Parrots. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000–2004.

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Snyder, N., McGowan, P.,
Gilardi, J., and
Grajal, A. (eds.) (2000) Parrots. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan
2000–2004. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. x + 180 pp.
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Citation:
Snyder, N., McGowan, P.,
Gilardi, J., and
Grajal, A. (eds.) (2000) Parrots. Status Survey and
Conservation Action Plan 2000– 2004. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. x + 180 pp.
ISBN:
2-8317-0504-5
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98
Chapter 7
The Neotropics (Americas)
Overview
Alejandro Grajal
With nearly 4,130 species, the Neotropics harbour almost
44% of the world’s avifauna and a generous representation
of parrots (148 species in 27 genera: Wege and Long 1995).
Parrot species diversity is especially great in the genera
Amazona and Aratinga (31 and 19 species respectively),
although the Neotropics also hosts 10 monotypic genera
such as Leptosittaca, Myiopsitta, and Gypopsitta. Sizes
range from the diminutive species of parrotlet, Forpus, to
the hyacinth macaw, the largest parrot in the world.
Neotropical parrots live in many different ecological settings
and have evolved different life history traits. Some species
show significant ecological and behavioural flexibility, and
have become naturalised outside their regular ranges. For
example, today it is not rare to see feral populations of
parrots in suburban and urban areas both in the Neotropics
and in warmer subtropical regions. Other species are
restricted to specific habitats (for example, Anodorhynchus
leari is restricted to Sertâo palm habitats of the Brazilian
Caatinga and Ognorhynchus icterotis is restricted to
Ceroxylum palm forests of the high Andes). Yet others are
highly nomadic (e.g., Nannopsittaca panychlora,
Leptosittaca branickii and Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha).
Parrots are distributed from Northern Mexico to Tierra
del Fuego at the southernmost tip of South America, and
from the edge of glaciers in the high Andes to the steaming
forests of Amazonia. The distribution ranges of some
species are large, particularly those parrots associated with
lowland humid rainforests and savannas. However, many
species have extremely restricted ranges, particularly those
of the Northern Andes, the Atlantic forest of south-eastern
Brazil, the dry habitats of the Cerrado and Caatinga of
Brazil, and the Lesser Antillean Islands of the Caribbean.
The species accounts in this Action Plan discuss 50
species of Neotropical parrots that are classified as globally
threatened by Collar et al. (1994). Several others have
become extinct in historic times, including the Carolina
parakeet Conuropsis carolinensis in eastern North America,
the Cuban macaw Ara tricolor, and the glaucous macaw
Anodorhynchus glaucus in the Misiones forest of southern
Brazil, northern Argentina, and Paraguay. Spix’s macaw
Cyanopsitta spixii is now believed to exist almost entirely in
captivity (Collar et al. 1992, Juniper and Yamashita 1990,
1991, Wege and Long 1995).
The Neotropical species accounts also include several
parrot species that were not considered globally threatened
by Collar et al. (1994) but for which current information
suggests a rapid decline in conservation status or for which
discrete populations are under substantial threat. Four
species (yellow-billed parrot Amazona collaria, Hispaniolan
parrot Amazona ventralis, great-green macaw Ara ambigua,
and grey-cheeked parakeet Brotogeris pyrrhopterus) are
herewith included on the List, in agreement with BirdLife
International, bringing the number of threatened species to
46. A further four taxa are noted as being worthy of further
investigation of their status. These include the yellow-
naped parrot Amazona auropalliata, which is under
tremendous current trade pressure and deserves priority
attention. Also included is the Cuban amazon Amazona
leucocephala, particularly for its fragile distinct
subpopulations in the Bahamas and Cayman Islands.
Similarly, the scarlet macaw Ara macao, which is relatively
common and has a large distribution in South America,
probably numbers fewer than 1,000 individuals in all Central
America, fewer than 200 in Costa Rica, and possibly a few
hundred in the Maya forests of Belize, Mexico, and
Guatemala (Wiedenfeld 1994). Without urgent attention,
the Central American populations can be expected to
disappear in the near future. Finally, the elusive saffron-
headed parrot Pionopsitta pyrilia, is included as populations
are considered very small and its habitat in Colombia is
dwindling rapidly.
Threats
The main threats to Neotropical parrot species are habitat
loss, hunting, and the live bird trade. Species such as
Anodorhynchus leari and Cyanopsitta spixii face imminent
extinction largely due to the live bird trade (Reynolds
1997). Some of the most threatened Neotropical parrots
suffer from the apocalyptic double threats of trade and
habitat loss. These species include the most attractive
parrots and macaws in severely pressurised or impacted
habitats, including Anodorhynchus leari, Cyanopsitta spixii,
Ara militaris, Ara ambigua, Guarouba (Aratinga) guarouba,
and a number of Amazona species including A. brasiliensis,
A. oratrix, and A. pretrei. Table 6 provides a list of
threatened parrot species in the Neotropics.
The bird trade
Trapping for the bird trade in the Neotropics has occurred
since pre-European times, as Amerindians valued macaws,

99
parrots, and feather ornaments as ritualistic and trade
objects. At present, owning wild parrots as pets remains
socially acceptable in most Neotropical countries, even
where it is known that their ownership is technically
illegal.
International trade in parrots has been significantly
reduced during the 1990s, mainly as a result of adoption of
national legislation, tighter enforcement of CITES
regulations, the reviews of significant trade in Appendix II
species by the CITES Animals Committee, adoption of
stricter domestic measures under the European Union
legislation, adoption of the Wild Bird Conservation Act in
the USA, and transportation restrictions imposed by
commercial airlines. These measures have contributed to
the significant reduction in the overall volume of birds
traded from the Neotropics to the rest of the world.
As a result of this reduction in volume, the remaining
international trade has concentrated on illegal
smuggling of uncommon species that command high
prices, such as Lear’s and hyacinth macaws and several
amazon Amazona species. Illegal trade in smuggled
parrots apparently continues across the US-Mexico
border (Wiedenfeld 1993, 1995) and is sometimes
associated with sophisticated smuggling rings dealing
mainly in illegal migrant workers or illicit drugs. An
international trade route to European markets still
exists, perhaps using the Caribbean islands that are
commonwealth territories of European countries, such as
the Netherlands Antilles and the UK Virgin Islands. The
volume reaching the European Community, from mainland
Central and South America seems substantial, given the
results of a six year monitoring in one European port of
entry (Guix et al. 1997).
Local and national trade is thought to remain
substantial throughout the Neotropics although it is
extremely hard to quantify. Most experts are still
documenting dramatic downward trends of wild
populations of heavily traded species that already have
low numbers (e.g., Amazona pretrei, Amazona brasiliensis,
Amazona barbadensis, Guarouba (Aratinga) guarouba, the
Central American Ara macao populations, and Ara
ambigua guayaquilensis). Indeed, even though most
countries ban trade in wild birds, it is still possible to see
wild parrots being sold in markets, along rural roads, and
even in pet shops. Legislation in most Neotropical countries
criminalises trade but not the ownership of wild birds. As
a result, enforcement is usually negligible or erratic, and in
most cases government agencies are legally unable to
confiscate parrots owned by individuals.
The root causes of this continuing pressure on wild
parrots are a complex mix of several factors: widespread
social and cultural approval of parrots as pets, poor
enforcement of existing laws, growing purchasing
capabilities of urban populations, and the need for
supplementary income in impoverished rural communities.
Habitat loss and fragmentation
Habitat loss is an important threat to some of the most
threatened parrots in the Neotropics, although
understanding of specific “cause and effect” relationships
between parrot population declines and changes in land-
use patterns remains rudimentary at best, particularly for
extremely threatened species such as Ognorhynchus
icterotis. However, many parrots are not habitat specialists
and thrive in heterogeneous mosaics of different
successional habitats. For example, many species of
lowland forest habitats seem to do relatively well in
modified human environments as long as a mosaic of
habitats in different successional stages is maintained and
the poaching of nestlings and the shooting and trapping of
adults remain at low levels.
Parrots that appear to be most threatened by habitat
loss occur in the following regions:
a) Species in the tropical Andes that require altitudinal
migrations between different elevations (e.g.,
Ognorhynchus icterotis, Leptosittaca branickii, Ara
ambigua guayaquilensis, and Hapalopsittaca fuertesi);
b) Species living in isolated forest remnants of the Atlantic
forest of east and south-east Brazil, (e.g., Pyrrhura
cruentata, and Triclaria malachitacea);
c) Species restricted to dry or seasonally dry forest habitats
such as the Cerrado or the Caatinga of South America
(e.g., Amazona xanthops, Ara rubrogenys, Brotogeris
pyrrhopterus, and Forpus xanthops);
d) Species restricted to forest remnants in the lesser and
Greater Antilles of the Caribbean (e.g., Amazona vittata
and Aratinga euops) or in small islands (Amazona
oratrix tresmariae, and Aratinga brevipes).
These biogeographic regions have several factors in
common, particularly high rates of deforestation and
extensive fragmentation of natural habitats. The factors
that induce land clearing for cattle production or
agriculture are complex. However, existing economic and
social inequalities throughout the Neotropical region
continue to push the agricultural frontier further into
natural habitats. The sinister persistence of “hidden”
subsidies for land clearing in Central America, Northern
Andes, and the Atlantic forests of Brazil, continues to
accelerate the rate of habitat degradation. Some of these
“hidden” subsidies include legal provisions that require
habitat conversion to attain legal ownership of the land
and corporate or individual tax shelters for industrial-
scale land conversion.
Conservation solutions
Conservation solutions have to be locally tailored, as what
works in one setting may not in another (see Chapter 2).

100
Some of the most interesting research and conservation
strategies occur in the Neotropics, an example being the
conservation of Lesser Antillean parrot species using
education and national pride (Butler 1992), law
enforcement and foster nest use in Margarita Island,
Venezuela (Sylvius 1997), ecotourism based on macaws in
Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil (Munn 1992), and artificial nest
boxes to enhance populations in Peru (Nycander et al.
1995). Some of the conservation biology research needs
are discussed in Chapter 2, while other more specific
strategies are discussed below.
Education
Surprisingly, few people in the Neotropics (beyond the
specialists) understand or appreciate the dire conservation
status of many parrot species. Nevertheless, parrots are
often excellent species to use in campaigns to raise public
awareness of conservation issues or as emblematic species.
Parrots are well known to the general public, and inspire
high levels of human empathy. Several examples show that,
if properly orientated, raising environmental awareness
based on parrot conservation can be very effective (Butler
1992, Sanz and Grajal 1998, Sylvius 1997). In some cases,
national or local pride is a key to successful conservation
campaigns. However, environmental education campaigns
need to be properly designed, implemented, and evaluated
to avoid unintended consequences (such as the desirability
to “save the parrot” by keeping it in a cage!). The threat of
national and local trade demands creative studies of the
social acceptability of private ownership of wild parrots.
Whenever appropriate, environmental campaigns should
vigorously attack private ownership of wild parrots, to
reduce or eliminate national or local trade. The build-up of
significant public opinion against wild bird trade does
generally increase scrutiny by enforcement agencies, and
eventually limits the overall volume of parrots traded
locally or nationally.
Land tenure
As human populations keep growing and natural habitats
shrink throughout the Neotropics, it is not surprising that
the areas of highest human densities are those which have
the largest numbers of threatened species (e.g., Central
America, the Caribbean islands, the tropical Andes, and
the Atlantic forest of eastern Brazil). The effects of
burgeoning populations and habitat destruction have been
historically accelerated by unstable land tenure regimes
and hidden subsidies for land conversion. Increasing the
stabilisation (and equitability) of land tenure can be an
important factor in slowing the growth of the agricultural
frontier. Similarly, more transparent fiscal policies can
eliminate subsidies for land clearing. Incentives to
encourage the maintenance of wildlands must be found.
While many of these actions transcend the Psittacine
taxonomic scope of this Action Plan, conservationists and
decision-makers should be aware of these factors and act
opportunistically and appropriately to minimise their
impact upon parrots and other threatened species.
Parrot biologists can help to identify critical linkages
in habitat connectivity for species facing severe habitat
fragmentation. For example, this Action Plan has identified
priority actions (land purchases or strict protection) for
severely threatened parrots in the Andes of Colombia and
Ecuador. Concentrating at a regional scale can make such
conservation efforts more effective and efficient.
Similarly, spatial analysis of the ecological
representation of various habitats in protected areas can
provide an idea of habitat conservation priorities in heavily
fragmented areas such as in Brazil’s Atlantic forests and
Central America. In fact, the current multi-national effort
to implement the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor in
Central America should maintain and in some cases,
create, key linkages for habitat connectivity.
Brazil’s recent strategic plans to establish a network of
biological corridors between protected areas may advance
conservation possibilities for severely threatened parrots
in dry habitats of north-east Brazil (Caatinga), the Brazilian
Cerrado, and the Atlantic forests of south-east Brazil. In
the tropical Andes of Venezuela, Ecuador, and Colombia,
protected area boundaries should be rethought, with the
idea of increasing both the connectivity between reserves
as well as the altitudinal representation of mosaics of
important habitats. Since most Andean reserves were
historically designed with altitudinal lower limits, many
parrot species appear to be suffering from lack of
continuous altitudinal habitats for seasonal foraging or
reproductive migrations.
Ecotourism
Ecotourism has the potential to provide economic value to
large and colourful parrots or macaws. However, most
tourism operators are concerned with very localised
tourism attractions (such as parrot roosts), and local
people are rarely prepared to become fully-fledged tourism
operators. As a result, few tourism projects are designed in
a way that benefit local people or enhance parrot
conservation. The challenge remains to create tourism
operations that enhance parrot conservation and therefore
add local value to these birds (for more on ecotourism, see
Chapter 2).
Not all valuation needs to be financial. Indeed, pride
and nationalism can play important incentives in parrot
conservation (Butler 1992). This has been particularly
valuable in the Caribbean islands, where using emblematic

