principal Livestock Research Officer
Ministry of Water and Livestock Dev.
Tanga, Tanzania
E-mail: lrctanga@ud.ac.tz
Kitalyi Aichi
Animal Husbandry Advisor
RELMA
E-mail: A.Kitalyi@cgiar.org
Appendix 3. Participants list
Workshop on documentation of the indigenous range resource
assessment and monitoring.
Novotel Mount Meru, Arusha, Tanzania (20–21 February, 2002).
Kuchar Peter
District Advisor Singida
LAMP/ORGUT
Singida, Tanzania
E-mail:lsosingida@yako.habari.co.tz
Kyagaba Emmanuel
Range Scientist
Mbarara University
Uganda
Email: emmanuelkyagaba@yahoo.com.au
Labatt Laban
Livestock Production Officer
Ministry of Agriculture
Marigat, Kenya
E-mail: lalabat2000@yahoo.com
Laizer M. Paul
Range Management
SCAPA Manager-Arumeru
Soil Cons. & Agroforestry Programme
P.O. Box 2416
Arusha, Tanzania
Sakita Lekibelie
Livestock keeper
Monduli, Tanzania
E-mail: sakita22@yahoo.co.uk
Lugenja Maynard
Associate Centre
CEEST
P.O. Box 66723
Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania
Masaga Shushuda
Livestock Officer
Livestock Department Hanang
P.O. Box 66
Katesh, Tanzania
Massawe J. Adolf
S.L.F.O II
Livestock Department
P.O. Box 14384
Orkesment –Simanjiro, Tanzania
Appendix 3. Participants list
65
Mgema R. Mary
RELMA RAC Tanzania
Ministry of Agriculture
Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania
E-mail: mgema@naaep.go.tz
Morungu Stephen Lydon
Assistant Director
Range Mgt and Extension Services
Ministry of Water and Livestock Dev.
Dodoma, Tanzania
E-mail: dlv@raha.com
Muchugunzi Charles
Lecturer
Mbarara University
Mbarara, Uganda
E-mail: muchunguzi2002@yahoo.com.uk
Musimba KR. Nashon
Senior Research Fellow/Lecturer
University of Nairobi
E-mail: nkrmusimbi@bidii.com
Mpairwe Denis
Lecturer
Makerere University
Department of Animal Science
Kampala, Uganda
E-mail: dmpairwe@agric.mak.ac.og
dmpairwe@hotmail.com
Mwanga F. Rumininsia
SMS Pasture/Range Land
LAMP Babati
P.O. Box 537
Babati, Tanzania
Mwebaze Sandra
Ag. Assistant Commissioner
Animal Nutrition
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry & Fisheries
Department of Animal Production and Marketing
E-mail: smwebaze2001@yahoo.com
Nyariki M. Dickson
Senior Lecturer/Head
Department of Range Management
E-mail: dicksonnyariki@yahoo.com
Ole Lenhgisugi Nathan
Expert in Pastoral I.K.
Maasai Resource Centre for indigenous Knowredra
E-mail: multicho@yako.habari.co.tz
Oroda S. Ambrose
Remote Sensing/Early Warning Officer
Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development
(RCMRD)
E-mail: aoroda@rcmdrd.org
Ossiya Sarah
Lecturer
Makerere University, also
Coordinator Pastoralist Communication Program,
Panos Eastern Africa
Kampala, Uganda
E-mail: saraho@panoseasternafrica.org.ug
Ouma Mary
RELMA
E-mail: M.Ouma@cgiar.org
Araya Mengistu Russom
Director, Rangeland Development & Nutrition
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources Department
Asmara, Eritrea
E-mail: estbein@eol.com.er
Jang’endo R. Said
Livestock Field Officer
DED – Simanjiro
P.O. Box 14384
Arush, Tanzania
Saruni Mokoro
Community Leader
P.O. Box 53
Longido, Tanzania
Alem Diress Tsegaye
Project Manager
Mekelle University/Dryland Husbandry Project/OSSREA
Mekelle, Ethiopia
E-mail: mekelle.university@telecom.net.et
Wasonga Vivian Oliver
Range Scientist
E-mail: odhawa@yahoo.com.uk
Appendix 3. Participants list
Occasional Paper Series
1. Agroforestry responses to HIV/AIDS in East and Southern Africa. Proceedings of the HIV/AIDS Workshop held
at the World Agroforestry Centre in Nairobi 2003.
2. Indigenous techniques for assessing and monitoring range resources in East Africa.
Agroforestry responses
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Our vision
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