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First Report of Postharvest Gray Mold Rot on Carrot Caused by Botrytis cinerea in Korea
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In February 2014, gray mold rotting symptoms were observed in carrots in cold storage at Gangneung, Gangwon province, Korea. The typical symptom of gray mold rot showed abundant blackish gray mycelia and conidia was observed on the infected root. The pathogen was isolated from infected root and cultured on PDA for further fungal morphological observation and confirming its pathogenicity according to Koch's postulates. Results of morphological data, pathogenicity test and rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS 1 and 4) sequence showed that the postharvest gray mold rot of carrot was caused by Botyrtis cinerea. This is the first report of postharvest gray mold rot on carrot in Korea.
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... The major fungal diseases affecting carrot that can cause significant crop losses include alternariosis (Alternaria dauci (Kühn)) Groves and Skolko, Alternaria radicina Meier, Drechsler and Eddy), fusariosis (Fusarium spp.), gray mold (Botrytis cinerea Pers.), rhizoctoniosis (Rhizoctonia solani J.G. Kühn), white mold (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.)) de Bary) and cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora carotae (Pass.) Solheim) [24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36]. According to Boiteux et al. [37] and Naqvi [38], powdery mildew (Erysiphe heraclei DC.) and downy mildew (Peronospora crustosa (Fr.) ...
The principles of good agricultural and horticultural practice, which consider both giving environmental protection and high yielding of plants, require modern cultivation methods. Modern cultivation of horticultural plants uses, for example, cover crops, living mulches, plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPMs), plant growth regulators (PGRs) and other biostimulants protecting the soil against degradation and plants against phytopathogens and stress. The purpose of field and laboratory studies was to determine the effect of Trianum P (containing Trichoderma harzianum Rifai T-22 spores), Beta-Chikol (a.s.—chitosan), Timorex Gold 24 EC (based on tea tree oil) and fungicide Zaprawa Nasienna T 75 DS/WS (a.s.—tiuram 75%) on the health of carrot (Daucus carota L.) plants and the microorganism population in the rhizosphere of this plant. Moreover, the antagonistic effect of rhizosphere fungi on selected carrot fungal pathogens was determined. Laboratory mycological analysis allowed one to determine the qualitative and quantitative composition of fungi colonizing the underground parts of carrot plants. In addition, the total population of fungi and bacteria was determined (including Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp.) based on the microbiological analysis of the rhizosphere soil. The application of the plant growth-promoting fungus (Trichoderma harzianum T-22), chitosan and tea tree oil positively influenced the growth, development and health status of carrot plants. T. harzianum T-22, chitosan and fungicide most effectively protected carrots against infection by soil-borne fungi from the genus Alternaria, Fusarium, Haematonectria, Sclerotinia and Rhizoctonia. The rhizosphere population of Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp. in the treatments with Trianum P or Zaprawa Nasienna T 75 DS/WS was bigger than in the other experimental treatments. A reverse relationship was observed in the population of rhizosphere fungi. T. harzianum T-22, chitosan and tea tree oil promoted the growth of antagonistic fungi (Albifimbria sp., Clonostachys sp., Penicillium sp., Talaromyces sp. and Trichoderma sp.) in the carrot rhizosphere. Antagonistic activity of these fungi towards Alternaria dauci, Alternaria radicina, Sclerotiniasclerotiorum and Rhizoctonia solani was higher after the application of the preparations compared to control. Consequently, Trianum P, Beta-Chikol and Timorex Gold 24 EC can be recommended as plant biostimulants in ecological agricultural production, including Daucus carota cultivation.
... Rachamallu [2016] informs about Agrobacterium rhizogenes (updated scientific name: Rhizobium rhizogenes), causing hairy roots, while Lerat et al. [2009] report on Streptomyces scabiei, causing common scab on carrot. The cultivation of carrot is threatened by fungi: Alternaria dauci, A. radicina, Botrytis cinerea, Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum [Coles and Wicks 2003, Mazur and Nawrocki 2007, Nawrocki and Mazur 2011, Park et al. 2011, Aktaruzzaman et al. 2014, Koike et al. 2017, Zafar et al. 2017. As reported by Naqvi [2004] and Boiteux et al. [2017], on the carrot leaves can also occur Peronospora crustosa and Erysiphe heraclei. ...
... The possibility of transmission of field fungus to the store through the contamination of containers with spores resulted in the spread of a large number of fungi and the result of mismanagement after the harvesting process in terms of transport, storage and marketing [6]. The first report of fungi pathogens that affect the carrot due to poor storage conditions were Botrytis cinerea causes Gray Rot [7]. Chalara elegans causes black root rot [8]. ...
