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CHALLENGES OF ARABIC-ENGLISH TRANSLATION: THE NEED
FOR RE-SYSTEMATIC CURRICULUM AND METHODOLOGY
REFORMS IN YEMEN
Yehia Al-Sohbani1, Abdulghani Muthanna2
1 Department of English, Ibb University,
2 Ministry of Education, The State School of New Era, Ibb,
YEMEN.
1 alsohbani2013@yahoo.com, 2 am96715@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
We investigated the current major challenges (2011-2012) of Arabic-English
translation and vice versa. The use of both qualitative and quantative analyses
revealed several challenges that impede the translation process quality in
Yemen. We have categorized these major challenges into four main patterns:
lexical knowledge insufficiency; inadequate knowledge and practice of
grammar; little cultural backgrounds; and inappropriate teaching atmosphere
and methodology. Within each pattern, there are a number of critical issues
that need a remedy. The findings necessitate a re-systematic reform of the
curriculum, the teaching method, and the students' admission processes in
higher education institutions in Yemen.
Keywords: Arabic-English translation, translation challenges, and re-
systematic reform in Yemen
INTRODUCTION
This age of globalization necessitates the inexorable existence of translation training
programs wherein translator candidates are prepared and qualified for attending and
performing this inescapable translation role in this world. This necessity of translation has
enabled the translation training programs outputs to establish translation services that have
become of a daily use all over the globe. As the Arab world is concerned, a substantially
growing interest in translation has remarkably manifested in the teaching courses of
translation at both undergraduate and graduate levels in several Arab universities. These
translation courses have led to the emergence of translation programs in almost all Arab
countries. This newly-emerging awareness of both translation courses teaching and
translation programs/centers establishment have resulted in an augmentation of research on
this area of translation (e.g. Al-Hamdalla, 1998; Al-Mijrab, 2005; Gadacha, 2006; Hashim,
1996; Saeed & Fareh, 2006; Shehab, 2005). Nonetheless, translation training and practice
have always been criticized to be ineffective in the Arab world. For instance, Gaber (2001)
reported that Egyptian trainees expressed their strong sense of dissatisfaction with the classes
of translation they had in their respective faculties. Moreover, Stejskal (2003) found a similar
dissatisfactory attitude in the minds of Kuwaiti translators who additionally demonstrated
their disappointment in the translation classes they attended. Our experience as translation
courses takers and givers (Author 1) helped us sense that Yemeni students have serious issues
in translating from L1 (Arabic) into L2 (English) and vice-versa. As a result, the students
started to conceive the belief that translation is difficult; more unfortunately, they tended to
be passive and hesitant to participate in the class. Such a tendency, pedagogically speaking,
should not be ignored at all and must be remedied as fast as possible. Although translation
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research has proposed insights and theories related to the issue of translation barriers; it
seems that it has not fully diagnosed the problems and difficulties from the viewpoints of the
students. To the best of our knowledge, no study has been conducted to explore the
translation challenges from the Yemeni students’ viewpoints, where the pedagogical
environment is enormously different. To word it differently, the translation courses are taught
in very crowded classes and the attention is paid mainly to the theoretical aspect of
translation. Therefore, our study aimed at exploring the major challenges that face Yemeni
students in translating Arabic into English and vice versa and then classifying those
translation issues into appropriate patterns.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Translation process is necessarily needed and encompasses sub-processes and methods that
help in conveying the meaning of the L1 to the L2 (Ghazala, 1995). As a result, this process
of translation needs special skills so that the intended meaning is conveyed well. Despite the
intensive or extensive training the translator candidates go through, there are still many
translation issues that face those candidates. Based on our analysis of the related literature,
we have classified the translation issues into two broad ones: a) General Issues, and b)
Linguistic Issues. General problems are attributed to the difficulty in choosing the exact
equivalent word/term in both languages or related to the different languages settings and
families as it is the case of translating English sentences into Arabic and vice-versa.
Linguistic issues, on the other hand, are posed by grammar including lexicons, style or sound
(Ghazala, 1995). Jaback (2007) conducted a study on 200 Arab students to identify the
problems they face in translating Arabic into English. The findings reported that 55% were
linguistic problems, distributed as follows: 1) 69% of these problems were grammatical, 2)
50% lexical, and 3) 46% were morphological. These results, furthermore, clearly show the
main area of linguistic issues from which Arab learners of English suffer, that is grammar.
