Self-transcendence as a measurable transpersonal construct

Abstract

The term self-transcendence has been used to refer both to a process of movement beyond one's immediate self-boundaries, and to a quality which emerges as a result of this process, culminating in a broadened worldview. Self-transcendence has appeared as a key theme in several disciplines including transpersonal psychology, personality theory, and nursing theory. The scarcity of widely accepted methods of quantifying this construct with valid, reliable measures has caused some difficulty in the research arena. Scientific literature to date is presented here surrounding self-transcendence as quantified by the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). The author's purpose is to expound a coherent account of TCI self-transcendence research, and to establish self-transcendence as a measurable transpersonal construct with observable features and correlates. Data regarding molecular and quantitative genetics, neuroanatomy, aging, spirituality, religion, culture, and psychopathology are discussed. In light of this evidence, self-transcendence is presented as a complex but quantifiable construct of the utmost relevance to psychology.

Full text

SELF-TRANSCENDENCE AS A MEASURABLE
TRANSPERSONAL CONSTRUCT
Albert Garcia-Romeu, M.A.
Palo Alto, CA
ABSTRACT: The term self-transcendence has been used to refer both to a process of movement
beyond one’s immediate self-boundaries, and to a quality which emerges as a result of this process,
culminating in a broadened worldview. Self-transcendence has appeared as a key theme in several
disciplines including transpersonal psychology, personality theory, and nursing theory. The scarcity
of widely accepted methods of quantifying this construct with valid, reliable measures has caused
some difficulty in the research arena. Scientific literature to date is presented here surrounding self-
transcendence as quantified by the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). The author’s
purpose is to expound a coherent account of TCI self-transcendence research, and to establish self-
transcendence as a measurable transpersonal construct with observable features and correlates.
Data regarding molecular and quantitative genetics, neuroanatomy, aging, spirituality, religion,
culture, and psychopathology are discussed. In light of this evidence, self-transcendence is
presented as a complex but quantifiable construct of the utmost relevance to psychology.
INTRODUCTION
The term self-transcendence has been widely used to refer both to a process of
expansion, or movement beyond one’s immediate self-boundaries (Levenson,
Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005; Reed, 1991b), and to a quality which
emerges as a result of this process, culminating in a generally stabilized and
broadened worldview (Maslow, 1971; Wilber, 2000). In psychology, Viktor
Frankl (1966) posited self-transcendence as an integral part of the human
ability to create meaning, and Abraham Maslow offered this definition:
Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels
of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means,
to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species,
to nature, and to the cosmos. (1971, p. 269)
More recently, the phenomenon of self-transcendence has emerged as a key
theme in several disciplines including transpersonal development (Levenson et
al., 2005; Wade, 1996; Wilber, 2000), personality theory and psychiatric genetics
(Cloninger, Svrakic, & Przybeck, 1993), nursing theory (Coward, 1996; Reed,
1991b; Runquist & Reed, 2007), and gerontology (Braam, Bramsen, van
Tilburg, van der Ploeg, & Deeg, 2006; Tornstam, 1996), among others.
In each of these domains scholars have posited distinct definitions and
theoretical underpinnings in an attempt to understand and explain self-
transcendence from the standpoints of their respective fields. Accordingly, a
AGRomeu77@gmail.com
Copyright ’2010 Transpersonal Institute
26 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

number of assessments have been proposed as means of measuring self-
transcendence, and discovering what, if any, are its component facets. These
include the self-transcendence subscale of the Temperament and Character
Inventory (TCI) devised by Cloninger et al. (1993), the Self-Transcendence
Scale developed by Reed (1991a), the Spiritual Transcendence Scale created by
Piedmont (1999), and the Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory (Levenson et al.,
2005). Using such measures in empirical research, interrelationships between
self-transcendence and other biological, psychological, and spiritual constructs
have been explored across a variety of populations and cultures, yielding
considerable results. However, the scarcity of widely accepted methods of
quantifying self-transcendence with a single valid, reliable measure has caused
some difficulty in the research arena (Akyalcin, Greenway, & Milne, 2008;
MacDonald & Friedman, 2002).
This article presents research from diverse fields surrounding self-transcen-
dence as quantified by the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), a
self-report measure of seven personality dimensions developed by Cloninger et
al. (1993), who define self-transcendence as ‘‘the extent to which a person
identifies the self as…an integral part of the universe as a whole’’ (p. 975). This
report specifically focuses on the construct of self-transcendence (ST) as
defined by Cloninger et al.’s (1993) psychobiological model of temperament
and character for several reasons. First, this theory is unique in its inclusion
and acknowledgement of self-transcendence, an inherently transpersonal
phenomenon, as a major contributing factor determining human personality.
Second, as Maitland, Nyberg, Backman, Nilsson, and Adolfsson (2009b) note,
since its inception, the TCI has been employed in almost 400 published studies
(Pelissolo et al., 2005), providing an ample foundation of empirical data.
Finally, TCI research has spanned a variety of paradigms and methodologies,
including psychometrics, neuroimaging, and genetics (Akyalcin et al., 2008;
Ando et al., 2004; Kaasinen, Maguire, Kurki, Bruck, & Rinner, 2005), thereby
offering a wide array of information.
In reviewing the range of literature pertaining to this construct, the author’s
purpose is twofold: first, to present a coherent account of the TCI self-
transcendence research to date, and second, to work towards establishing self-
transcendence as a measurable transpersonal construct, with observable,
scientifically valid features and correlates. In order to situate this material within
the larger context of multidisciplinary self-transcendence research, alternative
models and findings regarding self-transcendence will be briefly reviewed below.
Afterwards, the psychobiological model of temperament and character and TCI
will be introduced in more detail, followed by a concise presentation of significant
research findings relating specifically to TCI self-transcendence, and a discussion
on the relevance of this construct to transpersonal psychology.
THEORIES OF TRANSCENDENCE
Two major theories of transcendence have emerged from the standpoint of
aging and lifespan development (Reed, 1986, 1991b; Tornstam, 1996).
Transpersonal Construct 27

Specifically, the nursing theory of self-transcendence formulated by Reed
(1991b, 2003), and the theory of gerotranscendence proposed by Tornstam
(1996, 1997), have offered useful definitions, which have been operationalized
and researched with the Self-Transcendence Scale (STS; Reed, 1991a), and the
Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory (ASTI; Levenson et al., 2005) respectively.
Reed’s (1991a) Self-Transcendence Scale has been studied extensively in ill and
elderly populations, producing significant results regarding self-transcendence,
mental health, well-being, coping skills, and end of life issues (Coward, 2006;
Reed, 2003). It is useful to note that nursing research in self-transcendence has
employed some qualitative methods (Reed, 1991a), incorporating the views
and experiences of participants, as opposed to the majority of research using
the Temperament and Character Inventory, which has focused almost
exclusively on quantitative analysis.
In nursing theory, Reed’s definition of self-transcendence has evolved since
1991; however, the most current formulation is as follows:
the capacity to expand self-boundaries intrapersonally (toward greater
awareness of one’s philosophy, values, and dreams), interpersonally (to
relate to others and one’s environment), temporally (to integrate one’s past
and future in a way that has meaning for the present), and transpersonally
(to connect with dimensions beyond the typically discernible world). (2003,
p. 147)
Although somewhat lengthy, the definition is thorough, and suggests that an
individual’s relationships to oneself, to others, to the environment, andto
unseen cosmic forces are all influenced by self-transcendence. Therefore, it is
hypothesized that a person’s ability to experience connectedness in these
domains is the extent to which he or she exhibits the trait self-transcendence.
Hence, the STS attempts to measure self-transcendence using 15 self-report
items that tap these relationships. For example, the STS asks participantsto
rate on a 4-point Likert scale their current levels of ‘‘accepting death as apart
of life,’’ and ‘‘helping others in some way’’ (Reed, 1991a, p. 6).
Since the initial development of the Self-Transcendence Scale in 1991, a
considerable amount of research has been conducted around self-transcen-
dence and related concepts in nursing (for a detailed review see Coward, 2006;
Reed, 2003). The majority of research has focused on sick and elderly
populations, in keeping with Reed’s original emphasis (e.g., Klaas, 1998; Neill,
2002), and has largely found an inverse relationship between self-transcendence
and depressive symptoms. For instance, significant negative correlations have
been found between depression and self-transcendence in both middle-aged
and older adults (Ellerman & Reed, 2001; Klaas, 1998), as well as negative
correlation between self-transcendence and desire for death in elders
hospitalized for depression (Buchanan, Farran, & Clark, 1995). Furthermore,
in a study of 152 healthy adults ages 19 to 85 (mean age546), Coward (1996)
found positive correlations between self-transcendence, hope, purpose in life,
and cognitive and emotional well-being, suggesting that the construct and
assessment may carry over in usefulness to more general populations. (NOTE:
28 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

