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Behaviour of the haematophagous mite Ornithonyssus bursa in starling nest boxes in New Zealand
Abstract
Ornithonyssus bursa (Berlese) (Mesostigmata: Dermanyssidae) is a continuous ectoparasite of starlings, and infests most of their nests. Visits by non-resident starlings are considered to be the principal means by which mites spread to uninfested nests during the breeding season. Mites occur between the clenched toes of young nestlings, but as the nestlings' feathers grow and their preening ability develops, mites shift to between primaries and to folds of skin under the bill. After the nestlings fledge, mites migrate to the upper surfaces of the nest box, where some are able to regain contact with adult starlings which daily revisit their nests.
... contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. parents carrying a low level of parasite intensity infect the nest, and then, due to the short life cycle, mite abundance builds up rapidly parasitising the nestlings (Powlesland 1978;Petersen 1979;Møller 2002). ...
... The existing literature on the subject is extremely limited and outdated. Powlesland (1978) found that the prevalence and abundance of O. bursa showed a positive correlation with the progress of the breeding season in starlings (Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus, 1758) from New Zealand. Berggren (2005) found that both nestling age and humidity of the microhabitat around the nest were positively correlated with O. bursa prevalence on chicks of New Zealand's robin (Petroica australis longipes Lesson & Garnot, 1827). ...
... Although O. bursa is a nest dweller and lays its eggs within the nest material (Sikes and Chamberlain 1954;Powlesland 1978), our results show that the host species might be of more importance on the prevalence and intensity of O. bursa than the nest's traits. This was found even in species of the same genus that build similar nests, as with species of Phacellodomus, but also in unrelated species (F. ...
The tropical fowl mite, Ornithonyssus bursa, is a common avian parasite found on diverse bird species worldwide. In the Neotropical region, O. bursa is present in wild birds, but it may also infect poultry and bite humans. Little is known about the ecology and epidemiology of this parasite. We conducted a thorough longitudinal study in passerine assemblages from central Argentina, gathering data from six reproductive seasons, with the aim of identifying factors that have a role in driving the occurrence and distribution of O. bursa in its natural hosts. We focused on the brood and microhabitat levels, accounting for potential confounders of higher levels. The results hereby presented contribute to our knowledge on the eco-epidemiology of O. bursa in natural hosts of the Neotropical region. Among the many variables assessed, nest material and host species appeared to be the most important correlates of O. bursa prevalence. Nonetheless, supplementary analyses showed that host species is a stronger predictor than nest material. Moreover, mite burden (parasite intensity) was found to depend on host species, but not on nest material. The association with species depended on nestling age, suggesting that resistance builds up as the nestling develop, but at a different pace depending on the bird species. Brood size was inversely correlated with intensity of parasitism, suggesting a dilution of the parasite burden on each nestling.
... Nest mites predominantly affect nestlings and the tropical fowl mite (Ornithonyssus bursa) has global distribution and is a common ectoparasite affecting avian species in New Zealand (Powlesland, 1978). Ornithonyssus bursa nest mite infestations limited the Mokoia population during the breeding season and nestlings on Tiritiri Matangi are subject to ongoing management strategies to control nest mite numbers because parasite-induced mortality is correlated with high levels of infestation at these sites . ...
... Nest ectoparasites mostly affect the growth and survival of nestlings, although some such as Ornithonyssus bursa (tropical fowl mite) that require a blood meal every 4-6 weeks, live more-or-less permanently on the avian host and have the potential to affect all life stages (Powlesland, 1978). Mites are introduced to nests by adult birds and when not feeding burrow deep into the nest su bstrate (Powlesland, 1978). ...