Al-Darawish (1983) stated four main difficulties in any translation: a) no two languages have
exactly identical phonological, morphological, lexical, syntactic and semantic features, b)
languages differ in terms of sentence arrangement, c) a translator is forced to front or move
backward certain items, and d) the impossibility for a translator to completely master two
languages; however, this problem can be resolved through specialized scientific committees
(as cited in Al-Hamdalla, 1998, p. 24). A decade later, El-Zeini (1994) identified six main
problems in translating from Arabic to English and vice versa: lexicon, morphology, syntax,
textual differences, rhetorical differences, and pragmatic problems. Another decade later,
unsurprisingly Bahameed (2007) terms these difficulties/problems as 'hindrances' [for they
hinder translators from moving forward and stating in the same spot] and classifies these
hindrances of Arabic-English translation into lexical, prosodic, structural, and cultural
hindrances.
In Yemen, the place of this present study, Moharram (2004) conducted a study on student's
errors while translating Arabic into English and found a considerable number of errors
attributed to the inappropriate use of vocabulary, prepositions and gender; meaningless use of
words; incorrect use of grammatical forms; use of long and incorrect sentences, and incorrect
use of spelling. Moharram (2004) argued that these problems might be due to the interference
of the mother-tongue, lack of vocabulary items and cultural differences in terms of concepts
and values. Very recently, Khoshafah (2008) confirmed those findings of Moharram (2004)
when he analyzed six business documents translated by 20 Yemeni translators.
Bassnett (1980) believed that differences between cultures stand as a barrier before
translators. Nida (2001) substantiated Bassnett's belief when she stated that cultural
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differences engender severer intricacies than languages structures differences do. Culture for
Larson (1984) is "a complex of beliefs, attitudes, values, and rules which a group of people
share (p.431)", and this is really hard to achieve in non-native English countries. Catford
(1965), furthermore, argues that the cultural type of untranslatability occurs when a situation
feature, functionally relevant for the SL text, is totally absent from the culture of the TL.
Therefore, the role of the translator appears to work like a mediator between the different
cultures so as to appropriately, in the words of Cook (2003) "… mould what is said in one
language to the convention of another" (p. 55). Attar (2005) showed the same belief when he
argued that "what is seen outrageous in one culture … is considered normal in another
culture" (p. 138). As a result, one of several tasks a translator must achieve well is, conveying
this outrage sense experienced in the source text through enabling a reader in the targeted text
to make a difference between various attitudes and voices (Attar, 2005, p. 138).
To sum up, we can state that culture plays a very vital role in translation and translators
critically need to develop substantial awareness of L1 and L2 cultures. This cultures
awareness, however, is achieved only when translators are linguistically equipped with
sufficient knowledge of the SL and TL; otherwise, finding equivalent words, according to
Larson (1984) could often be challenging. This culture awareness is also verified in the
following statement of Cook (2003) "translation cannot be conducted at a purely linguistic
level but must incorporate cultural and contextual factors too" (p. 55). In short, this analysis
of the previous studies has helped us in classifying the translation issues into two broad
categories mentioned in the first paragraph of this section.
STUDY BACKGROUND
The Setting
We conducted this study on the level four English Department students, Faculty of Arts, Ibb
University that exists in the Republic of Yemen. The study took place during the two
semesters of the academic year 2011/2012.
Research Design
In this study, we gathered data through different tools. The first data-gathering tool is
Observation that has been going on during the first semester. This instrument helped us
prepare an open questionnaire which allows participants ''to state their opinions in ways not
pre-selected by the researcher... [and as a result, led to explore] unsuspected things'' (Hannan,
2007, p. 1). The questionnaire was personally handed over to the participants in the beginning
of the second semester. The participants of this study were 100 students selected at random.
These participants have already studied many specialized courses including linguistics
(phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics), language skills courses and
two Arabic language courses. They have also completed three courses in translation. All
these courses were traditionally instructed. These students can be described as fairly
advanced students of English as they are senior students majoring in English and have studied
English for about ten years (six years at school and three and a half years at the university).
Though the questionnaire was distributed to 65 students, forty seven (47) students gave back
their responses. Getting back the responses, we started reading through all the texts very
carefully, marking, and coding critical words, phrases, and sentences. The process of coding
helped in identifying several themes and sub-patterns. This analysis further helped in
preparing the open-ended questionnaire. This questionnaire was given to three different
professors at three different higher institutions for validity and reliability. Taking their
comments into consideration, we prepared the final draft and distributed it to the students.
Out of a hundred subjects, only 83 give back the responses this time. After collecting the
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data, we used simple descriptive Statistical analyses of Frequency Accounts and Percentages.
Below is a discussion of the findings.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The processes of both qualitative and quantitative analyses have resulted in the presence of
several major patterns which underscored the main challenges the study participants face in
the process of translating Arabic into English and vice versa. The following is a discussion of
the most important patterns.