In the context of this article all results cited exhibit at least a p ,.05 level of
statistical significance. Exact values for each are omitted in the interest of
textual clarity. Interested readers are encouraged to refer to the original articles
listed in the reference section.)
A related theory from gerontology (Tornstam, 1996, 1997) has demonstrated
some congruence with Reed’s self-transcendence theory. Taking a similar
lifespan developmental stance towards aging and transcendence, Tornstam
(1996) defined the concept of gerotranscendence thus, ‘‘a shift in metaper-
spective, from a midlife materialistic and rational vision to a more cosmic and
transcendent one, accompanied by an increase in life satisfaction’’ (p. 38).
Working from this model, Levenson et al. (2005) devised the Adult Self-
Transcendence Inventory. Initial research findings using this assessment have
found that self-transcendence as measured by the ASTI exhibits significant
negative correlation to neuroticism, and is positively related to meditation
practice (Levenson et al., 2005). Furthermore, a recent dissertation which
employed the ASTI demonstrated positive correlations between self-transcen-
dence, psychological and subjective well-being, quality of life, and mindfulness
(Zappala, 2007).
These theories display some parallels with that of Piedmont (1999), who
proposed spiritual transcendence as a sixth factor of human personality, in
addition to the five factors as identified by Costa and McCrae’s (1992) Five
Factor Model (i.e., Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness,
and Neuroticism). Piedmont (1999) defines spiritual transcendence as, ‘‘the
capacity of individuals to stand outside their immediate sense of time and place
to view life from a larger, more objective perspective’’ (p. 988). The construct
has been criticized for conflating spirituality, religiosity, and transcendence
(Slater, Hall, & Edwards, 2001). However, spiritual transcendence has
demonstrated significant positive correlations with forgiveness of others
(Leach & Lark, 2004), and effective substance abuse recovery (Piedmont,
2004).
Self-transcendence has also played a role in studying social value orientation
(Joireman & Duell, 2005); although in the interest of relevance and space, this
research will be left for future discussion. In conclusion, different versions of
the concept ‘self-transcendence’ have been used to frame diverse research
questions in various fields. However, more interdisciplinary research on
overlap and divergences between models, theories, and measures remains
necessary at this time. As a first step in this direction, current findings are
reviewed regarding self-transcendence as operationalized by the psychobiolog-
ical model of temperament and character, and the TCI (Cloninger et al., 1993).
THE PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL MODEL OF TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER
Several models have been proposed regarding the structure and developmentof
individual personality (Cloninger, 1987; Cloninger et al., 1993; Costa &
McCrae, 1986, 1992). In 1993, Cloninger et al. developed a seven-factor model
Transpersonal Construct 29

of personality known as the psychobiological model of temperament and
character. This theoretical framework proposed four temperament factors
(harm avoidance, reward dependence, novelty seeking, and persistence), as well
as three character dimensions (self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-
transcendence). The distinction between temperament and character is
primarily based on differentiated memory systems believed to underlie each.
The four dimensions of temperament were hypothesized to be ‘‘automatic,
preconceptual responses to perceptual stimuli, presumably reflecting heritable
biases in information processing by the perceptual memory system’’ (Cloninger
et al., 1993, p. 977). By this reasoning, temperament was considered a loosely
pre-programmed system of behavioral dispositions relative to particular classes
of stimuli such as reward or harm, and thereby more likely to be genetically
transmitted. In contrast, the three character dimensions were proposed tobe
concept-based, intentional, and procedural, residing in a distributed ‘‘cortico-
limbo-diencephalic’’ memory system (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 977), and
therefore less influenced by genetics than temperament. Research to date,
however, has not provided conclusive evidence for the differentiation of
temperament and character as measurably distinct constructs (Farmer &
Goldberg, 2008a; Maitland, Nyberg, Backman, Nilsson, & Adolfsson, 2009a).
Furthermore, the hypothesized differences in heritability between temperament
and character have not been supported by genetic research employing the TCI
(Ando et al., 2004; Gillespie, Cloninger, Heath, & Martin, 2003; Herbst,
Zonderman, McCrae, & Costa, 2000; Kirk, Eaves, & Martin, 1999), points
which will be revisited below in more detail.
According to the psychobiological model, character dimensions are related to
an individual’s sense of self, conceptualized across three increasingly expansive
levels (Cloninger et al., 1993). The first, self-directedness (SD), refers to an
individual’s self-concept in relation to oneself, including factors suchas
purposeful self-regulation, and foresight (Cloninger, 2008). On a broader scale,
cooperativeness (CO) deals with the individual in relation to humanity, taking
into account a person’s social attitudes and agreeability. Finally, self-
transcendence (ST) is concerned with one’s self-concept in relation to the
entire cosmos, or ‘‘the extent to which a person identifies the self as…an
integral part of the universe as a whole’’ (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 975).
TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER INVENTORY (TCI)
The seven factor psychobiological model of temperament and character has
developed in tandem with the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), a
self-report questionnaire designed to measure these dimensions and their
dynamics (Cloninger et al., 1993; Cloninger, Przybeck, Svrakic, & Wetzel,
1994). The TCI was originally designed in English as a 226 item true-false
questionnaire with a total of seven dimensions and 29 subscales. It has
subsequently been translated into at least 18 different languages (Maitland et
al. 2009b), revised to a 240 item version using a 5-point Likert scale (TCI-R;
Cloninger, 1999b), and administered for research purposes in a variety of
30 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

languages and disciplines (Gutierrez et al., 2001; Kijima, Tanaka, Suzuki,
Higuchi, & Kitamura, 2000; Parker, Cheah, & Parker, 2003; Pelissolo &
Levine, 2000). The wide proliferation of the TCI in various languages has
resulted in considerable data surrounding cross-cultural differences in the
manifestation of temperament and character (Farmer et al., 2003; Parker et al.,
2003), although it remains unclear the extent to which culture and language
influence the assessment of these constructs. The observed relationship between
culture, gender, and TCI self-transcendence will be examined in more depth
ahead.
As the TCI has evolved, the theoretical foundations of the psychobiological
model of temperament and character have been adapted to account for observed
data (Cloninger, 1999b, 2008). Although this has served to keep the model
grounded in empirical observation (Cloninger, 2000; Svrakic et al., 2002), it has
also become a point of contention concerning the theory’s frequent reformu-
lations, the variability of TCI forms used in research, and consequent difficulties
in producing testable hypotheses (Farmer & Goldberg, 2008b; MacDonald &
Holland, 2002). Criticism of the TCI has also been forthcoming regarding the
validity of its psychometric structure, and appropriate methods of mathematical
analysis (Farmer & Goldberg, 2008a, 2008b; Maitland et al., 2009b). On the
latter point, Maitland et al. (2009b) remark, ‘‘even within the same data set,
different levels of support are found depending on the statistical method used to
examine the data and the level of analysis’’ (p. 83). Hence, different approaches
to data analysis have resulted in conflicting readings and appraisals of both the
TCI as an assessment, and the psychobiological model as a personality theory.
These critiques demonstrate some of the more challenging issues in the
interpretation of TCI research in particular, and highlight the still indefinite
nature of personality theory and measurement in general. Despite disagreements
in the field, the TCI as an assessment has shown adequate internal consistency of
scales, high test-retest reliability, and general overall validity, making it a useful
and frequently employed tool in personality assessment and psychological
research (Brandstrom et al., 1998; Hansenne, Delhez, & Cloninger, 2005;
Pelissolo & Levine, 2000).
TCI SELF-TRANSCENDENCE AND SUBSCALES
According to the psychobiological model of temperament and character, ‘‘self-
transcendence refers generally to identification with everything conceived as
essential and consequential parts of a unified whole’’ (Cloninger et al., 1993,
p. 981). This construct was originally hypothesized to develop through three
stages measured by three corresponding subscales: self-forgetful vs. self-
conscious experience (ST1), transpersonal identification vs. self-isolation
(ST2), and (ST3) spiritual acceptance vs. rational materialism (Cloninger et
al.). Subsequent revisions have included two additional components of self-
transcendence (Cloninger, 1996), namely enlightened vs. objective (ST4), and
(ST5) idealistic vs. practical (MacDonald & Holland, 2002). In their analysis of
the five-factor TCI self-transcendence scale, MacDonald and Holland (2002)
obtained an alpha coefficient of .90 for the overall ST scale and ‘‘satisfactory
Transpersonal Construct 31