... Nest ectoparasites mostly affect the growth and survival of nestlings, although some such as Ornithonyssus bursa (tropical fowl mite) that require a blood meal every 4-6 weeks, live more-or-less permanently on the avian host and have the potential to affect all life stages (Powlesland, 1978). Mites are introduced to nests by adult birds and when not feeding burrow deep into the nest su bstrate (Powlesland, 1978). In a study of starlings in nest boxes, Powlesland , 1978 found that once chicks fledge the nest mites move to the top of the nest box in order to recolonise fledglings or adults to ensure mite survival through to the next breeding season (Powlesland, 1978). ...
... Nest ectoparasites mostly affect the growth and survival of nestlings, although some such as O. bursa (tropical fowl mite) that require a blood meal every 4Á6 weeks, live more-or-less permanently on the avian host and have the potential to affect all life stages (Powlesland 1978). Mites are introduced to nests by adult birds and when not feeding burrow deep into the nest substrate (Powlesland 1978). ...
... Nest ectoparasites mostly affect the growth and survival of nestlings, although some such as O. bursa (tropical fowl mite) that require a blood meal every 4Á6 weeks, live more-or-less permanently on the avian host and have the potential to affect all life stages (Powlesland 1978). Mites are introduced to nests by adult birds and when not feeding burrow deep into the nest substrate (Powlesland 1978). In a study of starlings in nest boxes, Powlesland (1978) found that once chicks fledge the nest, mites move to the top of the nest box in order to recolonise fledglings or adults to ensure mite survival through to the next breeding season. ...
... Mites are introduced to nests by adult birds and when not feeding burrow deep into the nest substrate (Powlesland 1978). In a study of starlings in nest boxes, Powlesland (1978) found that once chicks fledge the nest, mites move to the top of the nest box in order to recolonise fledglings or adults to ensure mite survival through to the next breeding season. Mite infestations vary within the population; nests are seldom colonised by mites prior to eggs hatching and some nests may remain free of mites, while others become heavily infested (Powlesland 1978). ...
The hihi is an endangered New Zealand species and its survival depends on the health of translocated populations. Low nestling survival was detected at Zealandia–Karori Sanctuary (KS) during the 2008–09 breeding season with 34% of eggs surviving to fledge. Samples obtained from live and dead hihi nestlings showed that several disease syndromes contributed to nestling deaths. Cause of death was diagnosed by necropsy and histopathology for 25 nestlings. Mortality was highest (60%) in nestlings ≤7 days old and was associated with seasonally low minimum daily temperatures (
... Nest ectoparasites mostly affect the growth and survival of nestlings, although some such as O. bursa (tropical fowl mite) that require a blood meal every 4Á6 weeks, live more-or-less permanently on the avian host and have the potential to affect all life stages (Powlesland 1978). Mites are introduced to nests by adult birds and when not feeding burrow deep into the nest substrate (Powlesland 1978). ...
... Nest ectoparasites mostly affect the growth and survival of nestlings, although some such as O. bursa (tropical fowl mite) that require a blood meal every 4Á6 weeks, live more-or-less permanently on the avian host and have the potential to affect all life stages (Powlesland 1978). Mites are introduced to nests by adult birds and when not feeding burrow deep into the nest substrate (Powlesland 1978). In a study of starlings in nest boxes, Powlesland (1978) found that once chicks fledge the nest, mites move to the top of the nest box in order to recolonise fledglings or adults to ensure mite survival through to the next breeding season. ...
... Mites are introduced to nests by adult birds and when not feeding burrow deep into the nest substrate (Powlesland 1978). In a study of starlings in nest boxes, Powlesland (1978) found that once chicks fledge the nest, mites move to the top of the nest box in order to recolonise fledglings or adults to ensure mite survival through to the next breeding season. Mite infestations vary within the population; nests are seldom colonised by mites prior to eggs hatching and some nests may remain free of mites, while others become heavily infested (Powlesland 1978). ...