Insufficient Lexical Knowledge
Lexical knowledge might be "the most important language component for learners" (Gass &
Selinker, 2008, p. 449). Moreover, Laufer (1997) believed that learning lexicons is the first
essential step for L2 learners. Lexicons use is, furthermore, the first area in which students
commit a lot of errors compared to the other language components (Bahameed, 2007;
Moharram, 2004). Insufficient lexical knowledge, as a result, will lead to lexicons errors that
are the most serious ones in any language acquisition. The following extract from Gass and
Selinker (2008, p. 449) shows several studies and the reasons behind the seriousness of
lexicons errors:
Of all error types, learners consider vocabulary errors to be the most serious (Politzer,
1978, as cited in Levenston, 1979, p. 147). Additionally, large corpora of errors
consistently indicate that lexical errors are the most common among second language
learners. Meara (1984, p. 229) cited Blaas (1982) as indicating that lexical errors
outnumbered grammatical errors by 3:1 in one corpus. Moreover, native speakers find
lexical errors to be more disruptive than grammatical errors (Johansson, 1978, as cited in
Meara, 1984, p. 229).
Based on the above discussion and the given (extract) studies, it can be stated that teachers
and learners should have a great deal of lexical knowledge. They should seriously pay greater
attention to lexicons than any other language component.
Similarly, our study points out the issue of insufficient lexical knowledge which is considered
as a real barrier to the translation process. Table 1 shows that there are many lexical
problems. The most common problem is the students’ lack of lexicons in both English and
Arabic. Most students have written that lexicons insufficiency is one of the major problems
they continuously suffer from. Eighty one of their responses (97%) highlight this issue.
Another sub-problem related to this issue, which also scored quite a high percentage (78%),
is the lack of knowledge of English abbreviations. This is followed by the difficulty of
translating acronyms, the inappropriate use of the English words, translating: medical terms,
affixes, and political and economic terms and these issues emphasize the general issue/pattern
we have coded like: Insufficient Lexicons Knowledge. Moreover, the analysis points out that
it is difficult for the participants to find appropriate equivalents in both L1 and L2
dictionaries; get an acceptable meaning of the word according to the context; and translate the
religious expressions, the compound words, and the texts full of English expressions that
contain words whose meanings are culturally marked. Our findings similarly verify those of
Baker (1992) who stated that "Errors and problems in translation mostly result from the non-
equivalence between the source and target languages" (pp. 20-21).
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Table 1. Frequency Accounts & Percentages of Participants' Responses Related to Insufficient
Lexical Knowledge
Percentage
Frequency
Statements
97 81 1. Vocabulary insufficiency in both target and source languages.
78 65 2. Insufficient knowledge of abbreviations in the English language.
77 64 3. It is difficult to translate abbreviations and acronyms into Arabic.
75 63 4. Inappropriate use of the English words.
74.7 62 5. It is difficult to translate medical terms.
61 51 6. It is difficult to translate affixes.
57 48 7. It is difficult to translate the political and economic terms.
56
47
8.
It is difficult to find suitable
equivalence in the dictionaries of both
target and source languages.
50
42
9. It is difficult to find an acceptable/appropriate meaning of the word
according to the context.
50 42 10. It's difficult to translate the religious expressions.
34 29 11. It is difficult to translate the compound words.
30 25 12. It is difficult to translate texts which are full of language expressions.
24 20 13. It is difficult to find the exact words which fit the meaning in the L2.
18 15 14. It is difficult to translate words which have more than one meaning.
18 15
15. Less awareness of the connotative meaning of lexical items in the
source language.
14 12
16. It is difficult to translate the old English words which are not currently
used.
Inadequate Knowledge and Practice of Grammar
It is highly remarkable that grammar is one of the important language components translator
candidates/students must apprehend and practice well. Although grammatical errors might
not hinder the communication process while lexical ones may do so and the structural errors
are less than those of lexicons (Meara, 1984, P. 229, as cited in Gass & and Selinker, 2008, P.
455), the grammatical errors are still disruptive and problematic. Our study highlights that
insufficient knowledge of the grammatical rules in both L1 and L2 might impede in the
effectiveness and quality of translation.
The analysis of this pattern, as given in Table 2 shows that 95% of responses have stated that
the most common and confusing issue is the translation of prepositions. This is due to the fact
that prepositions get different meanings in different contexts and this might explain why the
study participants ranked them first. Another difficulty the study participants encountered in
the process of translation is translating sentences in the passive voice which might be
attributed to the participants' inadequate knowledge either L2 or L1 or both languages passive
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voice rules. Ordering adjectives while translating is rated to be the fourth grammatical
problem facing the participants (59%) and this is related to the different ordering rules of
both Arabic and English languages. These findings support those of the researchers (e.g.
Zughoul, 1979; Mukattash, 1976; Khampang, 1974; Tahaineh, 2010) who stated the
existence of such difficulties in translation. Here it is highly important to mention the fact that
word order in English, according to Baker (1992), is fixed whereas in other languages such as
Arabic is not fixed. The differences between Arabic and English structures as well as the
difficulty of breaking Arabic sentences into small English ones constituted the fifth
grammatical problem. These findings posit that grammar is not taught in context by which
students, according to Azzar (1999), can understand and use grammar well. As shown in
Table 2, forty-eight percent (48%) find it difficult to use appropriate English tenses when
they translate from Arabic to English or vice versa. This could be due to the fact that Arabic
has mainly three tenses: present, past and future whereas English has various aspects of
tenses.