101
species of parrots has increased their protection and has
built popular support for conservation, enforcement, and
legislation.
This global Action Plan should be used as a guide
to produce participatory national Action Plans.
Concentrating as it does on global priorities, many
subspecies or subpopulations are poorly represented in
this Action Plan. Therefore, each country or region should
develop plans that address its own threatened species or
subspecies and which build upon the worldwide priorities
outlined here. Venezuela developed a comprehensive
Action Plan as part of a national symposium on
conservation priorities for parrots. The symposium
included the participation of government representatives,
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), universities, and
aviculturists. The organisers also produced a book with
the most recent information on parrot biology and
conservation for the country (Morales et al. 1994). A
similar effort in Brazil resulted in a special edition of the
journal of the Brazilian Ornithological Society, Ararajuba
(Vol.5 No. 2, December 1997), with a section dedicated to
parrot biology and conservation. The production of
national Action Plans should be encouraged, as they will
properly address conservation issues at an appropriate
scale, and will provide outlets for existing information.
Species accounts
Black-billed parrot
Amazona agilis
Contributors: Herlitz Davis, Susan Koenig, Wendy A.
Lee, Catherine Levy, and Noel Snyder.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Protected under the Jamaica
Wildlife Protection Act of 1945.
Distribution and status: The black-billed parrot is endemic
to the island of Jamaica. Its range is restricted to mid-level
wet limestone forest, which has been severely reduced over
the past 40 years. Locally common throughout the Cockpit
Country, particularly in disturbed edge habitat where it is
more common than the yellow-billed parrot A. collaria,
with which it occasionally associates. Populations are also
found at Worthy Park and Mount Diablo in the centre of
the island. Historical reports also placed it at the eastern
end of the island, although recent sightings in that area are
uncommon. Small flocks have, however, been seen recently
in the John Crow Mountains. Preliminary surveys indicate
much greater population estimates than previously
described, and possibly over 10,000 individuals in the
Cockpit Country region (C. Levy in litt 1999).
Threats: The greatest threat to population persistence is
habitat loss, although illegal hunting and collecting for the
pet trade continues. There are reports of birds being shot
for food and as crop pests, particularly in areas with
cultivated ackee Blighia sapida, pimento Pimenta spp., and
corn Zea mays. The most notable impact of chick harvesting
is the destruction of nest trees by poachers. Nesting success
is 30–50%, with successful nests producing an average of
1.9 chicks. Nests that fail due to natural or anthropogenic
factors have a very low likelihood of being used the following
breeding season. Poaching, even without destruction, may
increase nest switching and cause birds to abandon otherwise
suitable cavities for those affording less protection from
predators and inclement weather/flooding, two important
natural causes of nest failure. Most failed nests do so in the
early nestling period, resulting from predation by yellow
boa Epicrates subflavus (Gruber 1980) and to a lesser extent
Jamaican crow Corvus jamaicensis. However, low
reproductive performance does not appear to be limiting
population health. Of unproven, but realistic threat is the
possibility of disease transmittal and competition between
Jamaica’s native parrot species and the several introduced
Psittacine species on the island (Long 1981, Lever 1987).
Black-billed parrot
Amazona agilis

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Table 6. A list of Neotropical parrot species that are considered threatened using IUCN Red List criteria.
Also included are additional taxa that may be threatened and are proposed as candidates for the Red List. Species are listed in alphabetical
order by their scientific name, together with their distribution and threat status. The criteria under which each species qualifies are given
in the appropriate species account. *Denotes changes from Birds to Watch 2 (and, therefore, the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Animals), which have been agreed to by BirdLife International who maintain the IUCN list of threatened birds. Threat
English name Scientific name Distribution category
Black-billed parrot Amazona agilis Jamaica Vulnerable
Red-necked amazon Amazona arausiaca Dominica in the Lesser Antilles Vulnerable
Yellow-shouldered amazon Amazona barbadensis Dry coastal scrub of Venezuela and outlying Vulnerable
islands of Margarita, La Blanquilla, and Bonaire
Red-tailed amazon Amazona brasiliensis Brazil’s Serra do Mar Endangered
Yellow-billed parrot* Amazona collaria Jamaica Vulnerable
St Vincent amazon Amazona guildingii St Vincent in the Lesser Antilles Vulnerable
Imperial amazon Amazona imperialis Dominica in the Lesser Antilles Vulnerable
Yellow-headed parrot Amazona oratrix Mexico and Belize Endangered
Red-spectacled parrot Amazona pretrei Araucaria forests of south-east Brazil Endangered
Red-browed amazon Amazona rhodocorytha Lowland hardwood areas of Endangered
Brazil’s Atlantic forest
Hispaniolan parrot* Amazona ventralis Hispaniola Vulnerable
St Lucia parrot Amazona versicolor Saint Lucia in the Lesser Antilles Vulnerable
Vinaceous amazon Amazona vinacea Submontane ‘mixed’ regions of Endangered
Brazil’s Atlantic forest
Red-crowned parrot Amazona viridigenalis North-eastern states in Mexico Endangered
Puerto Rican parrot Amazona vittata Forested parts of Puerto Rico Critically
Endangered
Yellow-faced amazon Amazona xanthops Cerrado (dry woodland) of interior Vulnerable
eastern Brazil
Hyacinth macaw Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus Pantanal of Brazil and Bolivia, Vulnerable
and North-eastern Brazil
Lear’s macaw Anodorhynchus leari Raso da Catarina, Bahia State, Brazil Critically
Endangered
Great-green macaw* Ara ambigua Lowland wet forests between eastern Vulnerable
Honduras and western Colombia,
western Ecuador
Blue-throated macaw Ara glaucogularis Seasonally flooded Beni Lowlands Endangered
(Llanos de Moxos) of Central Bolivia
Blue-winged macaw Ara maracana Gallery forest and forest edge in parts Vulnerable
of Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and
northern Argentina
Military macaw Ara militaris Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Vulnerable
Peru, and Bolivia
Red-fronted macaw* Ara rubrogenys Arid intermontane valleys of Vulnerable
south-central Bolivia
Golden-capped parakeet Aratinga auricapilla Semi-deciduous forests of the Vulnerable
Paraná River Basin, Brazil
Socorro parakeet Aratinga brevipes Socorro Island in the Revillagigedo Vulnerable
Islands of Baja California, Mexico
Hispaniolan parakeet Aratinga chloroptera Hispaniola, including the offshore islands Vulnerable
Cuban parakeet Aratinga euops Cuba Vulnerable
Rufous-fronted parakeet Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons Forest-páramo ecotone of the Endangered
Central Andes of Colombia
Grey-cheeked parakeet Brotogeris pyrrhopterus Deciduous and dry forests of south-west Endangered
Ecuador and north-western Peru
Spix’s macaw Cyanopsitta spixii Caatinga woodland and scrub of the Critically
dry region of north-east Brazil Endangered
Yellow-faced parrotlet Forpus xanthops Riparian thickets and desert scrub of the Vulnerable
upper Marañón valley in north-central Peru
Golden parakeet Guarouba (Aratinga) guarouba Northern Brazil Endangered
Rusty-faced parrot Hapalopsittaca amazonina High Andean forests of Colombia Endangered
and Venezuela

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Table 6 ... continued. A list of Neotropical parrot species that are considered threatened using IUCN Red
List criteria. Threat
English name Scientific name Distribution category
Azure-winged parrot Hapalopsittaca fuertesi Andean forests of the west slope of Critically
(Fuertes’s parrot) the central Andes of Colombia Endangered
Red-faced parrot Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops High cloud forests near Páramo on the Endangered
East Andean slopes of Ecuador and Peru
Golden-plumed parakeet Leptosittaca branickii Cloud forests of central Colombia, Vulnerable
Ecuador and southern Peru
Yellow-eared conure Ognorhynchus icterotis Wax palm forest in the Central Critically
Cordillera of Colombia and Endangered
Northern Ecuador
White-breasted parakeet Pyrrhura albipectus Upper tropical and subtropical forest Vulnerable
of south-east Ecuador
Flame-winged parakeet Pyrrhura calliptera Upper montane forest and páramo on Vulnerable
the central eastern Cordillera of Colombia
Blue-throated parakeet Pyrrhura cruentata Atlantic Forest of Brazil Vulnerable
El Oro parakeet Pyrrhura orcesi Very humid upper tropical forest on the Vulnerable
west slope of the Andes of
south-west Ecuador
Santa Marta parakeet Pyrrhura viridicata Premontane to montane forests of the Vulnerable
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia
Thick-billed parrot Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha Pine forests in mountain areas of Endangered
northern Mexico
Maroon-fronted parrot Rhynchopsitta terrisi Pine forests in mountain areas of Vulnerable
northern Mexico
Brown-backed parrotlet Touit melanonota Mid-altitude humid forests of Rio de Endangered
Janeiro, São Paulo and Bahia, Brazil
Spot-winged parrotlet Touit stictoptera Upper tropical and lower subtropical Vulnerable
montane forests of Colombia, Ecuador,
and northern Peru
Golden-tailed parrotlet Touit surda Humid lowland forests of north-eastern Endangered
and south-eastern Brazil
Blue-bellied parrot* Triclaria malachitacea Atlantic forest of south-eastern Brazil Vulnerable
Species proposed for consideration for inclusion on the Red List
Yellow-naped parrot Amazona auropalliata Mesoamerica To be considered
Vulnerable
Cuban amazon Amazona leucocephala Cuba, the Bahamas Islands, To be considered
and Cayman Islands Vulnerable
Northern Central American Ara macao cyanoptera Southern Mexico through Central America To be considered
populations of the scarlet macaw Endangered
Saffron-headed Parrot Pionopsitta pyrilia Humid montane forest and cloud montane To be considered
forest of Venezuela and Colombia Vulnerable
There were no wild caught specimens of the species recorded
in international trade between 1991 and 1995 (CITES
Annual Report database). The species was proposed for
inclusion in CITES Appendix I in 1997 but this was rejected
by the Parties on the basis that international trade did not
appear to threaten the species.
Actions: The black-billed parrot has been bred in captivity
(Noegel 1979). The Blue and John Crow Mountain National
Park was declared in 1993, but topography, lack of
awareness, and lack of human resources for protection
deter effective conservation action. The Cockpit Country
has been identified as a priority area for conservation but
has not yet been declared a protected area. Two research
projects are in progress under the sponsorship of the Gosse
Bird Club. These projects are compiling information on
distribution and population estimates, and breeding
biology.
Red-necked amazon
Amazona arausiaca
Contributors: Paul Butler, Billy Christian, Susan Koenig,
and Noel Snyder.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (D1; D2).
CITES: Appendix I.