Twenty-five dead hihi/stitchbird (Notiomystis cincta) chicks were recovered from nests at Zealandia (Karori sanctuary) during the breeding season (late 2008 to early 2009), and examined at necropsy, and histopathologically. Starvation was diagnosed as the primary cause of death in four, and respiratory failure, characterised by collapsed airways and accumulation of proteinaceous fluid, was found in a further six chicks all in younger age groups. Mortality of chicks in both these groups was associated with unseasonably low minimum daily temperatures of <11 degrees C. Eight of 25 (32%) chicks in older age groups were found to have ventriculitis, in which fungi and bacteria were present, and these were often associated with the penetration of insect stings (presumably from honey bees) into the wall and serosa of the gizzard. A small number of chicks also died from trauma, aspergillosis, a congenital anomaly, or an unidentified haemoparasite.
... Long term occupancy of nest sites during a single breeding effort, or over several breeding efforts within a breeding season, increase a bird's risk of incurring large parasite loads (Stoner 1936; Rothschild and Clay 1957; Wasylik 1971; Smith and Eads 1978;Powlesland 1978; Humphrey-Smith and Moorehouse 1980). Also, because viruses, fungi and bacteria can lie dormant in nest debris and feces for several months, and because they can withstand freezing temperatures (Davies et al. 1971;Hubalek 1978), there is an increased risk of infection to birds breeding at historically active sites. ...
... The intermediate instars are feeding stages, while the ultimate instar is the reproductive phase. The implied importance of plant derived juvenile hormone analogs can be appreciated when one considers that the per capita blood loss for a brood of four in a heavily infested nest (>50,000 mites) can be 3.5 percent of the daily blood production of chicks (Powlesland 1978). ...
Passerine birds that reuse nest sites face an increased parasite and pathogen load. They also are more likely to use fresh green vegetation during nest construction. The present results demonstrate that at least one passerine, the European Starling: (a) selects a small subset of available plant species for inclusion in nest material; and (b) chooses plants whose volatiles are more likely to inhibit arthropod hatching and bacterial growth relative to a random subset of available vegetation. The results also show that preferred plants possess greater numbers of mono- and sesqueter-penes at higher concentrations relative to a random subset of available plants. These findings strongly suggest that starlings use chemicals in fresh vegetation as fumigants against parasites and pathogens.
... Nests not protected by plants (PR) needed approximately 100 mites as colonists in order to yield the population observed. Mites colonize nests by leaving the bodies of already infested adults throughout nest-building and incubation (Powlesland 1978). Infestations of 50 to 200 mites are well within the range reported to exist on adults (Boyd 1951 ;DeVaney et al. 1980). ...
The European starling Sturnus vulgaris preferentially incorporates fresh sprigs of particular plant species for use as nesting material. Chemicals found in these plants may act to reduce pathogen and ectoparasite populations normally found in nest environments. The present experiments were performed to test this Nest Protection Hypothesis. In the fild, we experimentally determined that wild carrot Daucus carota, a plant species preferred as nest material, effectively reduced the number of hematophagous mites found within nests relative to control nests without green vegetation. Chicks from nests containing wild carrot had higher levels of blood hemoglobin than chicks from control nests. However, there were no differences in weight or feather development. In the laboratory, we found that wild carrot and fleabane, Erigeron philadelphicus, (also preferred by starlings as nest material) substantially reduced the emergence of feeding instars of mites, while garlic mustard, Alliaria officinalis, (commonly available but not preferred) had little effect on the emergence of mites. We infer that preferred plant material may act to inhibit feeding or otherwise delay reproduction of mites, thereby reducing risk of anemia to developing nestlings.
... Numerous removal experiments have shown that territorial vacancies are rapidly filled (Brown, 1969 rufusater) and people in New Zealand. It has also been found on birds and people in many other countries (Gill, 1983;Moller, 1991a;Petersen, 1979;Powlesland, 1977Powlesland, , 1978 (1977) found no significant effect on growth weight, weight at 15 days, mortality, blood characteristics or lipid stores of starling nestlings, when compared with nestlings from uninfested nests. Powlesland (1977) did not consider O.bursa a significant mortality factor for starlings, but stated that chicks and fledglings with large mite burdens may be more vulnerable to other stresses. ...