reliability and adequate convergent and criterion validity as manifested
through correlational results with the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory
and ANOVA findings involving religious involvement and reported spiritual
experience’’ (pp. 1023–1024). However, current TCI-R forms have returnedto
the original three-facet model of ST (Cloninger, 1999b).
The psychobiological theory posits a developmental sequence of self-
transcendence from ST1 through ST3. Hence, as an individual’s capacity for
ST1 self-forgetfulness crystallizes, transpersonal identification (ST2) becomes
more accessible, and likewise, as ST2 develops, it forms the basis for ST3,
spiritual acceptance. Self-forgetful experience (ST1) is characterized by a state
of absorption in external events, and represents the momentary dissolution of
self-other boundaries thought to occur during such instances. ST1 is assessed in
the TCI with items such as, ‘‘Sometimes I have felt as if I was part of something
with no limits or boundaries in time or space’’ (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 982).
Self-forgetful experiences are theorized to lay the groundwork for transper-
sonal identification. Transpersonal identification refers to a relatively steady
sense of unity with objects outside the individual self (Cloninger et al.),as
opposed to more fleeting occasions of self-forgetfulness. One example of an
item in the TCI transpersonal identification subscale is, ‘‘I sometimes feel so
connected to nature that everything seems to be part of one living organism’’
(Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 982). High scores on the ST2 subscale in particular
have demonstrated significant correlations with some forms of psychopathol-
ogy (Anderson, Carter, McIntosh, Joyce, & Bulik, 2002; Birt, Vaida, &
Prelipceanu, 2006), a point which will be examined further ahead.
As transpersonal identification is integrated into the personality, a sense of
spiritual acceptance (ST3) is purported to develop. Spiritual acceptanceis
defined as a stable shift in worldview towards belief in forces that cannot be
rationally comprehended or objectively proven. The spiritual acceptance vs.
rational materialism (ST3) subscale contains items such as, ‘‘Sometimes I have
felt my life being guided by a spiritual force greater than any human being’’
(Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 982). The ST3 subscale in particular has
demonstrated substantial correlation with genetic factors related to the
dopaminergic and serotonergic systems, raising questions about the role of
heritability and neurotransmitters in spiritual acceptance (Borg, Andree,
Soderstom, & Farde, 2003; Comings, Gonzales, Saucier, Johnson, &
MacMurray, 2000; Lorenzi et al., 2005; Nilsson et al., 2007). Although TCI
self-transcendence is proposed to develop through these three stages, the
psychobiological model of temperament and character does not explicitly
specify when such shifts are expected to occur. The overall development of
character, however, has been further elaborated upon (Cloninger, Svrakic, &
Svrakic, 1997; Svrakic, Svrakic, & Cloninger 1996), and will be reviewed ahead.
PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES
The original TCI self-transcendence scale includes 11 items for ST1, nine items
for ST2, and 13 items for ST3 subscales, with a total of 33 True/False items
32 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

producing a range of scores from 0 to 33 (Cloninger et al., 1993). In the more
recent TCI-R (Cloninger, 1999b), ST has been shortened to 26 items rated on a
5-point Likert scale (10 items for ST1, 8 items for ST2, and 8 items for ST3),
though retains the same three-facet structure of the original formulation. A
recent study of the TCI-R found alpha coefficients of .90 for the overall revised
ST scale, .79 for ST1, .77 for ST2, and .90 for ST3, demonstrating adequate to
high internal consistency (Farmer & Goldberg, 2008a), although for the
purposes of the present discussion the original 33 item ST scale which has been
used most often in research (Cloninger et al., 1993; Maitland et al., 2009a) will
be employed unless otherwise noted.
The TCI self-transcendence scale has manifested as one of the most variable
personality dimensions across individuals (Cloninger et al., 1993), and
demonstrates more stability over time than self-direction, cooperativeness,
novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence
(Brandstrom et al., 1998). Administering the TCI to a sample of 300
Americans from the general population, Cloninger et al. (1993) found high
internal consistency for ST and adequate internal consistency for its three
subscales, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .84 for the overall ST scale, and alpha
ranging from .72 to .74 for the subscales. In another recent study, conducted by
Akyalcin et al. (2008) with a sample of 233 Australian individuals, ST again
exhibited an internal consistency of .84, though subscales ST1 and ST2
obtained slightly lower alpha measures of .63 and .67 respectively, while ST3
obtained a somewhat higher internal consistency measure of .83.
RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
From a developmental standpoint, Svrakic, Svrakic, and Cloninger (1996)
remark that character ‘‘matures in a stepwise manner in incremental shifts
from infancy through late adulthood’’ (p. 251). This does not, however,
imply a fixed schedule of personality development, as the three character
dimensions, four temperament dimensions, environment, culture, and life
experience interact with reciprocal influence throughout the lifespan,
following nonlinear dynamics (Cloninger, Svrakic, & Svrakic, 1997; Svrakic
et al., 1996). Therefore, different temperamental dispositions will develop
along different trajectories and be subject to the effects of sociocultural
learning and random events that cannot be predicted beforehand (Cloninger
et al., 1997).
According to their analyses of TCI data and mathematical modeling of average
childhood personality development, Svrakic et al. (1996) proposed that self-
transcendence emerges first in imaginative tendencies and fantasy play (2–
5 years), followed by cooperativeness in conforming to social norms (6–
12 years), and finally self-directedness materializes as autonomy forms (13+
years). Again, this is meant to describe a general tendency in development
through adolescence, assuming neutral (as opposed to extreme) temperament
and environmental conditions.
Transpersonal Construct 33