104
National protection status: In 1976, the Forestry and
Wildlife Act made it illegal to hunt parrots (Evans 1991).
Distribution and status: This species is found only on the
island of Dominica in the Lesser Antilles. Recent surveys
indicate that the main stronghold of the population is in
and around the forests of Morne Diablotin from 300–
800m, although the species is also found in other forested
areas of the island. Numbers have apparently risen in
recent years, from a low of 150 in 1980 to more than 500
by 1993 (Collar et al. 1994). Biologists of the Dominican
Ministry of Agriculture place the population at not less
than 2500 birds. Amazona arausiaca occurs at much higher
densities than the sympatric A. imperialis. Flocks of up to
five individuals can be seen regularly, although pairs and
trios are more common. Parrots have been observed eating
citrus fruits, opening the rind, and eating seeds.
Threats: The historic decline was presumably caused by a
combination of hunting for food, habitat conversion,
trade, and hurricanes (Evans 1991).
Actions: Although biological research on this species has
been intermittent since the late 1970s, key aspects of its
biology remain unknown. Such studies are needed and
desired by the local government. Efforts to establish the
proposed Morne Diablotin National Park should be
continued, since the long-term survival of the two endemic
parrots will be largely dependent on the continued existence
of the intact forest in this proposed protected area (Lambert
et. al 1993). Methods of protecting crops from damage by
red-necked amazons should also be investigated as it may
help reduce the human-wildlife conflict with citrus farmers.
With the growing tourist trade in Dominica, this species,
along with the imperial amazon, holds great promise as a
target of ecotourism development.
Yellow-shouldered amazon
Amazona barbadensis
Contributions: Adriana Rodriguez-Ferraro, JonPaul
Rodriguez, Franklin Rojas-Suarez, Virginia Sanz, and
Chris Sharpe.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (C2a).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to the
Falcon, Sucre, and Anzoátegui States of Venezuela, and
to the outlying islands of Margarita, La Blanquilla, and
Bonaire. It is considered extinct in Aruba. Amazona
barbadensis rothschildi occurs on Margarita Island (1900
individuals) and on Isla La Blanquilla there are an estimated
80–100 individuals (Rodriguez-Ferraro 1996). A.b.
barbadensis is found in Falcon and Anzoátegui states. The
total population of Falcon is estimated at 400–700
individuals and at least 100 for Cerro La Misión (M.
Goodwin pers. comm. 1997, Wege and Long 1995). The
subspecific designation for the two races may not be valid
(Amato 1995). There are also populations of unknown
size in the states of Lara (Carora), and Sucre (Peninsula de
Araya). On the island of Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles,
the population is estimated at 450 individuals (R. Hensen
pers. comm. 1992).
Threats: The main threat continues to be the trade for the
national and international pet market, which particularly
affects the western populations of Falcon and Lara states.
In Cerro La Misión, birds are captured as local household
pets. Nearly 120 individuals were confiscated in the islands
of Aruba and Curaçao between 1994 and 1996, all
Dominica
Red-necked amazon
Amazona arausiaca

105
originating in the Western mainland population. There
were 60 wild caught specimens recorded moving
internationally between 1991 and 1995, with an annual
maximum of 37 in 1994; 33 parrots were sent to Venezuela
from the Netherlands Antilles where they had been seized
(CITES Annual Report database).
In Margarita, habitat destruction still poses a significant
threat to the recovering population of Macanao peninsula,
particularly as seasonal watercourses are mined for
construction materials (sand and gravel). These seasonal
watercourses (quebradas) are the main nesting and feeding
grounds for A. barbadensis. In some areas, this parrot is
hunted as it is considered a pest of Spondias purpurea
orchards.
Actions: For the Margarita and La Blanquilla island
populations, Provita (a Venezuelan conservation
organisation) is running a successful programme, which
should be supported. This programme has combined a
successful environmental education campaign (A.
barbadensis was declared the State bird in 1990) with
strong linkages to local enforcement agencies (National
Guard, Ministry of the Environment), resulting in arrests
for poachers, confiscations, and a fruitful foster nest
programme to relocate chicks from nests at risk from
poaching. Yearly census have shown the population to
increase from 800 individuals in 1989 to 1900 in 1996.
Detailed studies of its diet and habitat use were pivotal in
an experimental and successful re-introduction project for
eight animals using radio-telemetry techniques (Sanz and
Grajal 1998). As the only protected area that (marginally)
protects the species, La Restinga National Park in
Margarita Island should be strengthened. A proposal for
the creation of a dedicated wildlife refuge in the Macanao
Peninsula (Rodriguez and Rojas-Suarez 1995), although
supported by local government and institutions, has been
stalled by the national government.
Further actions should include a census of western
populations of Falcon and Lara States to assess population
trends. The talks and awareness campaigns at La Blanquilla
Island should be continued. An ecotourism programme in
Margarita Island, focusing on the natural habitats of
Macanao Peninsula, might be developed. The possibility
of re-introducing A. barbadensis in Aruba should be
explored.
Red-tailed amazon
Amazona brasiliensis
Contributions: Paulo Martuschelli, Fábio Olmos, and
Pedro Scherer-Neto.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (A1b,c; A2c,d;
B1+2c,e; C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The red-tailed amazon is endemic
to the eastern slopes of Brazil’s Serra do Mar (from sea
level to 700m), in southern São Paulo and Paraná states,
and northern Santa Catarina state. The total area of
distribution of this species is approximately 3,000km2.
The species inhabits a mosaic of habitats, including
mangroves, restinga flooded forests, and dense rainforest
(six recognised habitat types) that occur in the narrow
stretch of land (10–30km wide) from the sea to the
mountains. The range includes several islands immediately
offshore that are used by the parrots as overnight roosts.
The most important islands are Peças, Rasa, and Superagui,
Yellow-shouldered amazon
Amazona barbadensis
Alejandro Grajal

106
with the largest roost at Pinheiro Island. Pinheiro island is
considered within the category of “Areas of relevant
ecological interest”, and part of the “Area of environmental
protection of Guaraqueçaba”. The population of red-
tailed amazons for Paraná State, once thought to be
relatively stable with circa 3,000 birds in 1988, is estimated
to have declined by a third, to about 2,000 individuals in
1992 (P. Scherer Neto in litt. 1992). The total population
of red-tailed amazons in 1997 was estimated between
3,500 and 4,500 individuals (P. Sherer-Neto in litt. 1997).
Threats: The main threat is capture of both adults and
young for the pet trade, particularly by local people and
fishermen on the offshore islands. Guarani Indians invaded
Superagui National Park and Ilha Cardoso State Park
and are believed to be partly responsible for low recruitment
rates, through shooting of adults. These reserves receive
almost no protection while the proposed Ilha Comprimida
State Park and Itapanhapina Ecological Station are still in
the design phase. The proposed construction of a bridge to
the mainland at Ilha Comprimida will increase tourism
pressure and habitat conversion (F. Olmos in litt. 1997).
About 356 birds were taken from the wild in the
municipality of Cananeia alone in 1991/1992. Three wild
caught specimens were recorded in international trade
between 1991 and 1995, all in 1993 (two seized birds and
one circus bird: CITES Annual Report database).
Shooting, loss of nest-trees to boat builders, and
deforestation for banana plantations, cattle grazing land,
and beach houses are additional serious threats.
Actions: Regular monitoring of all the significant remaining
populations of the species, and a major public awareness
and education programme for guards and local inhabitants
are urgently required. Vigilance against poaching, hunting,
and tree felling should be increased in and around all the
twelve protected areas within the range of the species, and
the small but important Ilha do Pinheiro should be included
in the adjacent Superagui National Park.
Yellow-billed parrot
Amazona collaria
Contributions: Herlitz Davis, Susan Koenig, Wendy Lee,
Catherine Levy, and Noel Snyder.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (A1c,d).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Since 1986, both A. collaria
and A. agilis have been listed as “threatened” by the
Jamaican government.
This is an addition to Collar et al. (1994) and hence the
IUCN Red List. Although there are still moderate numbers
of yellow-billed parrots, it is included because it is believed
to have suffered a precipitous population decline and
there is strong pressure on its populations from both
cagebird harvest and habitat destruction.
Distribution and status: The yellow-billed parrot is endemic
to Jamaica, this species is still widespread, more so than
the other Jamaican Amazona species, the black-billed
parrot Amazona agilis, although no thorough island-wide
surveys have yet been conducted. Flocks of 50–60
individuals are observed year-round, particularly in the
non-breeding season, moving from the forest interior to
edge habitat to forage. This species is particularly found in
Cockpit Country, Mt. Diablo, and the John Crow
Mountains. A small (presumably feral) population is also
established at Hope Gardens in Kingston. In the Cockpit
Country, an area which has long been considered the
stronghold of this species, recent studies indicate that A.
collaria is less abundant than A. agilis, possibly a result of
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107
A. collaria being a more colourful species and preferred in
trade. While A. agilis is currently found nesting throughout
Cockpit, including disturbed plantation areas along the
edges, A. collaria now nests almost exclusively in relatively
remote interior regions. Local reports suggest a significant
overall decline in Cockpit and a higher degree of threat
than for A. agilis. Preliminary population counts suggest
5,000 individuals in the Cockpit Country, Mt. Diablo, and
the John Crow Mountains (C. Levy in litt. 1999). The
species is often difficult to distinguish from A. agilis at a
distance and potential misidentifications may have affected
the validity of some earlier reports on its abundance and
distribution.
Threats: Illegal trade has been a much greater threat to A.
collaria than to A. agilis, presumably because the latter is
relatively difficult to keep healthy in captivity and is less
colourful. Existence of a feral A. collaria population in
disturbed habitat in Kingston suggests that the species
may have been more threatened by trade than by habitat
destruction, although both factors appear to have been
involved. One wild caught specimen was recorded in
international trade in 1991 and none between 1992 and
1995 (CITES Annual Report database). Some persecution
for crop and garden damage, especially citrus, has also
been reported. Nesting success in recent studies in Cockpit
Country has been lower than for agilis, with a high
percentage (circa 70%) of pairs exploring and defending
nest sites but failing to lay eggs.
Actions: A major study of both Jamaican amazons was
initiated in 1995 by the Gosse Bird Club with the ultimate
goal of developing conservation recommendations.
Conservation efforts important to both A. collaria and A.
agilis include protection of habitat, control of harvesting
for the pet trade, and control of shooting. The Forestry
Acts of 1937 and 1973 provide certain forms of protection
to some habitat, such as the Cockpit Country Forestry
Reserve, and other areas have been established as
sanctuaries. Portions of the lands important to native
parrots (Blue Mountains, John Crow Mountains, Portland
Ridge, Cockpit Country, and major swamps) have been
designated potential (and in some cases established as)
national parks under the National Physical Plan for
Jamaica. In 1986, both A. collaria and A. agilis were listed
as “threatened” by the Jamaican government. Also,
stringent gun control has been instituted by the Jamaican
government. All of these policies have resulted in a general
awareness of the legal status of parrots among Jamaicans.
However, they are still harvested illegally for local and
international trade, and a stricter enforcement policy on
poaching of nests is needed. Cockpit Country is not yet an
officially established national park, and comprehensive
protection of this area is believed to be a central need for
conservation of Jamaica’s parrots.
St Vincent amazon
Amazona guildingii
Contributors: Paul Butler, James Gilardi, David Jeggo,
and Fitzroy Springer.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (D1; D2).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is found only in the
forested areas of the island of St Vincent in the Lesser
Antilles. Biennial surveys conducted since the late 1980s
suggest that the population is quite stable, possibly
increasing recently to 800 birds (Collar et al. 1994).
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108
Approximately 30 individuals are currently in captivity in
an aviary in the Botanical Gardens in St Vincent.
Approximately 60 birds are also found in Barbados, North
America, and Europe combined. All known captive birds
are registered in a studbook for this species.
Threats: Historically the major threats have been hunting
for both food and the pet trade, and to a lesser extent,
habitat conversion. Chicks were taken from nests which
partially explains why there are more of these birds in
captivity than there are St Lucia parrots, which were
apparently never collected.
Intermittent hurricanes may have reduced population
numbers in the past, particularly Hurricane Allen in 1980.
The eruption of the Soufriere volcano in 1979 directly
eliminated undetermined numbers of parrots as well as
destroying a considerable amount of the remaining forest
on the island (Nichols 1981). Both types of natural disasters
are to be expected in the future and can only be effectively
countered by a healthy population of parrots in a healthy
quantity of habitat.
Actions: As with all the amazons of the Lesser Antilles, this
species has received considerable domestic and international
attention (Butler 1992). Initiated in the late 1980s, education
campaigns and political action have led directly to
meaningful protection of the rainforest and of this species.
This species has itself become the St Vincent and the
Grenadines’ National Bird (Butler 1988).
This species remains one of the least studied of all the
Caribbean amazons. Beyond the population surveys and
the description of several nest sites, little is known of its
biology. In addition to continued protection and censusing,
a study of the reproductive success, movement patterns,
and habitat requirements of this species is fundamental to
its continued recovery.
Imperial amazon
Amazona imperialis
Contributors: Paul Butler, Billy Christian, Susan Koenig,
and Noel Snyder.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (D1; D2).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Dominica’s Forestry and
Wildlife Act of 1976 prohibits the hunting of parrots.
Distribution and status: This species is found only in the
rainforests of Morne Diablotin and in the southern
mountains east of Rousseau on Dominica in the Lesser
Antilles. In the early 1990s it numbered less than 100
individuals (Evans 1994), although recent observations
suggest higher numbers. In 1994 close to 100 individuals
were observed in just one valley on the west side of Morne
Diablotin. The total population was roughly estimated to
be in the low 100s (N. Snyder in litt. 1997). Biologists at the
Dominican Ministry of Agriculture estimate the population
for 1998 at 250 to 300 birds.
Threats: Shooting for food was historically the most
important threat but this threat has been much reduced in
recent years. There has been some deforestation but the
occupied habitat of the species is still in relatively good
shape. Presumably Hurricane David in 1979 reduced the
population somewhat, but the main effects of the storm
were in the southern part of the island.
Little is known of the threats from potential
competitors. Red-necked parrots apparently initiate
nesting earlier in the season, and in one instance a pair of
red-necks used an historic imperial amazon nest site.
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109
Actions: In recent years the imperial amazon has benefited
from joint government and NGO efforts to protect its
habitat and sensitise local citizens to its needs. Although
biological research on the biology of this species has been
intermittent since the late 1970s, key aspects of its biology
remain unknown.
Efforts to establish the proposed Morne Diablotin
National Park should be of top priority, since the long-
term survival of the two endemic parrots will be largely
dependent on the continued existence of the intact forest in
this proposed protected area. With the growing tourist
trade in Dominica, this species along with the red-necked
amazon holds great promise as a target of ecotourism
development. Very little is known about the ecology of this
species and what factors are currently affecting its status.
Such studies are needed and desired by the local government.
Late news: the Morne Diablotin National Park was
established in January 2000.
Yellow-headed parrot
Amazona oratrix
Contributors: Sergio Aguilar, Alvaro Aragón-Tapia, Mauro
Berlanga, Jack Clinton-Eitniear, Ernesto Enkerlin-
Hoeflich, Jaime Gonzalez-Elizondo, José Luis Manzano-
Loza, Carolyn Miller, Ernesto Ruelas, Mario A. Vazquez,
and Paul Wood.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (A1a,c,d; A2c,d;
C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Endangered in Mexico (Peligro
de extincion, NOM-ECOL-059-1994).
Distribution and status: This species is native to Mexico,
Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras. Populations have
dramatically declined through most of its range. Four
forms or races are considered but have yet to receive
official subspecific recognition (Clinton-Eitniear in litt.
1997). A. o. oratrix and A. o. “magna” are respectively
found primarily along the eastern and western coasts of
Mexico. A. o. tresmariae is endemic to the Tres Marias
Archipelago off the coast of Nayarit, Maria Madre, Maria
Magdalena, and Maria Cleófas in Mexico. A. o. belizensis,
once formerly widespread in coastal Belize, is now primarily
found in north-western Belize, and along the northern
Guatemala-Honduras border. Its present range is very
similar to its historic range although its distribution is
Yellow-headed parrot
Amazona oratrix