Thesis (MSc--Biological Sciences)--University of Auckland, 2002.
Ornithonyssus bursa (Berlese) (Dermanyssidae) is found in nests and neotboxes and on nestlings of the starling (Sturnus vulgaris L.), sometimes in large numbers, during the breeding season. During the non-breeding season the nestboxes and nest material are devoid of live mites. O. bursa overwinters ectoparasitically on starlings, and is present on approximately 25% of the population at the beginning of the breeding season. These nucleus populations build up rapidly in nest boxes during the breeding season.
In this study we investigated the importance of ectoparasite load in the nest on the breed-ing system of the Penduline Tit Remiz pendulinus, examining the effect of mite abundance in the nest on mate choice, reproductive success and parental effort. The two most common ectoparasites were the Northern Fowl Mite Dermanyssus hirundinis and the Northern Feather Mite Ornithonyssus sylviarum. The results show that mite load is important in mate choice but has no adverse effect on reproductive success. The results also indicate that infestation level is related to the quality of the male (mask-width). Parental feeding rate was negatively related to mite load. This relationship indicated that Penduline Tits did not compensate for higher parasite loads by increasing feeding but rather reflected the con dition of the parent and its investment in self-maintenance behaviour.
Parasitism is a common cause of host mortality, but little is known about the ecological factors affecting parasite virulence (the rate of mortality among infected hosts). We reviewed 117 field estimates of parasite-induced nestling mortality in birds, showing that there was significant consistency in mortality among host and parasite taxa. Virulence increased towards the tropics in analyses of both species-specific data and phylogenetic analyses. We found evidence of greater parasite prevalence being associated with reduced virulence. Furthermore, bird species breeding in open nest sites suffered from greater parasite-induced mortality than hole-nesting species. By contrast, parasite specialization and generation time of parasites relative to that of hosts explained little variation in virulence. Likewise, there were little or no significant effects of host genetic variability, host sociality, host migration, host insular distribution or host survival on parasite virulence. These findings suggest that parasite-induced nestling mortality in birds is mainly determined by geographical location and to a smaller extent nest site and prevalence.
The preceding study on the breeding biology of the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris L.) was made at Ithaca, New York, from 1945 through 1951. The major portion of the study was carried out on an area of starling nesting boxes which bounded the periphery of a rectangular, agricultural district, 1.4 miles long by 0.8 mile wide. Observations of the annual cycle show that many starlings of the resident population display an interest in nesting sites throughout the autumn and winter months, both males and females visiting the holes in the mornings and evenings, especially in warm, sunny weather. By December some individuals begin roosting in the boxes at night, instead of returning to communal roosts; most of these early roosters appear to be ones that have previously nested on the area. Both males and females roost in the boxes. The number of birds using the boxes at night increases after mid-February, but decreases again when nest-building begins. Approximately 50 per cent of the birds nesting on the study area in one season return to breed the following year. These birds tend to choose nesting sites close to the ones they used the previous year. The starling's nesting territory includes a 10- to 20-inch radius about the nesting hole. Starlings will nest in close proximity to other starlings and other species, although observations indicate that there is a limit to how close they will tolerate neighbors. They often have communal singing perches and feeding areas. Courtship is not well defined in the starling, usually consisting of intensified song and display about the nesting box. Monogamy for a given nesting is the rule, though polygyny has been observed. The status of unpaired males is not well understood. Both members of a pair participate in nest-building, which begins about the third week of March at Ithaca. The male frequently brings materials to the nest before he obtains a mate, but when serious nest-building begins, the