Regarding adult development, Cloninger (1999a) suggested a model of optimal
character development whose projected endpoint is high self-directedness, high
cooperativeness, and high self-transcendence. This character subtype is labeled
‘‘creative,’’ and has been found to be associated with significantly higher levels
of subjective wellbeing and fewer instances of mental disorder (Cloninger,
Bayon, & Svrakic, 1998). Citing TCI data from 804 individuals in the general
population, Cloninger noted, ‘‘what is objectively clear is that high self-
transcendence, when combined with high self-directedness and cooperative-
ness, is associated with optimal happiness’’ (1999a, p. 181). Furthermore, high
TCI self-transcendence is considered psychologically adaptive in old ageas
issues of mortality and loss inevitably arise (Cloninger et al., 1993), in
agreement with Reed’s (1991b; 2003), and Tornstam’s (1996) formulations of
self-transcendence.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
As the TCI has been translated and administered across a wide variety of
populations and nationalities, some findings pertaining to the cultural nature
of self-transcendence have been forthcoming (Farmer et al., 2003; Parker et al.,
2003). For instance, in a sib-pair study conducted in Wales with a population
of 108 depressed individuals and their closest aged siblings, and 105 healthy
control subjects and their closest aged siblings, Farmer et al. (2003) found both
depressed and healthy Welsh subjects yielded significantly lower mean scores
of 12.35 on TCI self-transcendence than American population samples with a
mean of 19.2. These findings await further replication, however, as normative
studies in Spanish and Swedish populations have not shown significant
differences in TCI scores when compared to American populations (Brand-
strom et al., 1998; Cloninger et al., 1993; Gutierrez et al., 2001).
Regarding sex differences in self-transcendence, Farmer et al. (2003) found that
women tended to score significantly higher on TCI self-transcendence than
men. These results are generally in accord with the findings of Cloninger et al.
(1993) which exhibited significantly higher scores for the ST3 subscale among
women in a normative American population sample; Kirk et al. (1999), which
found significantly higher TCI self-transcendence scores in Australian women
over 50 as opposed to men in the same age group; and MacDonald and
Holland (2002), who obtained similar results in a sample of 376 undergraduate
students. On the other hand, Parker et al. (2003) found that males scored
markedly higher on TCI self-transcendence among a sample of 535
nonpsychiatric Chinese Malaysians. Also, in a sample of 617 Japanese twin
pairs aged 15 to 30, Ando et al. (2004) found that males scored significantly
higher on subscale ST2 and females scored significantly higher on subscale
ST1. It is important to note that observed gender differences in ST most likely
reflect both biological and cultural influences, with no simple methods of
disambiguating the two. Nevertheless, these results suggest the possibility of
substantial cultural, national, and gender variability in the expression of self-
transcendence, in addition to a demonstrably significant genetic basis to which
we will now turn our attention (Farmer et al., 2003; Kirk et al., 1999).
34 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

GENETIC INFLUENCE
A great deal of genetic research has been conducted in conjunction with TCI
personality measures (Ando et al., 2004; Comings et al., 2000; Comings, Gade-
Andavolu, Gonzales, Wu, Muhleman, Blake et al., 2000; Gillespie et al., 2003;
Kirk et al., 1999). In a study of Australian twins over age 50, measures for
physical and psychological wellbeing and TCI self-transcendence scales were
administered (Kirk et al., 1999). No significant results were found between self-
transcendence and health or wellbeing. However, by analysis between scores of
monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs, additive genetic effects were foundto
account for approximately 37%of self-transcendence in men, and 41%in
women. This is a substantial genetic effect considering that the original
psychobiological model of temperament and character hypothesized character
traits such as self-transcendence to be only weakly heritable, and more a
product of insight learning and environmental influences (Cloninger et al.,
1993). In keeping with such results, Cloninger (2004) has rejected the originally
hypothesized differences in heritability between temperament and character.
In another genetic study conducted with a sample of 2517 Australian twins
over age 50, Gillespie et al. (2003) obtained similar results. TCI self-
transcendence was calculated to be approximately 45%heritable and overall
no significant differences in heritability were observed between temperament
and character dimensions (Gillespie et al., 2003). In fact, additive genetic
effects were calculated to account for 30 to 41%of total temperamental
variance and 27–44%of overall character variance. Furthermore, in keeping
with the seven-dimensional psychobiological model of temperament and
character, seven genetic factors were required to account for observed genetic
variance in personality (Gillespie et al.).
Contributing to the relevant research in this area, Ando et al. (2004)
performed a multivariate genetic analysis on a sample of 617 adolescent and
young adult twins from Japan. While their results regarding the average
heritability of temperament and character (34%and 38%respectively) are in
agreement with the data presented above, multivariate genetic analyses derived
four genetic and three nonshared environmental factors, as opposed to the
seven genetic factors obtained by Gillespie et al. (2003). There is an important
distinction to be made here, though, regarding methodological avenues of
approach. In the Australian study described above, Gillespie et al. (2003) work
from a forward genetics paradigm, beginning with observed phenotypic
variation in personality, and relating these back to genetic structure (McClearn
& Vogler, 2001). On the other hand, Ando et al. (2004) employ a backward
genetics perspective:
[u]sing the degree of common genetic influence to redevelop scales is a
‘‘bottom-up’’ approach that allows biology to define the personality
phenotype, and is a departure from the usual ‘‘top-down’’ approach that
accepts existing phenotypes and does little more than determine their
heritability. (p. 381)
Transpersonal Construct 35

Hence, using genetic data as the basis of their investigation, Ando et al.
obtained results which are not fully congruent with the seven factor model
described by Cloninger et al. (1993) and Gillespie et al. (2003), and propose a
rearrangement of TCI scales into four genetic and three nonshared
environmental factors to account for observed variance. Such methodological
quandaries are not only reflective of the complexity of the information at hand,
but are also reminiscent of the conflicts raised above between different
approaches to data analysis in TCI psychometric research (Maitland et al.,
2009b).
In regards to the self-transcendence character dimension, its three subscales
were found to be genetically and environmentally cohesive, meaning that all ST
items were correlated to either one environmental or one genetic factor,
demonstrating the construct’s overall integrity (Ando et al., 2004). Self-
transcendence did however exhibit some shared genetic homogeneity with
other character and temperament dimensions, including positive correlation
with the sentimentality facet of reward dependence, and negative correlations
with responsibility and self-acceptance subscales from the self-directedness
measure, suggesting a genetic link between these qualities and self-transcen-
dence (Ando et al.). In terms of environmental factors, self-transcendence and
its three subscales loaded as a discrete factor when combined with
cooperativeness, persistence, and sentimentality, suggesting that these facets
of personality develop interdependently through interaction with environmen-
tal influences (Ando et al.).
Although highly complex dynamics and some conflicting data have been
obtained thus far, future research in the fields of quantitative and molecular
genetics will continue to inform personality theory on the role of genes and
environment in the expression and structure of observable personality traits
(Cloninger, 1999a; Ebstein, 2006). Regarding the TCI and genetics, Ebstein
(2006) pointed out the inherent limitation of self-report questionnairesin
determining the molecular genetic architecture of complex traits, and suggested
the inclusion of interdisciplinary experimental paradigms including evoked
potential and prepulse inhibition designs. As technology and methodologies
have evolved, so has our understanding of genetic structure and its influence on
personality. Cloninger (1999a, p. 176) remarked that research has shifted away
from searching for single genes with linear, causal relationships to phenotypic
traits of interest, and towards ‘‘searches for multiple genes with small to
moderate effects that interact with one another and environmental influences.’’
SELF-TRANSCENDENCE,MOLECULAR GENETICS,AND THE BRAIN
A number of studies have shown significant association between the expression
of self-transcendent qualities as measured by the TCI, and monoaminergic
gene alleles. Hamer (2004) found a moderate association between ST scores
and the VMAT 2 gene, which encodes a membrane protein called vesicular
monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2). VMAT2 encapsulates and transports
monoaminergic neurotransmitters in the brain, such as dopamine, serotonin,
36 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