110
currently contracting and is now reduced to isolated
populations within its core range (see also map in Howell
and Webb 1995).
Threats: A. o. oratrix is highly sought after by both the
national and international pet market (Enkerlin-Hoeflich
and Packard 1993). It is evidently still present in illegal
national trade since juvenile and yearling birds (recognised
by the extent of yellow on the head and other subtle
characteristics) are still found openly exhibited by proud
owners who upon questioning argue that they have had
the pet for “many years” (Enkerlin-Hoeflich in litt. 1997).
A. oratrix is the second most important species in the
number of confiscated parrots at the Mexico-Texas border
after A. auropalliata (Gobbi et al. 1996). A. oratrix most
likely originate in Mexico, whereas A. auropalliata are
presumed to be passed through Mexico from Honduras
and Guatemala. There were 53 wild caught specimens of
the whole species recorded in international trade between
1991 and 1995, with an annual maximum of 25 individuals
in 1995 (CITES Annual Report database).
Actions: Increased awareness campaigns are the greatest
hope for the species. Several organisations within Mexico
such as TEYELIZ and Naturalia have initiated country-
wide campaigns to educate the public of those Psittacines
species that may be traded legally. Colourful posters
depicting illegal species are posted in every airport and
customs check points throughout the country. Mexican
wildlife authorities through PROFEPA have greatly
improved their capabilities for law enforcement and
confiscation. Jail sentences and follow-up actions are still
the exception but the exposure of offenders is creating
enough awareness amongst the great majority of the
public.
Ample opportunity lies with education and pride
generation in rural areas. The majority of the land in
Mexico is privately owned. Co-operation with landowners
appears to provide the greatest opportunity to ensure
effective conservation measures. The Centre for the Study
of Tropical Birds in conjunction with Mexican institutions
has started the “Dia de los Loros”, a one day festival in the
remaining core area for the species in north-east Mexico
(J. Clinton-Eitniear in litt. 1997). In terms of intensive
population management, reduction of pre-fledging
mortality seems to hold most promise as A. oratrix do not
commonly double clutch and do not seem limited by nest
sites. Elimination of predation by snakes might allow for
minimum increased recruitment of approximately 10% of
active nests in Mexican areas. Such an increase in
productivity would be considerable for a population
comprising a few thousand individuals. Other alternatives
would be to implement nest guarding. This approach has
been used in the conservation of the Puerto Rican parrot
(Lindsey 1992). We envision however that the use of
intensive techniques for conservation of species per se is
unlikely to be required. Instead, such techniques will
remain to be used only as a last resort especially when the
cost effectiveness of education and enforcement is
considered.
Tres Marias population (A. o. tresmariae)
Distribution and status: A. o. tresmariae is endemic to Tres
Marias Archipelago off the coast of Nayarit, Maria Madre,
Maria Magdalena, and Maria Cleófas in Mexico.
Threats: A. o. tresmariae individuals continue to be trapped
by local island residents. Reports of Tres Marias parrots
being moved within the market in mainland Mexico are
frequent but impossible to substantiate (J.C. Cantata in
lit. 1997). The Mexican Government recently authorised
the extraction of nine pairs for “conservation through
aviculture” to a private breeding facility, which might
increase demand by other aviculturists. The Government
of Mexico has also announced a national programme to
establish “units for wildlife use and conservation” (UMAs)
around Mexico. Whilst this scheme may eventually prove
to be successful, at present it poses a serious threat to a
number of parrot species, including A. oratrix for which
increased trade will result as these facilities start. As
controls are cuntrently lax, it will also greatly increase the
probabilities for laundering wild caught birds. Fifty three
wild caught specimens of the whole species were recorded
in international trade between 1991 and 1995, with an
annual maximum of 25 in 1995, together with an individual
noted as this subspecies in 1992 and another 1994 (CITES
Annual Report database).
Actions: Fortunately for the future of A. o. tresmariae, the
archipelago will remain under the control of Mexican
prison authorities. The Secretaría de Gobernación
(Ministry of Government Affairs) intends to afford
protected status designation to the islands and include a
sea buffer area around them (J. Díaz de Leon in litt. 1997).
A proposed project will evaluate the state of endemic
birds, with special emphasis on the two parrots A. o.
tresmariae and Forpus cyanopygius insularis, and mammals.
Another project will propose and implement measures to
reduce and ultimately eradicate introduced goats, cats,
and deer.
Belize population (A. o. belizensis)
Distribution and status: Once widespread in suitable habitat
in coastal Belize, this species is now primarily found in
north-western Belize, and along the northern Guatemala-
Honduras border. There is reportedly a “good” population
in a private reserve, the Rio Bravo Conservation and
Management Area, in the north-western part of Belize.

111
Interestingly, this area includes Hillbank where the species
was reported to be common in the 1960s (Russell 1964).
Another population is reported from Monkey Bay Wildlife
Sanctuary in the central part of the country along the
Western Highway. (See Collar et al. 1992 for an ample
description and account).
Threats: Although A. o. belizensis is well protected at the
Rio Bravo and Monkey Bay properties, the population is
thought to be declining throughout the country. Recent
development of extensive housing tracts presents a new
threat to populations in unprotected savanna areas. A. o.
belizensis is also frequently shot as a citrus pest and citrus
development is currently expanding in Belize. There is
limited, if any, export of A. o. belizensis. There were 53
wild caught specimens of the whole species recorded in
international trade between 1991 and 1995, with an annual
maximum of 25 individuals in 1995 (CITES Annual Report
database).
Actions: Government conservation officials in Belize have
expressed interest in developing a captive parrot banding
registration scheme for A. o. belizensis. After captive birds
are banded and registered, newly captured birds can be
confiscated, and owners can be prosecuted. The Belize
Zoo has been active over the years in discouraging parrots
as pets, and most school children visit the Belize Zoo.
However, there has been no widespread campaign targeted
at this species. The Belize Audubon Society is initiating a
publicity campaign beginning with a press release and they
are developing further educational efforts targeting this
species.
Ecotourism is the second largest revenue generator in
Belize but it has tended to bypass savanna areas.
Ecotourism is being developed at the Rio Bravo
Conservation Area and A. oratrix could conceivably be an
aspect of ecotourism. Bird watchers constitute a large
percentage of Belize’s tourists and they would no doubt be
delighted to add this bird to their list. The following
actions are suggested for the conservation of A. oratrix in
Belize: evaluation of existing wild populations to determine
the distribution and quality of protection; banding and
registering captive populations, and an education campaign
in English, Spanish, and Chinese creating conservation
awareness of the species.
Red-spectacled parrot
Amazona pretrei
Contributors: Jaime Martinez, and Nemora Prestes.
Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered (A1c,d; A2c,d; C1).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to south
Brazil, and distributed only in the states of Rio Grande do
Sul and Santa Catarina (Martinez 1996). A few individuals
have been recorded in the Misiones forests of north-
eastern Argentina (Chebez 1994) and it has also recently
been reported from Paraguay (see Lowen et al. 1997). A
nomadic species, A. pretrei tends to concentrate in the
remaining Araucaria forests of south-eastern Santa Catarina
between March and June to feed on the mass seed production
of Araucaria augustifolia. During August and January, A.
pretrei disperses in small flocks that range from tens to
hundreds of individuals in a wide distribution throughout
Rio Grande do Sul, particularly at the habitats of Campos
da Cima da Serra, Planalto Medio, Alto Uruguai,
Depression Central, and Serra do Sudeste. A census in 1994
estimated total population at 10,000 individuals, repeated
censuses have shown population sizes of about 12,600
individuals in 1996, and approximately 16,300 individuals
in 1997 (J. Martinez in litt. 1997, N. Prestes in litt. 1997).
Red-spectacled parrot
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112
Threats: The main threat is thought to be the illegal
domestic trade, particularly occurring in the municipalities
of Lagoa Vermelha, Barracão, Esmeralda, and Muitos
Capões. Approximately 500 chicks are taken annually
from nests to be sold in the large urban centres of
Caixas do Sul, Florianópolis, Curitiba, and São Paulo
(Prestes et al. 1997). Reductions in the Araucaria seed
supply may have been the cause for the change in feeding
grounds from Aracuri Biological Station in 1991 (Muitos
Capões municipality) to the areas around the south-
east of Santa Catarina. Here the remaining Araucaria
forest patches may provide enough seed to feed the
populations of A. pretrei. Intense cattle grazing and
agriculture have nearly eradicated Araucaria forest habitat.
These habitat impacts have reduced natural regeneration,
and may have also reduced the number of nesting sites in
old trees.
Actions: The continuing monitoring programme in
southern Brazil, through regular censuses in its feeding
and reproduction areas, together with recent advances in
radio-telemetry, are providing information on yearly
movements and population dynamics. Many land owners
are engaged in protection of the trees where the parrot
nests. The awareness programme includes an intense
environmental education programme directed at students,
professors, ranchers (fazenderos), and rural workers, using
posters, presentations, and other publications. One of the
communal roosts in the middle of a reproductive area was
protected with the creation of the Carazinho Municipal
Park. In the last two years artificial nests have been
installed, but these boxes have not been used despite a
potential limitation in suitable nesting trees. Further
intensification of environmental education campaigns,
enforcement of anti-poaching regulations, and provision
of alternative sources of income for trappers could diminish
the capture for the pet trade.
Red-browed amazon
Amazona rhodocorytha
Contributors: Paulo Martuschelli, Fábio Olmos, and Carlos
Yamashita.
Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered (B1+2c,e; C2a; D1).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to the
lowland hardwood areas of Brazil’s Atlantic forest,
ranging from southern Alagoas state to extreme
northern São Paulo state. Its population size is unknown
but it is assumed to be rapidly declining as habitat
diminishes.
Threats: Habitat destruction is the main threat; the forest
where this species occurs is now highly fragmented. Cocoa
production was formerly the main economy in the parrot’s
most suitable habitats (southern Bahia state). The decline
of cocoa production has led to large trees that provide
suitable shade and nest sites being felled. Landless people
Red-browed amazon
Amazona rhodocorytha