An extensive survey of fungi associated with post-harvest carrot degradation in different parts of the Baghdad market. samples were collected from three different regions of Adhamiya, Kadhimiya and Sadiyah . Five fungal species, such as , Aspergillus nige, Altinaria radicina, Sclerotinia sclerotorum, Geotrichum candidum and Rhizoctonia carotae, which isolated from the decayed samples. In this context, Altinaria radicina showed the highest frequency of 23.3%. Both Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Aspergillus nige, Geotrichum candidum at 20% While Rhizoctonia carotae showed the lower frequency at 16.7%. Pathogenic exam showed that all isolated fungi were pathogenic to host roots Storage. However, Aspergillus nige was found to be more pathogenic to carrots resulting in a rapid disintegration of infected roots by 90%during the incubation period. While Alternaria radicina, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, was 80% followed by Geotrichum candidum 75% and Rhizoctonia carotae less than 70% .
... Major post-harvest losses due to B. cinerea infection occur in crops of many fruits, including apple, blackberry, blueberry, grape, raspberries, strawberry, and cherry, and vegetables, including carrot, tomato, and leafy vegetables (Droby and Lichter, 2004;Romanazzi and Feliziani, 2014). In Korea, B. cinerea has been reported as a post-harvest pathogen of blueberries, sweet cherries, sweet persimmon, carrots, and other produce (Aktaruzzaman et al., 2014(Aktaruzzaman et al., , 2017a(Aktaruzzaman et al., , 2017bKwon et al., 2011). Although this fungus has been found on broccoli in fields in Canada (Farr and Rossman, 2017), it has not been reported as a pathogen of broccoli in Korea either in the field or after harvest. ...
In this study, we identified the causative agent of post-harvest gray mold on broccoli that was stored on a farmers' cooperative in Pyeongchang, Gangwon Province, South Korea, in September 2016. The incidence of gray mold on broccoli was 10-30% after 3-5 weeks of storage at 3 o C. Symptoms included brownish curd and gray-to-dark mycelia with abundant conidia on the infected broccoli curds. The fungus was isolated from infected fruit and cultured on potato dextrose agar. To identify the fungus, we examined the morphological characteristics and sequenced the rDNA of the fungus and confirmed its pathogenicity according to Koch's postulates. The results of the morphological examination, pathogenicity test, and sequencing of the 5.8S rDNA of the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1 and ITS4) and three nuclear protein-coding genes, G3P-DH, HSP60, and RPB2, revealed that the causal agent of the post-harvest gray mold on broccoli was Botrytis cinerea. To our knowledge, this is the first report of post-harvest gray mold on broccoli in Korea.
La zarzamora ( Rubus sp.) es una frutilla atacada por el género Botrytis . En México se desconoce que especies están involucradas con el síntoma de moho gris. El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar las especies de Botrytis asociadas a zarzamora. En noviembre-diciembre de 2016, se realizaron muestreos en 17 áreas productoras de zarzamora en México. Se colectaron frutillas con síntomas de moho gris, de las cuales se aislaron y purificaron los aislamientos. Con la técnica de cultivo monospórico, se obtuvieron 211 aislamientos, los cuales formaron 21 grupos basado en un agrupamiento por similitud de las características morfológicas, patogénicas y culturales. De cada grupo se eligió un aislamiento y se identificó molecularmente. El ADN se extrajo con el método de Phosphatasa Alcalina (AP), posteriormente se realizó la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) de la región del espacio transcrito interno. (ITS) utilizando los iniciadores ITS1 e ITS4. El producto de amplificación se secuenció en ambas direcciones con el método de Sanger. Se identificaron diferencias morfológicas, culturales y patogénicas entre los 21 grupos. Basado en la caracterización morfológica, cultural y patogénica, así como el análisis de secuencias de la región ITS se encontró que los aislamientos corresponden a Botrytis cinerea .
Gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea was found on a carrot seedling in a greenhouse and a field at Daegwallryeong, Gangwon Province in 2007-2009. Symptoms included irregular, brown, blight, or chlorotic halo on leaves and petioles of the carrots. Fungal conidia were globose to subglobose or ellipsoid, hyaline or pale brown, nonseptate, one celled, 7.2-18.2{\times}4.5-11\;?m (12.1{\times}8.3\;?m) in size, and were formed on botryose heads. B. cinerea colonies were hyaline on PDA, and then turned gray and later changed dark gray or brown when spores appeared. The fungal growth stopped at 35^{\circ}C, temperature range for proper growth was 15-25^{\circ}C on MEA and PDA. Carrots inoculated with 1{\times}10^5 ml conidial suspension were incubated in a moist chamber at 25?1^{\circ}C for pathogenicity testing. Symptoms included irregular, brown, water-soaked rot on carrot roots and irregular, pale brown or dark brown, water-soaked rot on leaves. Symptoms were similar to the original symptoms under natural conditions. The pathogen was reisolated from diseased leaves, sliced roots, and whole roots after inoculation. As a result, this is the first report of carrot gray mold caused by B. cinerea in Korea.
Comparative analysis of molecular sequence data is essential for reconstructing the evolutionary histories of species and inferring the nature and extent of selective forces shaping the evolution of genes and species. Here, we announce the release of Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis version 5 (MEGA5), which is a user-friendly software for mining online databases, building sequence alignments and phylogenetic trees, and using methods of evolutionary bioinformatics in basic biology, biomedicine, and evolution. The newest addition in MEGA5 is a collection of maximum likelihood (ML) analyses for inferring evolutionary trees, selecting best-fit substitution models (nucleotide or amino acid), inferring ancestral states and sequences (along with probabilities), and estimating evolutionary rates site-by-site. In computer simulation analyses, ML tree inference algorithms in MEGA5 compared favorably with other software packages in terms of computational efficiency and the accuracy of the estimates of phylogenetic trees, substitution parameters, and rate variation among sites. The MEGA user interface has now been enhanced to be activity driven to make it easier for the use of both beginners and experienced scientists. This version of MEGA is intended for the Windows platform, and it has been configured for effective use on Mac OS X and Linux desktops. It is available free of charge from http://www.megasoftware.net.
Plants have evolved efficient mechanisms to combat pathogen attack. One of the earliest responses to attempted pathogen attack is the generation of oxidative burst that can trigger hypersensitive cell death. This is called the hypersensitive response (HR) and is considered to be a major element of plant disease resistance. The HR is thought to deprive the pathogens of a supply of food and confine them to initial infection site. Necrotrophic pathogens, such as the fungi Botrytis cinerea and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, however, can utilize dead tissue.
Inoculation of B. cinerea induced an oxidative burst and hypersensitive cell death in Arabidopsis. The degree of B. cinerea and S. sclerotiorum pathogenicity was directly dependent on the level of generation and accumulation of superoxide or hydrogen peroxide. Plant cells exhibited markers of HR death, such as nuclear condensation and induction of the HR-specific gene HSR203J. Growth of B. cinerea was suppressed in the HR-deficient mutant dnd1, and enhanced by HR caused by simultaneous infection with an avirulent strain of the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae. HR had an opposite (inhibitory) effect on a virulent (biotrophic) strain of P. syringae. Moreover, H(2)O(2) levels during HR correlated positively with B. cinerea growth but negatively with growth of virulent P. syringae.
We show that, although hypersensitive cell death is efficient against biotrophic pathogens, it does not protect plants against infection by the necrotrophic pathogens B. cinerea and S. sclerotiorum. By contrast, B. cinerea triggers HR, which facilitates its colonization of plants. Hence, these fungi can exploit a host defense mechanism for their pathogenicity.
The cosmopolitan genus Botrytis contains 22 recognized species and one hybrid. The current classification is largely based on morphological characters and, to a minor extent, on physiology and host range. In this study, a classification of the genus was constructed based on DNA sequence data of three nuclear protein-coding genes (RPB2, G3PDH, and HSP60) and compared with the traditional classification. Sexual reproduction and the host range, important fitness traits, were traced in the tree and used for the identification of major evolutionary events during speciation. The phylogenetic analysis corroborated the classical species delineation. In addition, the hybrid status of B. allii (B. byssoidea x B. aclada) was confirmed. Both individual gene trees and combined trees show that the genus Botrytis can be divided into two clades, radiating after the separation of Botrytis from other Sclerotiniaceae genera. Clade 1 contains four species that all colonize exclusively eudicot hosts, whereas clade 2 contains 18 species that are pathogenic on either eudicot (3) or monocot (15) hosts. A comparison of Botrytis and angiosperm phylogenies shows that cospeciation of pathogens and their hosts have not occurred during their respective evolution. Rather, we propose that host shifts have occurred during Botrytis speciation, possibly by the acquisition of novel pathogenicity factors. Loss of sexual reproduction has occurred at least three times and is supposed to be a consequence of negative selection.
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