female is usually the more diligent worker. Copulation occurs upon the invitation of the female. The action of the female in pecking the male in the neck or shoulder region appears to be a "releaser" to the male in the mounting act. The date of the laying of the first egg for the first brood varies from mid-March on the Gulf Coast to mid-June on the Labrador Peninsula. Day-length appears to be the primary factor influencing the date of egg-laying, but annual variations in egg-laying dates in a given locality appear to be due largely to temperature differences. The minimum threshold for incitement of rapid gonad development appears to be about 40 to 43⚬F, and the birds must be exposed to this mean environmental temperature for a minimum of seventeen days before they will lay eggs. The mean clutch size in 301 layings at Ithaca was 4.9 eggs. In first broods the mean was 5.5 (199 clutches); in intermediate broods, 5.0 eggs (42 clutches); and in second broods, 4.1 eggs (110 clutches). Annual variations in mean clutch sizes proved significant. The mean weights of eighty-five eggs in sixteen first brood clutches was 7.0 grams (5.5-8.5 grams). After the laying of the first egg, the female lays one egg a day until the clutch is completed. Females tend to lay clutches of similar size each year after the first year. Incubation usually begins with the laying of the last egg, though it may begin earlier. Incubation lasts for twelve days; it is usually shared by both parents, although only the female incubates at night. If a clutch is destroyed, at least one renesting will be attempted; most renestings begin within two weeks of the time the first nest is destroyed. If the female is lost during the incubation period, the male will toss the eggs out of the nest within thirty-six hours and renew his courtship activities. The parents remove the shells of the hatched eggs by carrying them from the nest in their bills. Both parents brood and feed the young and participate in nest sanitation. The female only, however, broods at night, staying with the nestlings in the box until they are eight days old. If the male disappears during the brooding period, the female usually continues to raise the family; however, if the female is lost the young usually die. The mean brood size in 304 broods was 3.9 young. In first broods the mean was 4.5 young (230 broods); in intermediate broods, 3.5 young (41 broods); and in second broods, 2.9 young (78 broods). Comparisons with Dutch data on clutch and brood sizes and on egg-to-fledging success indicate that the starlings at Ithaca have a higher nest mortality than those on the Continent. At hatching, the nestlings are helpless and naked, except for sparse tracts of down feathers, and weigh about 6.5 grams. Energy during the first ten to twelve days is utilized primarily for size increases. Weight gains, yielding a sigmoid growth curve, are rapid during this period, and at twelve days the weight of the young approaches that of the parent birds. Feathers do not begin to break their sheaths until the sixth and seventh days. Eyes open on the sixth or seventh day. At twelve days the nestlings begin to show signs of fear and attempt to escape when handled. After ten days, feather growth becomes rapid; and before the young leave the nest at twenty-one days, they are almost as fully feathered as their parents and can fly well. The young, especially in the first broods, usually lose some weight before they leave the nest. In second broods the young are somewhat slower and more irregular in their development, usually averaging lighter than those of the first brood even at the time of fledging. There is some indication that the broods of first-year females may be poorer than those of adult birds. There is also some indication that mean nestling weights decrease as the size of the brood increases. After leaving the nest, the birds gather in small flocks which rove about the countryside during the day and join communal roosts at night. Many juveniles apparently stay in the vicinity of their place of hatching for a while after leaving the nest. The young are largely independent when they leave the nest, and the adults stay with them for only a short time, about four to eight days. Nesting success studies at Ithaca showed that 78.6 per cent of the nests were successful; 86.6 per cent hatched; 85.2 per cent of the young fledged; and 76.1 per cent of the eggs that were laid produced young that fledged. In first broods, these per cents were 89.1, 90.5, 86.0, and 81.4, respectively; in second broods they were 