113
(“sem terras”, many of whom formerly worked the cocoa
plantations) have expanded into protected areas, where
they are involved in illegal logging operations. Illegal
trade may also be a threat, as it is for all large parrots in
Brazil (i.e., macaws and amazons).
Actions: The red-browed amazon’s most pressing need is
for the location and immediate protection of additional
remnant forest areas within its range. A major survey to
identify the key sites for the conservation of parrot
populations ranging from the eastern part of Minas Gerais
in the south, to Ceará in the north is therefore the most
pressing priority. The impacts of illegal trapping and
other threats should be assessed by a study of parrots in
Sooretama Reserve. Specifically, it is important to
recognise the biological importance of the Porto Seguro
Reserve (also known as Estação Veracruz) in Bahia and
assign total protection to it. This reserve was purchased by
a cellulose producing company from the (electric utility)
Companhia de Vale do Rio Doce. All forest patches left in
southern Bahia State deserve protection. These forests are
vanishing quickly, as cocoa prices are dropping and
landowners are selling timber to earn money. Authorities
in Rio de Janeiro state should take the necessary steps to
protect forests outside park boundaries where the species
has been recorded, i.e., at Desenganho State Park and on
Ilha Grande. The removal of nestlings as well as the
capture and shooting of adult birds may be reduced by an
education campaign in the areas adjacent to the breeding
sites. In addition, curbing and enforcing anti-trafficking
laws on the roads connecting Monte Pascoal National
Park with the rest of southern Brazil may reduce the
pressure on the local bird population.
Hispaniolan parrot
Amazona ventralis
Contributor: James Wiley.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (A1c,d).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: The parrot is protected by law
(DR- 1975-Regulation 601) against chick harvesting and
hunting in the Dominican Republic.
This is an addition to Collar et al. (1994) and hence the
IUCN Red List. Although a relatively common parrot in
Hispaniola, there has been an inferred substantial recent
reduction in available habitat. Deforestation in the last
protected areas and habitat strongholds is likely to
accelerate in the next few years.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to
Hispaniola and outlying islands, including Grande
Cayemite, Gonäve, Saona, and Beata. The species was
formerly common throughout the main island, but is now
greatly reduced in numbers to the point of being extirpated
or uncommon in most areas (Woods and Ottenwalder
1987, 1992; Dod 1992). In Haiti, it still occurs in suitable
numbers in the Massif de La Selle and Massif de La Hotte
(Woods and Ottenwalder 1992). It is considered threatened
throughout its native range, where it is rapidly decreasing
in distribution and number. Dod (1978, 1992) reported
that its numbers declined dramatically in the 1970s and
that the parrot would soon become extinct in the Dominican
Republic. Woods and Ottenwalder (1992) classified the
parrot as Threatened throughout its range, but noted that
Hispaniolan parrot
Amazona ventralis

114
the populations in Haiti are Endangered. It was introduced
to Puerto Rico where it is established and locally common,
especially in western and north-central parts of the island
(Long 1981, Lever 1987, Raffaele and Kepler 1992).
Threats: The main threat is the loss of habitat from
conversion to agriculture uses. The parrots form small to
large foraging flocks that sometimes depredate crops,
whereupon birds are shot or poisoned. Demand in the
local and international pet trade has apparently affected
most populations. Despite legislation and some vigorous
efforts to curb that trade, parrots are still being harvested
throughout the island. Trade was thought to be partly
driven by the high price these birds command on the
international market, although only 15 birds were recorded
in international trade from 1991–1995 (CITES Annual
Report database). Although several important parrot
habitats have been established as protected areas, at least
some of these (e.g., Parque Nacional Los Haitises) are
poorly protected and parrot populations have continued
to decline. Parrot populations in other protected areas
(e.g., Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco) have shown
relatively positive population increases, from low levels of
the early 1980s, as a response to adequate habitat
conservation and protection against shooting and
harvesting of chicks.
Actions: Additional protected habitat is needed. Much of
the habitat which has been established as reserves requires
stronger enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations. The
Hispaniolan parrot has been bred in captivity in several
facilities, but there is currently no need for a captive
propagation and release programme (Gates 1971,
Carpenter 1977, Wiley and Gee 1981, Snyder et al. 1987).
St Lucia parrot
Amazona versicolor
Contributors: Andrew Alexander, Donald Anthony,
Michael Bobb, Paul Butler, Alwin Dornelly, James Gilardi,
David Jeggo, C. Lyndon John, and Noel Snyder.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (D1; D2).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The St Lucia parrot is found only
in the rainforests of St Lucia in the Lesser Antilles. Although
once depleted from much of its range, surveys in 1996 and
1997 found the St Lucia parrot in most of the island’s
intact forests above 300m. Pairs have recently been
observed north of the Barre de Lisle ridge (Forestiere) and
flying over the town of Soufriere. Estimates from the mid-
1970s suggested that the population may have dipped to as
few as 100 individuals (Jeggo 1976, Butler 1987). A survey
in August 1996 roughly estimated the population to number
350–500 birds (D. Jeggo unpublished data).
There are currently five captive individuals in St Lucia,
approximately 20 birds in a captive breeding programme
at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (JWPT) in the
British Isles, and two males at Paradise Park in England.
No other St Lucia parrots are known to be in captivity.
Threats: The primary causes of the decline were a
combination of habitat destruction, shooting for food,
sport, and the pet trade. Currently the forest is well
protected, as is the parrot. Hunting of all native wildlife is
currently banned, but this legislation is in the form of a
temporary moratorium that is reinstated annually.
Actions: Since the late 1970s, this species has received
considerable attention both locally and internationally.
Censuses have been conducted on a roughly biennial basis
by the Forest and Lands Department and JWPT (see
Jeggo and Anthony 1991). A large scale and highly
successful education campaign was launched in 1978
involving educating adults and children, designing a
St Lucia
St Lucia parrot
Amazona versicolor

115
“parrot bus” as a mobile display, designating the species
as the National Bird, and protecting a large portion of the
species’ remaining habitat in the Parrot Reserve.
Since 1992, intensive efforts to study the ecology of this
species have been undertaken by the Department of Forest
and Lands, JWPT, and for the last few years by their sister
group, Wildlife Preservation Trust International (WPTI).
Breeding success appears to be normal for a Caribbean
amazon; approximately half of the nests produce fledging
chicks each year. Parrot densities in the core of the parrots’
range (Quilesse and Edmond Forests) may be approaching
pre-human impact levels. Outside this area however,
particularly in the northerly forests, densities remain quite
low and should continue to be monitored.
While it remains to be seen what effect changes in the
banana industry will have on the health of St Lucia’s
forests, there remains significant pressure to resume hunting
of wildlife species in the Parrot Reserve. The presence of
firearms in the forest will almost certainly lead to parrot
deaths and disturbance even if they are not targeted by the
hunt. It would be impossible to monitor illegal hunting of
parrots. Legislation to permanently ban hunting in the
forest or in the country as a whole is likely to be the most
constructive conservation action that could be taken in the
next few years. The recent history of the St Lucia parrot
has been one of the great success stories in wildlife
conservation and has brought together important changes
in legislation, education of native St Lucians, development
of ecotourism, and scientific exploration. To allow hunting
for a few individuals at this time would be a most
unfortunate reversal of this tremendous success.
Vinaceous amazon
Amazona vinacea
Contributors: Jaqueline Goerck, Paulo Martuschelli, Fábio
Olmos, and Carlos Yamashita.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (A1a,c,d; A2c,d;
C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to
submontane “mixed” regions of Brazil’s Atlantic forest,
ranging from Minas Gerais state to extreme northern Rio
Grande do Sul state. The range consists of mixed Podocarpus
and Araucaria subtropical forest. Fruit orchards also occupy
much of the habitat. In Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do
Sul A. vinacea is partially sympatric with (i.e., originated
within part of the range of) A. pretrei.
Threats: All the populations are isolated on “islands” of
suitable habitat (usually steep hills e.g., Serra de
Paranapiacaba, and Serra de Mantiquiera). Habitat
destruction is the main threat, the forest being highly
fragmented. Cocoa production was the main economy
and was cultivated within habitat most suitable for parrots
(southern Bahia state). The decline of cocoa production
has led to felling of the larger trees that provided shade and
suitable nest sites. Landless people (“sem terras”, many of
whom formerly worked the cocoa plantations) have
expanded into protected areas, where they are involved in
illegal logging operations. The threat from the local pet
Vinaceous amazon
Amazona vinacea

116
trade is a greater threat for A. vinacea than it is for A.
rhodocorytha due to its popularity.
At Campos do Jordao State Park (São Paulo),
approximately 20 pairs suffer thefts of nestlings and no
recruitment. The park is not adequately protected despite
having field personnel. A population of approximately 180
birds occurs in the 1,500km2 Jacupiranga State Park near
the Paraná border. Nearly 500km2 have been destroyed by
just under 5,000 squatters since the 1970s. In addition to
land speculation and nestling theft, a major road (the
BR116) that cuts through the park is being expanded by
two additional lanes with money from the Inter American
Development Bank (IADB). Despite payments by the
bank for environmental mitigation, these scarce funds
have been used to develop tourism facilities and community
development projects instead of resettling people or
strengthening the park management and protection.
Jacupiranga Park is an important site for parrot
conservation as it still harbours significant amounts of
suitable habitat for Amazona brasiliensis, Triclaria, and
probably Touit surda and melanonota. A major project to
turn this park into a real conservation area should be
considered.
Actions: See A. rhodocorytha
Red-crowned parrot
Amazona viridigenalis
Contributors: Alvaro Aragón-Tapia, Jack Clinton-
Eitniear, Ernesto Enkerlin-Hoeflich, Jaime Gonzalez-
Elizondo, Teresa Lopez de Lara, José Luis Manzano-
Loza, and Mario A. Vazquez.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (A1a,c,d; A2c,d;
C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix I (it was transferred from Appendix II
in 1997).
National protection status: Endangered in Mexico (Peligro
de extincion, NOM-ECOL-059-1994).
Distribution and status: This species is resident within
suitable habitat in a limited distribution of approximately
50,000km2, mainly in Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Nuevo
León and north-eastern Veracruz, Mexico. Established
feral populations are increasing in several cities in Texas,
Florida, California, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii, and in the
cities of Monterrey, Villa de Garcia, Mérida, Montemorelos,
Tijuana, and Tampico, Mexico. The ability of this bird to
colonise new habitat, especially urban and suburban, poses
questions as to the validity of declaring an extension of the
“natural” range to areas such as Uxpanapa in southern
Veracruz, the Sierra in Queretaro State, or Tampico. As of
1995, the southern California population was estimated at
750–1,000 individuals (Garret 1997), a striking increase
since 1972 when it was considered very rare (Hardy 1973).
The density estimate in 1992–94 of 5.7 birds/ha
(Enkerlin-Hoeflich 1995) is within the range of estimates
from two previous studies (7.3 for 1985 and 4.72 for 1986:
Perez 1986), but considerably less than the 25.2 birds/ha
reported in 1970s (Castro 1976). The 1992–94 estimate is
based on number of nests per hectare, in contrast to the
variable circular plot technique used by previous
researchers. Part of the difference in density estimates
could be due to problems in identification of A. autumnalis.
Observers not thoroughly familiar with particular species
can easily mistake A. autumnalis with historically more
regionally abundant A. viridigenalis (Enkerlin-Hoeflich
and Packard 1993).
Threats: Local eradications of Amazona parrots in many
areas of north-eastern Mexico are due to habitat loss and
capture (Enkerlin-Hoeflich 1995). However, the ability of
A. viridigenalis to successfully make use of disturbed
habitat mosaics, leads one to assume that capture is the
main problem. Sixteen thousand four hundred and ninety
individuals (Iñigo-Elias and Ramos 1997), largely nestlings,
of A. viridigenalis were legally exported to the USA between
1970 and 1982, with estimates of similar numbers illegally
(several feral populations not shown)
Red-crowned parrot
Amazona viridigenalis