and norepinephrine. According to these findings, individuals whose DNA
included the genetic polymorphism A33050C on chromosome 10 scored
significantly higher on self-transcendence. Hamer commented, ‘‘while this one
gene might not make one a saint, a prophet, or a seer, it was enough to tip the
spiritual scales and predispose one toward spirituality’’ (2004, p. 74). Other
genes have also been found to effect self-transcendence, including those
influencing the 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT6, and Dopamine D4 receptors
(Comings, Gonzales et al., 2000; Ham et al., 2004; Lorenzi et al., 2005).
In a study examining the role of 59 candidate genes in the expression of TCI
personality traits, Comings, Gade-Andavolu et al. (2000), performed a
multivariate genetic analysis of 204 male subjects, 81 of whom were college
students, and 123 individuals from an addiction treatment unit. Participants
were administered the TCI, and DNA samples were collected. Significant
correlations were found between TCI self-transcendence scores and DRD4,
GABRA1, CD4, and AR genes at p #0.01, and 16 additional genes at p #
0.05. Hence, in line with Cloninger’s (1999a) above remark, no one gene wholly
accounts for the expression of self-transcendent character traits, though many
have demonstrated significant association with ST.
In a follow up study using the same sample of male subjects cited above,
Comings, Gonzales et al. (2000) genotyped participants for Dopamine receptor
D4 (DRD4) gene alleles. Significant positive correlations were found between
the DRD4 gene and TCI self-transcendence scores, and particularly with
subscale ST3, spiritual acceptance. These results must be interpreted with
caution however, as the relationship between the DRD4 gene, cortical
Dopamine D4 receptor density, levels of dopaminergic activity, and self-
transcendence are still unclear at this time (Comings, Gade-Andavolu et al.,
2000; Comings, Gonzales et al., 2000). In conclusion, Comings, Gade-
Andavolu et al. remark:
We were intrigued by the considerable role of dopamine genes, and the
DRD4 gene in particular, in spiritual transcendence. Dopamine receptors,
including the D4 receptor, play an important role in the function of the
prefrontal cortex. Spirituality may especially utilize the prefrontal cortex
and thus predominantly utilize dopaminergic systems. (2000, p. 382)
Regarding the serotonergic system and associated genes, some significant
results have been noted in association with the self-transcendence character
dimension, and the spiritual acceptance ST3 subscale in particular (Borg et al.,
2003; Lorenzi et al., 2005; Nilsson et al., 2007). For example, in a study
conducted by Ham et al. (2004) in a sample of 146 healthy Korean adults,
significant relationships were found between self-transcendence scores and two
gene alleles related to the serotonergic system. Specifically, ST scores were
correlated with the 5-HT2A receptor A-1438G genotype, and the 5-HT6
receptor C267T genotype (Ham et al., 2004). Along similar lines, Lorenzi et al.
(2005) recently conducted a genetic study of 5-HT1A genes with a sample of 40
remitted mood disorder patients. Results found that individuals carryinga
specific genotype (5HT1A C/C) scored significantly lower on self-transcen-
Transpersonal Construct 37

dence overall, as well as subscales ST2 and ST3. These findings suggest a
significant role for serotonin, and 5HT1A receptors in particular, relative to
the manifestation of self-transcendence.
Neuroimaging studies have also added to the body of knowledge surrounding
serotonin and self-transcendence (Borg et al., 2003). In their study of
personality traits and 5HT1A receptor density, Borg et al. administered the
TCI in conjunction with positron emission tomography (PET). Examining a
sample of 15 normal male subjects in Sweden, mean age 27, results exhibited
significant correlations between scores for subscale ST3 and 5-HT1A binding
potential in the dorsal raphe nuclei, the hippocampal formation, and the
neocortex (Borg et al., 2003). More specifically, higher scores on spiritual
acceptance were found to be accompanied by lower density of 5-HT1A
receptors in the above-mentioned serotonergic cortical projection areas (Borg
et al.). Whether these results indicate more or less serotonergic activity in the
specified brain regions is not entirely clear, though a genetic study of TCI
dimensions by Nilsson et al. (2007) may offer some insight.
In their study of the genetic correlates of personality dimensions in 200 Swedish
adolescents, Nilsson et al. (2007) found significant correlations between self-
transcendence scores and the presence of two functional polymorphisms
affecting the serotonergic system. Furthermore, in both cases, the entire basis
of correlation was found to be the spiritual acceptance (ST3) subscale of the
self-transcendence measure. Taking this data into account, Nilsson et al.
concluded:
both the serotonin and the dopamine systems are involved in the expression
of TCI Spiritual Acceptance and Self-Transcendence in boys and girls…
Thus, homozygosity for the long 5-HTTLPR gene allele, as well as presence
of the short AP-2bintron 2 allele contributes to the development of a large
central serotonin system associated with high scores on Spiritual Accep-
tance. (2007, p. 236)
Neuroimaging data on elderly populations have contributed additional insight
on ST and aging. In their study of personality and brain structure in the
elderly, Kaasinen et al. (2005) administered the TCI to 42 healthy adults, mean
age, 59.5 years. These scores were compared with structural MRI data for each
of the subjects, and voxel-based morphometry (VBM) was conducted to
calculate the regional proportions of grey matter (GM), white matter (WM),
and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in each person’s brain. Citing Ashburner and
Friston (2000), Kaasinen et al. define VBM as ‘‘an objective analysis method
based on spatial normalization of MR [Magnetic Resonance] images,
segmentation of the images to grey matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal
fluid segments, modulation, smoothing, and voxel-level statistical testing’’
(2005, p. 316).
These imaging results showed age related losses of GM volume in the frontal,
temporal, and parietal regions. The only significant correlations between VBM
and TCI data were found in relation to self-transcendence and GM volume in
38 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

bilateral temporal areas. Specifically, higher scores on self-transcendence
correlated positively with relative GM volume in the left frontotemporal and
right parietotemporal regions. Because these regions showed general age-
related losses in the study sample, Kaasinen et al. remarked, ‘‘the results can be
interpreted to indicate a relationship between self-transcendence and the
preservation of GM in aging’’ (2005, p. 320).
SELF-TRANSCENDENCE,SPIRITUALITY,AND RELIGION
The relationship between TCI self-transcendence, religion, and spirituality has
proven to be complex and multifaceted (Eurelings-Bontekoe, Hekman-Van
Steeg, & Verschuur, 2005; Greenway, Phelan, Turnbull, & Milne, 2007;
MacDonald & Holland, 2002). In their study of 376 undergraduate students
using Cloninger’s (1996) five-factor TCI self-transcendence scale, MacDonald
and Holland (2002) found significant correlations between self-transcendence
scores and religious involvement, where participants who self-reported active
involvement in a religion scored higher than those with no religious
involvement. Also, subjects who reported having had a spiritual experience
scored significantly higher on TCI self-transcendence than those who had not
had such an experience (MacDonald & Holland, 2002).
In their study on personality, attachment, psychological distress, church
denomination, and God concept conducted with a non-clinical sample of 208
churchgoing individuals in the Netherlands (mean age540.1), Eurelings-
Bontekoe et al. administered a battery of psychometric assessments to 89
members of the Pentecostal church and 119 Orthodox Reform Christians.
Results showed that both males and females from the Pentecostal church
scored significantly higher on TCI self-transcendence, reported more positive
feelings towards God, and perceived God as more supportive and less punitive
than Orthodox Reform Christians (Eurelings-Bontekoe et al.). Many factors
are taken into account here, and no direct lines of causality can be clearly
distinguished, though Eurelings-Bontekoe et al. noted:
persons with a secure and dismissive attachment style, who are reward
dependent, persistent, cooperative and self-transcendent hold positive
feelings towards God and/or perceive God’s actions as supportive,
irrespective of whether the level of psychological distress is high or low.
(2005, p. 149)
In a similar study, Greenway et al. (2007) administered a battery of
psychometric assessments related to transcendence, spirituality, and religious
coping strategies, including the TCI self-transcendence scale, to a sample of 190
practicing Christians in Australia. They found that ‘‘perceiving that God cares
for one and the use of positive coping strategies largely predicted self-
transcendence’’ (Greenway et al., p. 331). Although these findings seem tobein
general agreement with those of MacDonald and Holland (2002), the
consideration of religious denomination, and perception of God add an
additional layer of subtlety to the discussion, and illustrates the complex
Transpersonal Construct 39