63.3, 80.3, 81.6, and 68.3 per cent, respectively. Some starlings, especially females, breed when only one year old. In 1950, five, or 14 per cent of the banded female nestlings of the preceding year returned to their place of hatching and bred in their first year. The reason that more first-year males do not breed can be attributed, at least in part, to immaturity and to the lack of suitable nesting sites. The mean clutch size for the first brood of the first-year females was significantly smaller than that of the adults (5.1 and 5.6, respectively). Most first-year females begin laying for their first brood at the same time as the adult females, but some do not begin until the period of intermediate brood layings. Within four to six weeks after the young leave the nest, many have begun their post-juvenal molt. This molt is complete and follows the same pattern as that of the adult post-nuptial molt. The first-winter plumage is worn for a full year, until the first post-nuptial molt when the adult plumage is gained. After this second molt, the starling normally molts once each year, after the breeding season. The molt of the starling is essentially the same as that described by Dwight (1900) for passerine birds, but there are two major differences: 1) The capital tract does not begin to molt until the wing and body molts are well advanced. 2) The caudal tract, instead of molting consecutively from the central pair of feathers (pair I), outwards, usually molts pair I first, then pair II, pair VI, pair IV, and finally pair V and pair III. Generally, as a group, the adult males are the most advanced in their molt at any given time; the adult females and juvenal males follow; and the juvenal females are the least advanced. There is a predominance of females in the sex ratios of nestling starlings, but nest mortality is slightly higher in the females, causing the per cent of males to increase during the period in the nest. During the winter, six to eight months later, collections show an even sex ratio in first-year birds. In adult populations there are significantly more males than females. Thus, data from Ithaca indicate that the females have a higher mortality rate than males. On the basis of 205 banding returns of starlings that were banded as young and survived to their first January 1 of life, the mean annual adult mortality rate in the starlings of northeastern North America is about 50 per cent. The average length of life, after their first January 1, is 15.6 months. The months of heaviest mortality are January, February, and March. One-third of the annual mortality occurs in February-March; three-fourths from January through May. The mortality rate for the first year of life, including the first summer and autumn, is approximately 60 per cent. About 20 per cent of the young fledged survive to breed.
The breeding of starlings (Sturnus vulgaris L.) in 160 nest boxes in the Manawatu region during 1974–75 and 1975–76 is described. Ornithonyssus bursa, a mesostigmatic dermanyssid mite with a 5‐stage life cycle, is a continuous parasite of several species of birds, including the starling. The seasonal pattern of O. bursa infestation over the starling breeding season is described with particular emphasis on the proportion of nest sites infested and the degree of infestation in early, middle, and late periods of the breeding season. Mites had no demonstrable major effects on the growth rate, weight at 15 days, mortality, blood characteristics, and lipid stores of starling nestlings. A pair of starlings can raise 3 or 4 nestlings, whether mite‐infested or not, with no significant difference between nestling weights at age 15 days. A heavy mite load of 50 000 in a nest box with 4 nestlings is calculated to take 3.5 % by weight of the blood of each nestling per day, a loss which healthy nestlings can apparently tolerate.
Der Formenkreis des Stares (Sturnus vuIgaris) zerfiillt in zahlreiehe geographisehe Rassen. Schon die verschiedenen Populationen der Rasse St. v. vulgaris zeigen so weitgehende physiologische Unterschiede, dal~ BULLOUGH (1942, 1945) eine taxonomische Trennung der englischen Stare yon den kontinentalen forderte. Auf das sehr starke physiologische Variieren auch in Mitteleuropa wies vor allem SCHt~Z mehrfaeh hin, zuletzt 1951. Er regte an, insbesondere das Brutverhalten im weitesten Sinne an mSgliehst vielen Orten in seinen Einzetheiten zu untersuehen. Nur eine gr~Jl~ere Zahl rein beschreibender Einzeldarstellungen aus verschiedenen Gebieten l~l~t einen {3berblick fiber Ursachen und selektiven Wart