117
leaving Mexico. Pre-export mortality was estimated at
greater than 50% (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Packard 1993).
The estimated minimum level of harvest was approximately
5,000 A. viridigenalis per year for a 12 year period, based
on combined legal and illegal trade, and expected mortality.
This is a very large number of individuals considering the
limited range of the species. There were 63 wild caught
specimens recorded in international trade between 1991
and 1995, with annual peaks of 23 in 1993 and 29 in 1995
(CITES Annual Report database).
Poaching also effects nest site availability in Mexico as
poachers often fell trees to extract chicks from nest cavities.
Tree-felling facilitates poaching and increases the overall
impact of direct habitat loss. A. viridigenalis does not
appear sensitive to clearing if enough nesting cavities are
available (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997). Given the
high availability of suitable cavities, destruction of nest
cavities itself is not one of the major threats to the viability
of A. viridigenalis (Enkerlin-Hoeflich 1995).
Actions: Red-crowned parrots use cavities with a wide
range of characteristics, in a variety of tree species.
Acceptance of different cavity characteristics and
vegetation assemblages suggests conservation of A.
viridigenalis could be successful in mosaics of disturbed
vegetation if tree replacement by native species, such as
ebony, coma, and strangler fig is authorised and promoted
(Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Packard 1993). If adequately
promoted, pastures could instead be used as a basis for
protection through education and agreements with
landowners. While conservation measures should include
an array of approaches, those that can rapidly reduce
levels of unsustainable harvest should receive priority
over more long term habitat management (Enkerlin-
Hoeflich and Packard 1993). Woodlots are crucial for
maintaining nesting habitat and providing germplasm for
the regeneration of trees in presently treeless areas. The
prevalent practice in north-eastern Mexico of clearing
understorey vegetation from cattle pastures (leaving
standing trees at densities of nine or more per hectare),
would still provide nesting habitat for parrots in the short-
term. While ranchers are becoming increasingly aware of
the benefits of maintaining large trees on pastures, current
pasture management schemes will continue to reduce tree
density within pastures. Large expanses of land used for
cattle production could be integrated into parrot
conservation schemes. Given that knowledge of parrots
ecology is still in its early stages, a policy of enhancing tree
regeneration and maintenance of all remaining forest
patches seems the safest strategy. It may be the most
important component of long-term conservation, not only
for A. viridigenalis, but for many additional species as well
(Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Packard 1993).
Re-introductions have been considered for some parrot
species, but given the risks inherent in such efforts (Wiley
et al. 1992) and the current status of A. viridigenalis, this
approach does not seem to be needed or warranted.
Conservation practice would benefit by considering
aggregated nesting in a selection of areas targeted for
management or protection of A. viridigenalis (Enkerlin-
Hoeflich and Hogan 1997). A site- and species-specific
approach for protecting known nesting areas (similar to
clusters or colonies of red-cockaded woodpecker Picoides
borealis: Haig et al. 1993), coupled with broader-scale but
less intense protection of areas for feeding and dispersal,
can be more efficient than protecting large tracts of “parrot-
empty” areas. Whilst conservation of large tracks is a safe
and proven strategy, it is frequently not feasible. Thus,
strategies combining both conservation and development
are needed, especially in developing countries such as
Mexico (Enkerlin-Hoeflich 1995). CITES Appendix I
listing of this species should prevent international trade,
although illegal international trade from Mexico to the
USA has been well documented (Gobbi et al., 1996).
National trapping and commercial trade of this species
were banned in 1983, but more creative thought on how to
implement this ban is needed.
Puerto Rican parrot
Amazona vittata
Contributors: James Wiley, Joseph Wunderle, Ann Smith,
Fernando Nuñez, and Jose Chabert.
Conservation status: IUCN: Critically Endangered (D1; D2).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Protected by Puerto Rico
Commonwealth and United States federal laws.
Distribution and status: The endemic Puerto Rican parrot
was formerly common and widespread. It occurred
throughout the forested areas of Puerto Rico and the
islands of Culebra (where an endemic subspecies, A. v.
gracilipes, is extinct), Mona, and Vieques (Snyder et al.
Puerto Rican parrot
Amazona vittata

118
1987). An estimated 100,000 parrots existed when
Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico in 1493 (Wiley 1980).
Now it is Critically Endangered and one of the rarest birds
in the world. In 1975, only 13 parrots were known to
survive in the wild (with an additional eight birds in
captivity), all in the rainforest of the Luquillo Mountains
(Snyder et al. 1987). By 1989, the wild parrot population
had increased to 48 birds, but Hurricane Hugo, which
swept across Puerto Rico on 18 September of that year,
reduced the population to approximately 20–22 birds. As
of August 1996, the Puerto Rican parrot numbered 48
wild birds and 87 in captivity.
Threats: The most important factor contributing to the
decline of the parrot was the near island-wide removal of
its original habitat (Wiley 1980, 1985, Snyder et al. 1987).
Other factors included persecution by farmers, harvesting
for the pet trade, and competition with and predation by
native and exotic species (Snyder 1978, Snyder and Taapken
1978, Snyder et al. 1987). Important current threats include
disease spread from exotic species of parrots, and
competition with these and other species of birds and
other introduced animals. The small, local (restricted to
one area) population of parrots is at risk from another
direct hit by a hurricane (Wiley and Wunderle 1993).
There is also concern regarding genetic problems resulting
from the depressed diversity of a population consisting of
no more than six breeding pairs per year for three decades.
Actions: The parrot’s habitat, now entirely confined within
the boundaries of the Caribbean National Forest, is
protected from most threats. Nevertheless, a recent threat
to this reserve came from the USA Forest Service to harvest
timber from the reserve in 1986. Those plans were thwarted
by negative public response. The latest threat is the proposal
to reopen a major highway through parrot habitat in the
forest that has been closed for sometime. Through seed
money from the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF)
and the interest of the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the
US Forest Service, an intensive programme of research and
conservation began in 1968. The programme has continued
through to the present, with the primary involvement of the
US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Forest Service, and the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Department of Natural
Resources. A captive breeding programme was begun in
1970. The captive flock consists of 93 birds, split between
aviaries in the Luquillo Mountains (50 birds) and Río
Abajo (43). The stock is of good genetic diversity and is
genetically representative of the wild population. The first
captive-produced chick was raised in 1979. That chick, as
well as several other captive-produced parrots, has been
used to bolster wild production through fostering into wild
nests or releases of free-flying birds.
The goal of the conservation programme is to develop
a strategy for the parrot’s recovery, based on sound
biological data. The programme consists of (i) predator
and competitor control; (ii) management of nest cavities;
(iii) close guarding of active nests to maximise chick
survival; and (iv) captive breeding and release.
Yellow-faced amazon
Amazona xanthops
Contributors: Paulo Martuschelli, Carlos Yamashita.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (A1b).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Yellow-faced amazon
Amazona xanthops

119
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to the
formerly extensive Cerrado (dry woodland) of interior
eastern Brazil (found within the states of Maranhão,
Piauî, Tocantins, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do
Sul, Bahia, Minas Gerais, and São Paulo), eastern Bolivia,
and northern Paraguay. Nearly 60–70% of this area has
been converted to mechanised soybean croplands in the
past 20 years and the species has become extremely scarce
in many areas. It moves semi-nomadically, ranging over
huge areas. Although it occurs in protected areas, such as
Brasilia National Park, Grande Sertões Veredas, Chapada
dos Veadeiros, Chapada dos Guimarães, and Emas
National Park, its nomadic nature means that no protected
area can permanently hold a population (A. Whittaker
in litt. 1993).
Threats: Habitat conversion to mechanised soybean
cultivation is among the threats facing this species. Nine
wild caught specimens were recorded in international
trade between 1991 and 1995, with an annual maximum of
four in 1994 (CITES Annual Report database).
Actions: Information is urgently required on distribution,
population status, and threats.
Hyacinth macaw
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus
Contributors: Jaqueline Goerck, Neiva Guedes, Charles
Munn, and Carlos Yamashita.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (A1c,d; A2c,d).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Protected under Brazilian law.
Distribution and status: The Pantanal population may
number a maximum of 5,000 birds (N. Guedes in litt.
1997). Recent work in the Chapada das Mangabeiras by
BioBrasil has confirmed that a population of between
1,000 and 2,500 hyacinths still thrives in the cliff and dry
forest regions of south-western Piauî State, south-western
Maranhão State, north-western Bahia State, and extreme
eastern Tocantins State, Brazil.
Threats: Nest-trees are still often cleared to provide areas
for cattle. Illegal trapping remains a problem in some
areas. The hyacinth macaw is protected under Brazilian
law and has been listed on Appendix I of CITES since
1987, and is thus banned from international trade. There
were 54 specimens recorded in international trade between
1991 and 1995, with an annual maximum of 17 in 1993
(mostly zoo animals and pets: CITES Annual Report
database). In the Pantanal, deforestation and forest burning
are a serious threat to the supply of nesting trees.
??
Hyacinth macaw
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus

120
Conservation of stands of the palms Schellea phalerata
and Acrocomia aculeata is considered a keystone for their
survival.
Actions: Accurate studies of the species’ current range and
population numbers in all parts of its range are needed.
Investigations of the possible illegal trading of the species
throughout its range are also required. Experimental
ecotourism should be developed at one or two key sites. To
support this work, a broad political constituency must be
built to attract donors (both from Brazil and the public
abroad) to broaden funding and to protect this species in
the wild.
Assessing the effectiveness of experimentally erected
nest boxes should also continue. Of 11 boxes hung in 1992,
all but two were visited or used. The colonisation of
artificial nests by aggressive Africanised bees is a problem.
Lear’s macaw
Anodorhynchus leari
Contributors: Pedro Lima, Charles Munn, Jaqueline
Goerck, and Michael Reynolds.
Conservation status:IUCN: Critically Endangered (A2b;
B1+2C, C1; C2b; D1).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species occurs in Raso da
Catarina, Bahia State, Brazil and the municipalities of
Jeremoabo, Canudos, and Euclides da Cunha. Between
100 and 200 individuals are confirmed living in the wild. In
1997, Marcus de Ra counted 30 birds in a recently
discovered second population. There are officially six in
captivity. However, according to Yamashita and
Martuschelli (in litt. 1997), more than 25 birds were trapped
for trade over the last three years. Caught birds have been
reported from Singapore, Switzerland, eastern Europe,
the UK, and Brazil.
Threats: The main threat to this species is the illegal pet
trade by specialised trappers who systematically catch
adults and chicks with mist nets at the nest cliffs of the
Toca location. This area is still only partially protected by
IBAMA, the national wildlife authorities. These
populations are also thought to experience food shortages
as the Licuri palm nut Syagrus coronata experiences poor
recruitment due to cattle overgrazing. This palm is a slow
growing species with a long lifetime (probably several
centuries).
Actions: Following the extreme drought of 1993, 50,000
Licuri palm seedlings were planted in plastic containers at
Fazenda Piauî near the town of Ituberá, and will be
transplanted to fenced areas to protect the seedlings from
livestock grazing.
In an unorthodox, but effective way to investigate the
trade in Lear’s macaws, the tight trading network was
infiltrated with an ex-poacher-turned-conservationist. This
individual proved crucial in deactivating trading within
clandestine networks and providing information on key
buyers and witnesses.
The recently formed BioBrasil Foundation of Bahia,
Brazil, has maintained guards since 1997 at the Serra
Branca nest cliffs at the suggestion and full co-operation
of the land owner. A detailed plan for land acquisition
and/or the establishment of reserves, including the
Ecological Station close to the site, has been developed
(Machado and Brandt 1990).
Priorities and funds needed to conserve this species
require an absolute stop to the illegal pet trade, through
Lear’s macaw
Anodorhynchus leari