dynamics of multiple factors surrounding personality, spirituality, self-
transcendence, and religiosity.
SELF-TRANSCENDENCE AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Empirical evidence has demonstrated a significant relationship between high
scores on TCI self-transcendence and some aspects of psychopathology,
including dysthymic disorder (Birt et al., 2006), self-harming behavior in
individuals with bulimia nervosa (Anderson et al., 2002), and personality
disorders (Svrakic et al., 2002). Furthermore, TCI self-transcendence has
recently been found to be positively correlated with cannabis abuse and
dependence in an Italian sample (Spalletta, Bria, & Caltagirone, 2007).
In a Romanian study comparing 41 patients with dysthymic disorder and 350
control subjects, dysthymic individuals scored significantly higher on TCI self-
transcendence than control subjects (Birt et al., 2006). With regard to
temperament, harm avoidance was also significantly higher and persistence
scores were lower in dysthymic patients. In a study of 152 women suffering
from bulimia nervosa, TCI data was collected and participants were assessed
regarding non-lethal self-harming behavior (i.e., skin cutting, burning), and
suicide attempts (Anderson et al., 2002). Results showed that in bulimic
individuals with suicide attempts, TCI scores for harm avoidance and
persistence were significantly higher and lower, respectively; similar to the
personality profiles found in dysthymic patients described above. Furthermore,
in bulimic women who exhibited self-harming behaviors with non-lethal intent,
self-transcendence scores were significantly higher, particularly in relation to
subscale ST2, transpersonal identification.
In a study of 84 male Italian cannabis users, Spalletta et al. (2007) administered
a psychometric battery including the TCI and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.
Patterns of cannabis use were subdivided into occasional use, abuse, and
dependence based on diagnostic criteria set forth in the DSM-IV. Results
found that increased self-transcendence scores and elevated levels of state
anxiety were significantly associated with more severe cannabis use (Spalletta
et al., 2007). Also, multivariate analysis of variance showed scores on the
transpersonal identification subscale ST2 to be significantly positively
correlated with severity of cannabis use (Spalletta et al.).
Taken as a whole, the above presented data sample seems to suggest certain
observable personality patterns associated with particular psychopathological
conditions, with implications for etiology and treatment (Svrakic et al., 2002).
Although these results are not entirely generalizable due to the heterogeneity of
the sample populations and symptomatologies under consideration, some
parallels may potentially be drawn. For example, what if any, is the
relationship between cannabis dependence in men and non-lethal self-harming
behavior in bulimic women, which both demonstrate positive correlations with
transpersonal identification (ST2) scores? Such questions clearly indicate
potential avenues for future research.
40 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

TRANSPERSONAL IMPLICATIONS
According to Tart ‘‘our paradigmatic commitments, our SoC’s [states of
consciousness], make us likely to observe certain parts of reality and to ignore
or observe with error certain other parts of it’’ (1972, p. 1205). Therefore, the
relative dearth of material in Western developmental theory regarding
transpersonal phenomena such as self-transcendence may be due at least
somewhat to state-specific communication, the inability to successfully
communicate between distinct (non-overlapping) states of consciousness (Tart,
1972; Wade, 1996). In other words, self-transcendence itself may be difficult to
express and conceptualize through rational, analytic, or mathematical avenues
of approach. Such issues remain problematic in the face of scientific (i.e.,
materialist) insistence on particular forms of data, which are not readily
translatable between the measurement and experience of self-transcendence.
Addressing this issue, MacDonald and Friedman remark,
the best way of understanding or knowing an experience or state of
consciousness is to experience it oneself, any attempt to either communicate
that to another or, indeed, to internally process that experience with
conceptual thought is bound to be at least somewhat reductionistic….
[However] humanistic and transpersonal psychologies are not exclusively
concerned with experience. (2002, p. 105)
Therefore, it is suggested that the development and standardization of refined
psychometric assessments, such as TCI self-transcendence, would be helpful in
quantifying the nature of transpersonal states and stages of development as
accurately as possible (MacDonald & Friedman, 2002). Furthermore, by
integrating this psychometric data with other scientific evidence including
neurological and molecular genetic analyses, we may come to a more complete
understanding of the nature of self-transcendence, and of human nature in
general.
The complexity of the results under review is indicative of the early stagesof
integration between quantitative and qualitative data in which researchers and
theorists are currently engaged. Certain elements of experience (e.g.,
transpersonal identification) are being tentatively linked to particular genetic
structures, neurotransmitter systems, brain morphology, and psychopatholog-
ical profiles. However, the exact nature of the relationships between self-
transcendence as an experiential process, ST as a measured trait, and any
biological, anatomical, developmental, and psychological correlates is vague
for the time being. No direct lines of causation can be confidently inferred.
Nevertheless, the detection of measurable neurophysiological and genetic
correlates to TCI self-transcendence suggests a possible newfound validity for
the construct insofar as it displays both observable physical components as well
as broadly identifiable subjective dimensions.
This article highlights the empirically observable features of self-transcendence
as measured by the TCI; further exploration of self-transcendence as a
subjective experience is warranted at this time. The author does not take the
Transpersonal Construct 41

stance that the scientific, materialist data presented here provide indisputable
proof for the reality of self-transcendence as a psychological construct or
developmental process. However, from a pragmatic standpoint, any observable
correlates in physical systems such as the brain or DNA deserve careful
examination, as they offer researchers, theorists, and clinicians a broader base
of information to work with. This does not presuppose the superiority of
empirical, rational explanations, though it does acknowledge that these
frameworks help clarify what abstract concepts such as transcendence might
refer to, and provide useful referents in the form of shared, concrete
terminology with which to discuss and deepen our shared understanding, an
endeavor which lies at the heart of academic research. So although scientific
observations may not be of particular interest to those who have directly
experienced self-transcendence, such data have ultimately been gathered and
reviewed here in an attempt to answer Maslow’s call to ‘‘give more detailed
meaning to the word self-transcendence’’ (1966, p. 112).
CONCLUSION
Some objections have been raised regarding factor structure of TCI scales
(Farmer & Goldberg, 2008a; Maitland et al., 2009b), the use of different forms
of the TCI, (MacDonald & Holland, 2002), and the inherent limitations of self-
report questionnaires (Ebstein, 2006). Furthermore, MacDonald and Holland
(2002) have suggested the revision of self-transcendence subscales to
correspond with a four factor model derived from factor analysis, which
includes spiritual and religious beliefs, unifying interconnectedness, belief in
the supernatural, and dissolution of self in experience. These issues should not
be overlooked when examining TCI research. Nevertheless, the TCI and its
self-transcendence subscale have yielded a rich body of information
surrounding this particular conceptualization of self-transcendence. A great
deal of empirical research has been presented surrounding TCI dimensions in
general, and self-transcendence in particular. Data from a variety of fields have
helped to flesh out the construct and determine its mutual interrelatedness with
diverse factors including human neurotransmitter systems (Borg et al., 2003),
molecular and quantitative genetics (Gillespie et al., 2003; Nilsson et al., 2007),
neuroanatomy and aging (Kaasinen et al., 2005), spirituality and religion
(Greenway et al., 2007; MacDonald & Holland, 2002), cultural differences
(Farmer et al., 2003), and psychopathology (Svrakic et al., 2002).
In light of this evidence, self-transcendence has emerged as a complex but
quantifiable construct of the utmost relevance to psychology, including but not
limited to humanistic and transpersonal paradigms. Future research using TCI
self-transcendence scales in conjunction with other related measures such as
Reed’s (1991a) Self-Transcendence Scale from nursing theory, and Levenson et
al.’s (2005) Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory may help shed light on some
of the more problematic elements regarding the overall construct and its factor
structure. Furthermore, inclusion of qualitative and mixed methodologies
would be useful in examining participants’ lived experience of self-transcen-
dence (e.g., Coward, 1995; Reed, 1991), an issue which is largely overlooked in
42 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