Table 2. Frequency accounts & Percentages of Participants' Responses Related to Inadequate
Knowledge and practice of Grammar
Percentage Frequency Statements
95 79 1. Translating prepositions is confusing.
66 55 2. It is hard to translate sentences in the passive voice.
59 49 3. It is difficult to order adjectives while translating.
50 42
4.
The difference of the structures in both languages makes it hard to
translate well.
49 41
5. It is difficult to break down Arabic sentences in order to make them
short in English.
48 40
6. It is hard to make links between sentences by using for example, 'in
addition; moreover' correctly.
22 19
7. It is difficult to appropriately use the English present and past
perfect tenses while translating.
10 9 8. The translation of questions is difficult.
12 10
9. It is confusing to translate negations such as: does not, did not,
never, neither, nor.
Little Cultural Backgrounds
To know a language well goes without saying that a learner, whatever his purpose of learning
that language is, must have adequate knowledge of the culture of that targeted language. It is,
however, more important for translators to have a very sufficient body of knowledge of the
targeted language; otherwise, they will face serious issues.
The participants of our study have regarded culture as one of the main problems they face
when they translate. A lack of cultural background of the TL and the difficulty of translating
of some proverbs are, according to the study participants, one of the major problems that
harden the process of translation. This is shown from the high percentages of the responses
(85% and 62%) given to these points. This, on one hand, denotes the importance of teaching
the target language culture to the students as agreed by almost all researchers. It, on the other
hand, further supports the literature related to the culture and translation which asserts the
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difficulties caused by the this factor. For example, in the study of Jabak (2007) it was found
that 45% of the problems that faced the participants (N=200) of that study while translating
from Arabic into English were cultural problems. Translating proverbs is difficult for
students because the meaning of proverbs is culture-bound. Finding equivalent proverbs in
English and Arabic can be rare due to the fact that these languages belong to different
families and their cultures are, to a large extent, different too and such differences bring about
a barrier between L1 and L2 (Newmark, 1981; Nida, 2001).
Table 3. Frequency accounts & Percentages of Participants' Responses Related to Little
Cultural Backgrounds
Percentage Frequency Statements
85 71 Lack of cultural background of the English language. 1
62 52 Translation of some proverbs of the target language. 2
22 19 Less awareness of the connection of some idioms. 3
Inappropriate Teaching Atmosphere and Methodology
Teaching atmosphere and methodology are essential for achieving the main purpose of the
teaching process. They, in other words, are necessarily needed in the teaching of translation, a
field that demands lots of expertise on the part of trainers and lots of practice on the part of
trainees. These lots of expertise will help the trainers critically think of which method is more
suitable for which trainees. But an obstacle appears before these trainers; the great numbers
of trainees on one class that prevent the trainers from implementing their thought-of-best
method. Therefore, we can state that teaching methodology lives on the atmosphere of the
class especially in teaching translation. Our analysis shown in table 4 demonstrates that the
attendance of many students in one class (97% of the subjects' responses) is a real problem
for practicing translation that has the percentage of 78%. Apart from these two issues, the
absence of specialists in the field of translation creates, according to the study participants, a
problematic situation for learning the translation processes systemically and systematically.
To put it differently, students are given texts as homework without practicing them in the
classroom. As this procedure is not followed by classroom discussion with either the trainer
or the trainees themselves, the trainees do not get appropriate feedback to realize the quality
of their translation (i.e. appropriate, poor or wrong).
Table 4. Frequency Accounts & Percentages of Participants' Responses Related to the
Inappropriate Teaching Atmosphere and Methodology
Percentage Frequency Statements
97 81 The large number of students in the class is a barrier. 1
78 65
The absence of practicing translation in the classroom leads to
having difficulties in translation.
2
75 63
The absence of specialist instructors in the field of translation is
problematic.
3
61 51 Translation is not taught systematically at the university. 4
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CONCLUSION
In this study, we have explored the major challenges that face Yemeni students in translating
Arabic into English and vice versa. The qualitative analyses helped in classifying those
translation issues into appropriate patterns in which several translations sub-issues exist. The
quantative analyses, furthermore, assisted in finding out which issue is more problematic.
The results show that lexical knowledge insufficiency; inadequate knowledge and practice of
grammar; inadequate cultural backgrounds; and inappropriate teaching atmosphere and
methodology are the main problems. These major challenges point to the dire need for re-
systematic reforms of the curriculum, the pedagogy, and the class sizes in Yemen.
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