121
private police work in the trapping region, guarding the
cliff nests, and through investigations in Rio and São
Paulo. International investigations would also assist
conservation of the species. It is estimated that the cost of
local patrolling to stop trapping would be more cost
effective and safer than trying to investigate, detain, and
prosecute Brazilian and international smugglers.
Further actions for the conservation of this species
should include a study of the nesting ecology to estimate
reproductive success and to determine home range. Once
this nesting information has been gathered, it might be
possible to consider double clutching, This has been
undertaken with the echo parakeet Psittacula echo and
many others species. Additional reproductive output may
require the provision of supplemental food. A further field
study should describe the ranging patterns of birds at both
known sets of nest cliffs, both during the nesting and non-
nesting seasons. Finally, a long-term strategy should seek
to mitigate the effects of long-term habitat degradation
from livestock overgrazing by planting Licuri palms in
safe (i.e., fenced), ungrazed locations for populations of
Lear’s macaw that appear to experience food shortages.
Food limitations might be detectable through ranging
studies and from accumulating nestling growth data in
wild nests.
Great-green macaw
Ara ambigua
(also known as Buffon’s macaw)
Contributors: Thomas Arndt, Robin Bjork, Eric Horstman,
Niels Krabbe, Robert Pople, George Powell, Paul Salaman,
and David Waugh.
Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered (A2c,d; C2a).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
This is an addition to Collar et al. (1994) and hence the
IUCN Red List. The great-green macaw has a small and
isolated population in Ecuador, and low but unknown
population numbers in Central America. It may well
number fewer than 2,500 mature individuals, with no
subpopulation greater than 250 mature birds. With many
threats facing the species (including habitat loss, trapping,
and persecution), a decline of 50% over three generations
in terms of range and number of mature individuals is
projected.
Central America and Colombia populations
Ara a. ambigua
Distribution and status: Ara a. ambigua occurs in humid
lowland forests on the Atlantic slope of eastern Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, locally on both slopes in
Panama, and north-western Colombia (AOU 1983,
Ridgely 1982, Forshaw 1989, Sibley and Monroe 1990,
Stiles and Skutch 1989). The Central America populations
apparently exist in four separated subpopulations that are
restricted primarily to Atlantic lowland forests. The
westernmost population occurs in north-eastern Honduras
and north-western Nicaragua. J. Barborak (in litt. 1997)
reports that it is uncommon in Rio Plátano, Honduras, its
primary refuge in that country. Its status in north-western
Nicaragua is unknown. The second Central American
population of A.a.ambigua is restricted to Atlantic wet
forest in eastern Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Stiles (1985)
reported that on the Costa Rican side, the species had been
reduced to dangerously low levels and attributed its decline
during the previous 15 years primarily to habitat loss and
fragmentation. That situation has continued to worsen
and there are now thought to be fewer than 36 pairs
nesting in Costa Rica (Powell et al. 1996). Another discrete
Central American population is a small relic of perhaps
only a few individuals in the wetter forests on the southern
tip of the Azuero Peninsula (D. Tovar in litt. 1997). The
Darien populations in eastern Panama and the Chocó of
western Colombia are still relatively common at least in

122
the Darien Biosphere Reserve (R. Ridgley 1982, G. Angehr
in litt. 1996). In Colombia it has been reported at Los
Katíos National Park and around Utría National Park in
Serranía de Baudó (P. Salaman in litt. 1997).
The most detailed information comes from Costa Rica,
where fragmented distribution reports of the species suggest
that it is dependent on a diverse array of Caribbean slope
forests throughout their annual cycle. The sequences of
their use is not clear (Stiles and Skutch 1989, Loiselle and
Blake 1992). Preliminary data from a radio-telemetry
study of nesting great-green macaws in Costa Rica revealed
that some individuals migrate at least 150km north into
south-eastern Nicaragua during the non-breeding season
(Bjork and Powell 1994).
Threats: The greatest threats to great-green macaw
populations are loss of habitat, poaching of nestlings for
the cage-bird trade, and to some extent, poaching birds for
food. With the exception of fragmented habitat in western
Costa Rica, where remaining forest remnants are in private
hands, most of the Central American habitat has been
given some level of legal protection. However, the
declaration of large protected areas, such as the Rio
Plátano Biosphere Reserve in Honduras, Bosawas and the
Indio-Maíz Reserve in Nicaragua, has not stopped the
destruction of remaining macaw habitat in those areas.
Colonisation around and within these reserves continues
to lead to extensive habitat loss.
In Costa Rica, nestlings were reported to be worth
approximately US$150 to US$300 each. Poaching in the
relatively accessible breeding range of the Costa Rican
population is widespread (Bjork and Powell 1995).
Although, all Psittacines in Costa Rica receive legal
protection against being taken from the wild, rarely are
the laws enforced; poachers have little fear of being
apprehended. The situation in eastern Panama with the
Darien reserve is apparently more stable. In Colombia’s
upper Sinú Valley in 1995, this species was trapped
intensively and the area is in danger of deforestation (T.
Arndt in litt. 1997). Eight specimens of the entire species
were recorded in international trade between 1991 and
1995, with an annual maximum of five in 1995 (zoo
animals, pets and pre-CITES-listing birds: CITES Annual
Report database).
What may be a more immediate threat in some parts of
the species range, is loss of a specific component of the
forest: large trees for nesting. As exemplified in Costa
Rica, in the first documented description of nesting by the
species, 10 of the 11 observed (n = 3) or reported (n = 8)
nests were located in natural cavities of large D. panamensis
trees (Bjork and Powell 1995). The diameter at breast
height of all these nest trees was greater than four metres.
Furthermore, the seeds of this leguminous tree species are
important in the birds’ diet (Bjork and Powell 1995, Stiles
and Skutch 1989,G. Mayne in litt. 1997). Until recently,
the trees were protected de facto, because their wood was
too hard for processing in the saw mills (K. Batchelder in
litt. 1994). Consequently, they were generally left standing
in the selectively logged forests and even in the clear-cut
pastures. This undoubtedly has allowed the macaws to
exist in areas that otherwise have been heavily fragmented
and degraded. However, the technology has recently been
developed to process this wood as other, formerly
abundant, hardwoods become depleted.
Actions: In Central America, it is urgent that the reserves
in Honduras and Nicaragua are fully implemented and
maintained as protected areas. International support of
these national efforts is critical to their success and fully
justified in recognition of their global significance. Hard
wood of D. panamensis is now highly sought after (K.
Batchelder in litt. 1994) and trees are being removed both
from pastures and remaining forest. A moratorium on
logging of D. panamensis trees was recently announced by
the Costa Rican government, but its effects remain to be
seen.
Ecuador populations Ara ambigua guayaquilensis
Distribution and status: The Guayas great-green macaw is
found on the Pacific slopes of west-central Ecuador, in
Esmeraldas and Guayas provinces (lowlands up to 600m,
Pople et al. 1997). In Esmeraldas province, it is estimated
that there are no more than 100 birds (Waugh 1995). In
Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco, there is a remnant
population that “barely survives” (Parker and Carr 1992),
however a successful nesting pair was recorded there in
1994. It is recently thought that there are nine birds in the
reserve (Waugh 1995). Said to be “easily seen” at Hacienda
Gonzalez (40km north-west of Guayaquil, Ecuador), it is
not known whether the population breeds there. Recent
sightings have been confined to Machalilla National Park,
the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera (in 1991: Parker and
Carr 1992), and Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco which
forms the end of the Chongón hill range (Parker and Carr
1992, R. Ridgely in litt. 1997). These rare sightings are
undoubtedly of very small, relict populations. Fjëldsa et
al. (1987: in Sibley and Monroe 1990) suggested that the
population in western Ecuador is intermediate between A.
ambigua and A. militaris and probably of hybrid origin.
Threats: In Ecuador, habitat loss, pet trade, and hunting
as a cultivation pest appear to be the primary threats
(Pople et al. 1997, Waugh 1995, Fjeldså et al. 1987). Large
scale clearance of the lowland wet and dry forests, where
it occurs in very small numbers, is continuing rapidly. An
illegal internal market still operates as may be evident by
the number of captive birds in private hands; a minimum
of 20 individuals were recorded in Guayaquil city alone
(E. Horstman in litt, 1997) Eight specimens of the entire

123
species were recorded in international trade between 1991
and 1995, with an annual maximum of five individuals
recorded in 1995 (zoo animals, pets, and pre-CITES-
listing birds: CITES Annual Report database).
Actions: In Ecuador, Fundación Natura continues to try
to confiscate birds as a deterrent to would-be owners and
to dampen demand. This organisation also distributes
large amounts of educational materials, which could feature
A. a. guayaquilensis to a greater extent than at present. No
known sustainable use of forest projects are operational in
the region nor are any planned in the near future. Cemento
Nacional, the country’s largest cement-producing
company, has formed Fundación Pro-Bosque which is
working jointly with Fundación Natura (in a project
named Proyecto Aspiazu). The aims of this group are to
map all remaining forests, and to protect forested areas
near Manglaralto using the community-owned forest
approach. Fundación Pro-Bosque is studying the species
in the Cerro Blanco Protection Forest in the Guayas
Province of Ecuador and conducting an environmental
education campaign.
The potential exists to use captive birds very effectively
in education programs, and possibly for captive breeding
purposes and release into the reserve. Fundación Pro-
Bosque has the possibility to establish a great-green macaw
captive centre within the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco
Reserve (BPCBR), and to receive a donated captive A. a.
guayaquilensis from a rescue centre in Ecuador. It seems
appropriate that when other conservation actions are
more advanced for wild guayaquilensis in the reserve, the
BPCBR could have a productive centre for captive macaws.
Other areas of conservation activity that merit support
are: (i) the continuing integration of neighbouring farmers
(campesinos) into the guarding of macaws and the reserve
in general by offering inducements, at least in the short-
term; (ii) support for the Fundación Pro-Bosque education
programme focused around A. a. guayaquilensis; and (iii)
the centre for rescued captive A. a. guayaquilensis.
Blue-throated macaw
Ara glaucogularis
Contributors: Paulo Martuschelli, Charles Munn, and
Carlos Yamashita.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (C2b; D1).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to forest
islands in the seasonally flooded Beni Lowlands (Llanos
de Moxos) of Central Bolivia (Jordan and Munn 1993).
The minimum population in 1994 was 54 individuals. The
most optimistic figure is 200 (Yamashita and Machado de
Barros 1997). Recent estimates indicate that there are
between 75 and 150 individuals in the wild.
Threats: Trapping for the pet trade could still be a problem
although some protection for known populations is in
place (see below). There were 14 specimens in international
trade between 1991 and 1995, with an annual maximum of
12 in 1992 (probably captive-bred: CITES Annual Report
database). Not enough is known of the ecology and
behaviour of this species. It may always have been
competitively inferior to the larger and more abundant
blue-and-yellow macaw Ara ararauna.
Actions: A local guard of the Eco Bolivia Foundation
(Bolivia) patrols known populations by foot and by
motorbike. Parallel to this, the Armonía Association of
Santa Cruz, Bolivia, is searching the Beni for more scattered
populations of this species. It is also working on an
environmental awareness campaign. This will be aimed at
Blue-throated macaw
Ara glaucogularis

124
the cattlemen’s association to ensure trappers do not hunt
these birds.
Priorities for the conservation of this species include
the continuation of protection by full time guards; searching
for additional populations of the species; a study of the
nesting and non-nesting ecology of this bird; and a study
of ecological interactions with the blue-and-yellow macaw
Ara ararauna.
Blue-winged macaw
Ara maracana
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (A1a,b; C1; C2)
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: Ara maracana formerly occupied
a large range in central-eastern South America, including
parts of Brazil (Perbambuco, Piaui, Maranhão, Pará,
Tocantins, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul,
Minas Gerais, Bahia, Espiritu Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São
Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul),
eastern Paraguay, and northern Argentina (Misiones). Its
habitat preferences include gallery forest and forest edge.
It has undergone a steep decline, although it is recolonising
one area in Rio de Janeiro State and may be more common
there than anywhere else in its range. C. Yamashita (cited
by Collar et al. 1994) has reported its last strongholds to
include the Serra Negra in Pernambuco and the Serra do
Cachimbo in southern Pará.
Threats: Habitat destruction has apparently contributed
to the decline of this species, but the rate of decline
suggests involvement of other factors as well (see Ridgely
1982, Forshaw 1989, Olmos 1993, Collar et al. 1994).
Actions: Information is urgently needed on the current
distribution, population status, and threats to this species.
Military macaw
Ara militaris
Contributors: Ernesto Enkerlin-Hoeflich, Niels Krabbe,
Charles Munn, JonPaul Rodriguez, Chris Sharpe, Paul
Salaman, and David A. Wiedenfeld.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (A1c,d; C2a).
Formerly Vulnerable (A1b; C2a: see Collar et al. 1994).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This is a species with a large
geographic distribution in mostly localised populations.
Its status is difficult to evaluate because these birds have
ranges over large areas in rugged mountains.
In Mexico, populations are reported in and around El
Cielo Biosphere Reserve in Tamaulipas, at El Naranjo in
San Luis Potosí, in the Sierra Gorda de Queretaro (recently
declared a Biosphere Reserve), on the Cuixmala Ecological
Reserve, and other sites on the Pacific slope of the Sierra
Madre Occidental. See also recent map in Howell and
Webb (1995).
??
Military macaw
Ara militaris