der geographisehen Variationen erhoffen. Der Star l~tltt sich besonders leicht beobaehten: Er ist fast fiberall sehr h~tufig, in GrStle und Gebaren auff~llig, nicht scheu, brfitet gerne in der Niihe menschlicher Siedlungen, ist HShlenbrfiter (was die Auswahl des Beobaehtungsplatzes erm6glicht) und nistet oft gesellig in kleineren oder grSl~eren Kolonien, so dal~ man gleichzeitig mehrere Paare kontrollieren kann. In Holland (Wageningen) hat KLUUVER (1933, 1935), in Ostpreuf~en (Rossitten) SCHt~Z (1942, 1943) und in Hessen (Wetzlar) FREITAG (1936--39, 1940) die Brutbiologie des Stares eingehend untersueht. Mit versehiedenen Teilgebieten befassen sich insbesondere einige Arbeiten aus England und den USA. Meine Beobachtungen muJ~ten aus ~u~eren Grfinden vorzeitig abgebroehen werden. Diese Mitteilung will lediglich den schon bekannten Popttlationen eine noeh unbekannte in ihrer Brutbiologie vergleichend gegentiberstellen und damit alas Bild der Lebensgeschichte des Stares vervollst~indigen helfen. Herrn Prof. Dr. E, SCHUZ, Ludwigsbuzg, danke ich vielmals ffir die Anregun~ zu dieser Arbeit und ffir sein st~ndiges Intere~se an ~hrem Portgar~g, das, er durda Rat und Tat bekundete, Herin Prof. Dr. O. KOEHLER, Freiburg i. Br., f/Jr die kritische Durdasicht .des Man~usk.riptes. Der Vo,gelwarte P~actol,fzell verdanke ida den grSf~ten Teil der Literatur, die ich in ihren R~umen beautzen duff to.
The behaviour of the sand martin flea Ceratophyllus styx jordani Smit was studied in relation to its ecology.
The cocooned resting imago in the host's old nest is the main over-wintering stage. Mechanical disturbance of the cocoons by the exploratory habits of the newly returned sand martins elicits emergence of the imagines in spring. The seasonal rise in temperature is not, by itself, important in causing emergence, as it does not become effective until many weeks after the martins have returned, by which time undisturbed fleas are likely to have died inside their cocoons.
When the imagines break out of their cocoons they are negatively photo-tactic, but become positively phototactic within 24 h. This response takes them outwards along the martin's disused burrow until the increasing intensity of light reduces their activity so that they aggregate on the lower lip of the entrance. Positive phototaxis prevents them dispersing downwards from the entrance.
Periodically the fleas bury themselves in sand; this response may function for water conservation. The proportion buried is greatest at night.
The sand martin's habit of hovering close to a succession of entrances renders it accessible to the fleas, whose main host-finding response is an outward jump from the burrow entrance. This jump is released by a sudden decrease in light intensity and is directed towards dark objects. Vibration and air currents do not release jumping.
Dispersal from aggregations in disused burrows may occur by transport on the host, or by spontaneous horizontal emigration along the cliff face, or by falling after an unsuccessful host-finding jump. Fleas which have fallen become negatively geotactic and positively anemotactic. Fleas wandering on the cliff face visually detect burrow entrances up to 30 cm away, and turn towards them. Preference for moister sand and, possibly, a negative phototactic response, may induce the fleas to remain in newly found burrows.
Small aggregations of fleas also occur at the entrances of burrows currently in use by martins. Fleas circulate between the entrance and nest chamber of these burrows, until the martin begins to incubate its eggs. The entrance aggregation then disappears and fleas accumulate in the nest chamber. There is some interchange of fleas between infested burrows in the martin's pre-incubation period.
The general pattern of behaviour resembles that of C. gallinae . Behavioural differences between the two species are related to the ecology of their hosts. C. styx is adapted to dispersal and host finding in its host's breeding site, whereas C. gallinae is adapted to reach foraging birds. This difference partly accounts for the narrow host specificity of C. styx and the wide host range of C. gallinae .
My grateful thanks are due to Chris. Mead and Giles Pepler for information on sand martins' behaviour and migratory arrival. I would also like to thank Brian Little, who introduced me to several colonies in the Tyne Valley. The valuable advice of the Hon. Miriam Rothschild and Dr E. T. Burtt is especially acknowledged.
The starlings' family life and behaviour
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