TCI self-transcendence research. Deeper exploration into the distinction
between self-transcendence as a temporary experiential state, and self-
transcendence as a stable structure in personality, and the relationship between
the two is clearly needed. However, continuing to engage multiple disciplines
and types of data will encourage the integration of diverse definitions of self-
transcendence and ultimately benefit our understanding of this construct and
its components from a variety of perspectives.
REFERENCES
AKYALCIN, E., GREENWAY, P., & MILNE, L. (2008). Measuring transcendence: Extracting
core constructs. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology,40(1), 41–59.
ANDERSON, C. B., CARTER, F. A., MCINTOSH, V. V., JOYCE, P. R., & BULIK, C. M. (2002).
Self-harm and suicide attempts in individuals with bulimia nervosa. Eating Disorders,
10, 227–243.
ANDO, J., SUZUKI, A., YAMAGATA, S., KIJIMA, N., MAEKAWA, H., ONO, Y., & JANG,K.L.
(2004). Genetic and environmental structure of Cloninger’s temperament and
character dimensions. Journal of Personality Disorders,18(4), 379–393.
ASHBURNER, J., & FRISTON, K. J. (2000). Voxel-based moprhometry–The methods.
NeuroImage,11, 805–821.
BIRT, M. A., VAIDA, A., & PRELIPCEANU, D. (2006). Use of the temperament and
character inventory personality questionnaire in dysthymic disorder. Medica: A
Journal of Clinical Medicine,1(1), 29–34.
BORG, J., ANDREE, B., SODERSTROM, H., & FARDE, L. (2003). The serotonin system and
spiritual experiences. The American Journal of Psychiatry,160(11), 1965–1969.
BRAAM, A. W., BRAMSEN, I., VAN TILBURG, T. G., VAN dER PLOEG,H.M.,&DEEG,D.J.
(2006). Cosmic transcendence and framework of meaning in life: Patterns among
older adults in the Netherlands. Journal of Gerontology,61B(3), S121–S128.
BRANDSTROM, S., SCHLETTE, P., PRZYBECK, T. R., LUNDBERG, M., FORSGREN, T.,
SIGVARDSSON,P.O.,…ADOLFSSON, R. (1998). Swedish normative data on
personality using the Temperament and Character Inventory, Comparative
Psychiatry,39, 122–128.
BUCHANAN,D.,FARRAN,C.,&CLARK, D. (1995). Suicidal thought and self-
transcendence in older adults. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing,33(10), 31–34.
CLONINGER, C. R. (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification
of personality variants. Archives of General Psychiatry,44, 573–588.
CLONINGER, C. R. (1996). The Temperament and Character Inventory, Version 1995a,
Revised 4-2-1996. Unpublished test, Washington University School of Medicine.
CLONINGER, C. R. (1999a). A new conceptual paradigm from genetics and
psychobiology for the science of mental health. Australian and New Zealand Journal
of Psychiatry,33(2), 174–186.
CLONINGER, C. R. (1999b). The Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised. St.
Louis, MO: Center for Psychobiology of Personality, Washington University.
CLONINGER, C. R. (2000). A practical way to diagnose personality disorder: A proposal.
Journal of Personality Disorders,14(2), 99–108.
CLONINGER, C. R. (2004). Feeling good: The science of well-being. New York, NY:
Oxford.
CLONINGER, C. R. (2008). The psychobiological theory of temperament and character:
Comment on Farmer and Goldberg (2008). Psychological Assessment,20(3),
292–299.
Transpersonal Construct 43

CLONINGER, C. R., BAYON, C., & SVRAKIC, D. M. (1998). Measurement of temperament
and character in mood disorders: A model of fundamental states as personality
types. Journal of Affective Disorder,51, 21–32.
CLONINGER, C. R., PRZYBECK, T. R., SVRAKIC,D.M.,&WETZEL, R. D. (1994). The
Temperament and Character Inventor: A guide to its development and use. St. Louis:
Washington University Center for Psychobiology of Personality.
CLONINGER, C. R., SVRAKIC,D.M.,&PRZYBECK, T. R. (1993). A psychobiological
model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry,50(12),
975–990.
CLONINGER, C. R., SVRAKIC,N.M.,&SVRAKIC, D. M. (1997). Role of personality self-
organization in development of mental order and disorder. Development and
Psychopathology,9, 881–906.
COMINGS, D. E., GADE-ANDAVOLU, R., GONZALES, N., WU, S., MUHLEMAN, D., BLAKE,
H., MANN, M. B., DIETZ, G., SAUCIER, G., & MACMURRAY, J. P. (2000). A
multivariate analysis of 59 candidate genes in personality traits: the temperament
and character inventory. Clinical Genetics,58, 375–385.
COMINGS, D. E., GONZALES, N., SAUCIER, G., JOHNSON, J. P., & MACMURRAY,J.P.
(2000). The DRD4 gene and the spiritual transcendence scale of the temperament
and character index. Psychiatric Genetics,10, 185–189.
COSTA, P. T., & MCCRAE, R. R. (1986). Cross-sectional studies of personality in a
national sample: Development and validation of survey measures. Psychology of
Aging,1, 140–143.
COSTA, P. T., & MCCRAE, R. R. (1992). Normal personality assessment in clinical
practice: The NEO personality inventory. Psychological Assessments,4, 5–13.
COWARD, D. D. (1996). Self-transcendence and correlates in a healthy population.
Nursing Research,45, 116–121.
COWARD, D. D. (2006). Pamela G. Reed: Self-transcendence theory. In A. M. Tomey &
M. R. Alligood (Eds.), Nursing theorists and their work (6
th
ed.) (pp. 643–662). St.
Louis: Mosby.
EBSTEIN, R. P. (2006). The molecular genetic architecture of human personality: Beyond
self-report questionnaires. Molecular Psychiatry,11, 427–445.
ELLERMAN, C. R., & REED, P. G. (2001). Self-transcendence and depression in middle-
age adults. Western Journal of Nursing Research,23(7), 698–713.
EURELINGS-BONTEKOE, E. H., HEKMAN-VAN STEEG, J., & VERSCHUUR, M. J. (2005). The
association between personality, attachment, psychological distress, church denom-
ination and the God concept among a non-clinical sample. Mental Health, Religion
& Culture,8(2), 141–154.
FARMER, A., MAHMOOD, A., REDMAN, K., HARRIS, T., SADLER, S., & MCGUFFIN,P.
(2003). A sib-pair study of the temperament and inventory scales in major
depression. Archives of General Psychiatry,60, 490–496.
FARMER, R. F., & GOLDBERG, L. R. (2008a). Brain modules, personality layers, planes of
being, spiral structures, and the equally implausible distinction between TCI-R
‘‘Temperament’’ and ‘‘Character’’ scales: Reply to Cloninger (2008). Psychological
Assessment,20(3), 300–304.
FARMER, R. F., & GOLDBERG, L. R. (2008b). A psychometric evaluation of the revised
Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI-R) and the TCI-140. Psychological
Assessment,20(3), 281–291.
FRANKL, V. (1966). Self-transcendence as a human phenomenon. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology,6, 97–106.
GILLESPIE, N. A., CLONINGER, C. R., HEATH, A. C., & MARTIN, N. G. (2003). The genetic
and environmental relationship between Cloninger’s dimensions of temperament and
character. Personality and Individual Differences,35(8), 1931–1946.
44 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

GREENWAY, A. P., PHELAN, M., TURNBULL, S., & MILNE, L. C. (2007). Religious coping
strategies and spiritual transcendence. Mental Health, Religion & Culture,10(4),
325–333.
GUTIERREZ, F., TORRENS, M., BOGET, T., MARTIN-SANTOS, R., SANGORRIN, J., PEREZ, G.,
&S
ALAMERO, M. (2001). Psychometric properties of the Temperament and Character
Inentory (TCI) questionnaire in a Spanish psychiatric population. Acta Psychiatrica
Scandinavica,103, 143–147.
HAM, B. J., KIM, Y. H., CHOI, M. J., CHA, J. H., CHOI, Y. K., & LEE, M. S. (2004).
Serotonergic genes and personality traits in the Korean population. Neuroscience
Letters,354, 2–5.
HAMER, D. (2004). The God gene: How faith is hardwired into our genes. Westminster,
MD: Doubleday.
HANSENNE, M., DELHEZ, M., & CLONINGER, C. R. (2005). Psychometric properties of the
Temperament and Character Inventory- Revised (TCI-R) in a Belgian sample.
Journal of Personality Assessment,85(1), 40–49.
HERBST, J. H., ZONDERMAN, A. B., MCCRAE, R. R., & COSTA, P. T., JR. (2000). Do the
dimensions of the temperament and character inventory map a simple genetic
architecture? Evidence from molecular genetics and factor analysis. American
Journal of Psychiatry,157(8), 1285–1290.
JOIREMAN, J., & DUELL, B. (2005). Mother Teresa versus Ebenezer Scrooge: Mortality
salience leads proselfs to endorse self-transcendent values (unless proselfs are
reassured). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,31(3), 307–320.
KAASINEN, V., MAGUIRE, R. P., KURKI, T., BRUCK, A., & RINNER, J. O. (2005). Mapping
brain structure and personality in late adulthood. NeuroImage,24, 315–322.
KIJIMA, N., TANAKA, E., SUZUKI, N., HIGUCHI, H., & KITAMURA, T. (2000). Reliability
and validity of the Japanese version of the Temperament and Character Inventory.
Psychological Reports,86, 1050–1058.
KIRK, K. M., EAVES, L. J., & MARTIN, N. G. (1999). Self-transcendence as a measure of
spirituality in a sample of older Australian twins. Twin Research,2, 81–87.
KLAAS, D. (1998). Testing two elements of spirituality in depressed and non-depressed
elders. International Journal of Psychiatric Nursing Research,4(2), 452–462.
LEACH, M. M., & LARK, R. (2004). Does spirituality add to personality in the study of
trait forgiveness? Personality and Individual Differences,37(1), 147–156.
LEVENSON, M. R., JENNINGS, P. A., ALDWIN, C. M., & SHIRAISHI, R. W. (2005). Self-
transcendence: Conceptualization and measurement. International Journal of Aging
and Human Development,60(2), 127–143.
LORENZI, C., SERRETTI, A., MANDELLI, L., TUBAZIO, V., PLOIA, C., & SMERALDI, E. (2005).
5-HT1A polymorphism and self-transcendence in mood disorders. American Journal
of Medical Genetics, Part B,137, 33–35.
MACDONALD,D.A.,&FRIEDMAN, H. L. (2002). Assessment of humanistic,
transpersonal, and spiritual constructs: State of the science. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology,42(4), 102–125.
MACDONALD,D.A.,&HOLLAND, D. (2002). Examination of the psychometric
properties of the temperament and character inventory self-transcendence dimen-
sion. Personality and Individual Differences,32, 1013–1027.
MAITLAND, S. B., NYBERG, L., BACKMAN, L., NILSSON, L., & ADOLFSSON, R. (2009a). On
the structure of personality: Are there separate temperament and character factors?
Personality and Individual Differences,47(3), 180–184.
MAITLAND, S. B., NYBERG, L., BACKMAN, L., NILSSON, L., & ADOLFSSON, R. (2009b). The
search for structure: The Temperament and Character Inventory. In H. B. Bosworth
& C. Hertzog (Eds.), Aging and cognition (pp. 77–99). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Transpersonal Construct 45

MASLOW, A. H. (1966). Comments on Dr. Frankl’s paper. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology,6, 107–112.
MASLOW, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York, NY: Penguin.
MCCLEARN,G.E.,&VOGLER, G. P. (2001). The genetics of behavioral aging. In J. E.
Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (5
th
ed.) (pp.
109–131). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
NEILL, J. (2002). Transcendence and transformation in the life patterns of women living
with rheumatoid arthritis. Advances in Nursing Science,24, 27–47.
NILSSON, K. W., DAMBERG, M., OHRVIK, J., LEPPERT, J., LINDSTROM, L., ANCKARSATER,
H., & ORELAND, L. (2007). Genes encoding for AP-2ß and the serotonin transporter
are associated with the personality character spiritual acceptance. Neuroscience
Letters,411, 233–237.
PARKER, G., CHEAH, Y. C., & PARKER, K. (2003). Properties of the temperament and
character inventory in a Chinese sample. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica,108,
367–373.
PELISSOLO, A., & LEPINE, J. P. (2000). Normative data and factor structure of the
Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) in the French version. Psychiatric
Research,94, 67–76.
PELISSOLO, A., MALLET, L., BALEYTE, J.-M., MICHEL, G., CLONINGER, C. R., ALLILAIRE,
J.-F., & JOUVENT, R. (2005). The Temperament and Character Inventory- Revised
(TCI-R): Psychometric characteristics of the French version. Acta Psychiatrica
Scandinavica,112, 126–133.
PIEDMONT, R. L. (1999). Does spirituality represent the sixth factor of personality?:
Spiritual transcendence and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality,67(6),
985–1013.
PIEDMONT, R. L. (2004). Spiritual transcendence as a predictor of psychosocial outcome
from an outpatient substance abuse program. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors,
18(3), 213–222.
REED, P. G. (1986). Developmental resources and depression in the elderly. Nursing
Research,35, 368–374.
REED, P. G. (1991a). Self-transcendence and mental health in oldest-old adults. Nursing
Research,40(1), 5–11.
REED, P. G. (1991b). Toward a nursing theory of self-transcendence: Deductive
reformulation using developmental theories. Advances in Nursing Science,13(4),
64–77.
REED, P. G. (2003). The theory of self-transcendence. In M. J. Smith &
P. Liehr (Eds.), Middle range theories in nursing (pp. 145–165). New York, NY:
Springer.
RUNQUIST, J. J., & REED, P. G. (2007). Self-transcendence and well-being in homeless
adults. Journal of Holistic Nursing,25(1), 5–13.
SLATER, W., HALL, T. W., & EDWARDS, K. J. (2001). Measuring religion and spirituality:
Where are we and where are we going? Journal of Psychology and Theology,29(1),
4–21.
SPALLETTA, G., BRIA, P., & CALTAGIRONE, C. (2007). Differences in temperament,
character and psychopathology among subjects with different patterns of cannabis
use. Psychopathology,40, 29–34.
SVRAKIC, D. M., DRAGANIC, S., HILL, K., BAYON, C., PRZYBECK, T. R., & CLONINGER,C.
R. (2002). Temperament, character, and personality disorders: etiologic, diagnostic,
treatment issues. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica,106, 189–195.
SVRAKIC, D. M., WHITEHEAD, C., PRZYBECK, T. R., & CLONINGER, C. R. (1993).
Differential diagnosis of personality disorders by the seven-factor model of
temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry,50, 991–999.
46 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

SVRAKIC, N. M., SVRAKIC,D.M.,&CLONINGER, C. R. (1996). A general quantitative
theory of personality development: Fundamentals of a self-organizing psychobio-
logical complex. Development and Psychopathology,8, 247–272.
TART, C. T. (1972). States of consciousness and state-specific sciences. Science,176,
1203–1210.
TORNSTAM, L. (1996). Gerotranscendence: A theory about maturing into old age.
Journal of Aging and Identity,1, 37–50.
TORNSTAM, L. (1997). Gerotranscendence: The contemplative dimension of aging.
Journal of Aging Studies,11(2), 143–154.
WADE, J. (1996). Changes of mind: A holonomic theory of the evolution of consciousness.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
WILBER, K. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy.
Boston, MA: Shambhala.
The Author
Albert Garcia-Romeu is currently a doctoral candidate at the Institute of
Transpersonal Psychology in Palo Alto, CA. He received his Bachelor’s degree
in Philosophy and Psychology from Tulane University and his Master’s degree
in psychology from the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology. His research
interests include human psychospiritual development, applied integral theory,
and the synthesis of diverse scientific and spiritual paradigms towards novel
understandings of cosmology and consciousness.
Transpersonal Construct 47