125
The species does not currently occur in Guatemala
although it may have in the past (Gardner 1972). A recent
attempt to introduce captive-bred A. militaris to a volcanoes
in south Guatemala failed.
In Venezuela, it is recorded on the north slopes of El
Ávila, Guatopo, Cerro La Misión, and Sierra de Perijá
National Parks. There are also apparently exceptional
records of numbers in Cojedes State (Desenne and Strahl
1994), and on the northern slopes of Henri Pittier National
Park (Fernández-Badillo et al. 1994).
In Peru and Bolivia, military macaws have a patchy
distribution throughout the eastern foothills of the Andes.
In Peru, flocks of 40–50 individuals are seen daily at
Atalaya on the Madre de Dios. They are also seen on the
upper Tambopata River up to elevations of 900m near the
border with Bolivia. In Bolivia, this species occurs in small
flocks on the southern edge of the Amboró National Park,
and is also reported from the hills of the south central
Madidi National Park (near the Canyon del Beo). It is also
reported by the Native Americans to live in the forests just
above or around the Pongo de Mainique of the Urubamba
River, Peru.
In Colombia, little is known about the five or so
disjunct populations in the central Andes (see map and
description in Hilty and Brown 1986). The species was
recorded recently from Guajira peninsula, Tayrona, Las
Orquídeas, and Cueva de los Guácharos National Parks.
At Cueva de los Guácharos National Park large flocks (up
to 16 individuals) were observed daily, particularly just
before dusk, flying overhead.
In Ecuador, approximately 20 individuals occur on
Sumaco, and the same or less in Zamora-Chinchipe. No
information is currently available on the population(s) in
northern Argentina.
The military macaw may be conspecific with the great-
green macaw Ara ambigua (Fjeldså et al. 1987). However,
until further studies are made to establish its taxonomic
status, they are retained here as separate species.
Threats: This large macaw lives in some of the most
fragmented habitats in the Neotropics, the lower montane
wet forests of the Andes. Its deciduous forest habitat in
Mexico is in a similar state. Habitat destruction in the
Andes and Mexico threaten the viability of many local
populations. Surprisingly, A. militaris is still traded
nationally in Mexico and other countries (Gobbi et al.,
1996).
Actions: Many populations need to be surveyed to assess
its status and habitat use. In Mexico, the use of “sinkholes”
(cenotes) as an ecotourism spectacle could have some
potential (for example at Sierra Gorda and El Cielo
Biosphere Reserve), although it is unknown whether human
presence will interfere with successful nesting. In the case
of the El Cielo sinkhole, where at one time over 50 birds
circled in and out of the sinkhole several times a day, the
population was decimated by a single trapper in the mid-
1980s (Aragón-Tapia in litt. 1989). The populations in
Peru and Bolivia require detailed surveys.
In Venezuela, controls on national movement and
sales, although difficult to implement, could help all parrot
species. Fortunately, most of A. militaris’ range falls
within existing protected areas (El Ávila, Guatopo, Henri
Pittier, and Sierra de Perijá National Parks). Nevertheless,
although this may reduce the speed at which habitat is lost,
it does little to prevent capture for trade. Improved methods
of enforcement are needed. Sierra de Perijá is in a
particularly bad situation, being deforested for narcotics,
land speculation, and cattle.
Red-fronted macaw
Ara rubrogenys
Contributors: Mette Bohn Christiansen, and Elin Pitter.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (C1). Formerly
considered Endangered (C2a; D1: see Collar et al. 1994).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.

126
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to Bolivia,
where it inhabits fairly arid, scrubby inter-montane valleys
in south-central Bolivia (Santa Cruz, Cochabamba, and
Chuquisaca provinces: Collar et al. 1992). Found from
1,100 to 2,500 metres. The species is resident and locally
common here, but is restricted to the drainage areas of the
Mizque, Grande, and Pilcomayo rivers. Pitter and
Christiansen (1995) estimated the total population at
2,000–4,000 individuals and do not believe it to be “severely
fragmented” as was suggested previously (Collar et al.
1992). Since they occur in gallery forests of large rivers, the
populations are believed to be interconnected. In two
areas studied, populations seemed healthy and stable,
although a local trapper noted that the population had
declined during the last 12 years due to habitat destruction
and trapping.
Threats: Although the situation is not considered critical,
rapid conversion of riparian habitats to agricultural land
is forcing Ara rubrogenys to feed in other drier areas and
on domestic crops. Nearly 40% of its original habitat may
have been already destroyed (Clarke and Durán Patiño
1991). It is locally considered a serious pest to maize
cultivation, and is persecuted by farmers. Trapping for the
pet trade also threatens this species and still continues
along the Chico River and Vallegrande. There were 23
specimens recorded in international trade between 1991
and 1995, with an annual maximum of 14 in 1994 (pets and
zoo animals: CITES Annual Report database). The birds
nest semi-colonially in cliffs, making them particularly
vulnerable to trapping and nest destruction.
Actions: Further protection of the habitat of Ara rubrogenys
should be a high priority. Although locally common, the
conservation situation can change rapidly, since pressures
to develop agricultural lands along rivers is increasing.
Methods to minimise attacks on maize crops should be
designed with local farmers. Several large conservation
and development projects are working in the area; these
should focus on maintaining natural semi-deciduous
vegetation on the edges of rivers, both for the red-fronted
macaw and for local people. Fencing of key patches of
gallery forests will limit cattle grazing and allow
regeneration of natural vegetation.
Golden-capped parakeet
Aratinga auricapilla
Contributors: Rita Cerqueira de Souza, Paulo Martuschelli,
Fábio Olmos, and Carlos Yamashita.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (A1a,b; C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The golden-capped parakeet is
found in semi-deciduous forests of the Paraná River Basin,
Brazil, occurring in the following states: Goiás, São Paulo
(Lins, Guararapes, Ilha Solteira, and Agua Vermelha),
Paraná, Minas Gerais (Vale do Jequitinhonha, Furnas do
Bom Jesus), Bahia, and Espírito Santo. It has disappeared
from much of its original range. In São Paulo state for
example, whilst there are many records of skins, there are
no signs of this species today.
Threats: Habitat destruction for coffee, soybean, and
sugar cane plantations occur in São Paulo. Cattle ranching
Red-fronted macaw
Ara rubrogenys
Golden-capped parakeet
Aratinga auricapilla

127
is a serious problem in Goiás and Minas Gerais. There
were 16 specimens recorded in international trade between
1991 and 1995, with an annual maximum of 10 in 1991
(CITES Annual Report database).
Actions: Information is urgently required on distribution,
population status, and threats.
Socorro parakeet
Aratinga brevipes
Contributor: Ernesto Enkerlin-Hoeflich.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (D1).
CITES: Appendix II (as Aratinga holochlora).
National protection status: Threatened in Mexico (NOM-
ECOL-059-1994).
Distribution and status: The Socorro parakeet is found
only on Socorro Island in the Revillagigedo Islands south-
west of the tip of Baja California. The population in 1991
was estimated to be 400–500 birds and numbers appear to
be stable (Rodriguez-Estrella et al. 1992).
Threats: The range of this species is thought to have
contracted over the past 30 years. Overgrazing by sheep
may be degrading the parakeets’ habitat, and predation by
introduced cats remains a potential threat (Rodriguez-
Estrella et al. 1992).
Actions: Although the Socorro parakeet is not presently
threatened, the spread of soil erosion caused by overgrazing
by sheep could put the status of this and other endemic
birds species at risk.
Hispaniolan parakeet
Aratinga chloroptera
Contributor: James Wiley.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to
Hispaniola, including the offshore islands. Formerly
common throughout Hispaniola and on several offshore
islands with suitable habitat. Still fairly common in
undisturbed habitat, but elsewhere the Hispaniolan
parakeet is rapidly declining in numbers and reduced in
distribution. Whilst not found in the Massif de la Hotte,
Haiti, its is found in the Morne la Selle (Woods 1982,
Woods and Ottenwalder 1987, 1992). Introduced and
established locally in Puerto Rico (Lever 1987, Raffaele
and Kepler 1992). Dod (1992) considers the parakeet
declining toward extinction.
Threats: Hispaniolan parakeets are not favoured as
captives, but they are severely persecuted as crop pests.
The most serious threat is from habitat loss (Wiley 1991).
There were 12 specimens in international trade between
1991 and 1995, with an annual maximum of eight in 1994
(CITES Annual Report database).
Actions: The parakeet is protected by law against hunting
and harvesting for pets in the Dominican Republic,
although its legislation is not adequately enforced to
ensure the species’ continued survival. Even though several
nature reserves and national parks have been established
in the Dominican Republic, protection has not been
Socorro
Island
Socorro parakeet
Aratinga brevipes
Hispaniolan parakeet
Aratinga chloroptera

128
sufficient to save the parakeet from total eradication in
some of these, such as in the Parque Nacional Los
Haitises. Additional areas need protection and all areas
should be provided with better enforcement of wildlife
protection laws. The Hispaniolan parakeet has been
successfully bred in captivity (e.g., Ottenwalder 1980, Low
1991, van der Heyden and Paulmann 1987), although
captive propagation is not a conservation need at this
time.
Cuban parakeet
Aratinga euops
Contributors: Xiomara Gálvez, and James Wiley.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (A1c,d; B1+2c;
C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The Cuban parakeet is endemic to
Cuba, where it has declined and now has a fragmented
distribution. It remains fairly common in Peninsula de
Zapata, Trinidad mountains, Sierra de Najasa, and in the
eastern part of the island. With the exception of Peninsula
de Zapata, the parakeet is absent from the western
provinces. In Central Cuba, it occurs in Guasimal,
Trinidad, Peralejo, and Camagüey (Najasa). It is found
also in the eastern provinces of Holguín, Santiago de
Cuba, and Guantánamo. Formerly common on the Isla de
la Juventud (formerly Isla de Pinos), it was extirpated
there in the late 1800s. Gálvez (1996a and b) considers the
species seriously endangered. Of 14 populations studied,
four are in serious decline. Paradoxically, while A.
leucocephala has been increasing its effective population
size (in response to intense habitat manipulation and
protection), Aratinga euops, the only true endemic species
of Cuban psittacid, is close to extinction.
Threats: The parakeet is in less demand as a pet than the
Cuban amazon A. leucocephala, although 10 specimens
were recorded in international trade between 1991 and
1995, all in 1995 (CITES Annual Report database). The
main cause of its decline has been large-scale destruction
of forest and the dependence of A. euops on dead palms for
nest sites (Roystonea regia and Sabal palviflora: de las
Pozas and González 1984, Gálvez 1996a,b). This rigid nest
site preference appears to make the parakeet more
vulnerable than Amazona leucocephala, which exhibits
more flexibility in its nesting behaviour. Habitat alteration
and the exposure of individual palms results in nesting
sites becoming more vulnerable to the effects of fires,
hurricanes, and human disturbances.
Actions: The parakeet is protected by law and receives
additional protection within seven environmental reserves,
including the Ciénaga de Zapata National Park and Refuge,
and six other sites administered by the Empresa Nacional
para la Conservación de la Flora y la Fauna. Further
research is needed on the species’ biological requirements,
especially its nesting habitat needs. Additional habitat
must be conserved for the parakeet. Given its small and
fragmented populations, conservation efforts for this
species should be locally tailored and should include
environmental awareness campaigns and protection of
nesting sites (dead palms). Ecotourism programmes in the
areas of Mogotes de Jumagua and Hanabanilla have been
initiated. This species has not bred in captivity despite
numerous attempts. A plan to translocate mainland Cuban
parakeets to the Isla de la Juventud is being developed to
re-establish the extirpated population.
Rufous-fronted parakeet
Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons
Contributors: Luis Miguel Renjifo, and Paul Salaman.
Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered (B1+2c; C2a; D1).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Cuban parakeet
Aratinga euops

129
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to the
shrublands in the temperate forest-páramo ecotone (3,200–
4,000m) of the Central Andes of Colombia. It is known
from a few specimens and observation in the Puracé
Volcano in Cauca, and the Ruiz-Tolima volcanic massif
complex along the junction of Caldas, Risaralda, Quindío,
and Tolima. It may occur in the páramos of Las Hermosas
along the border of Tolima and Valle del Cauca, and in
Nevado del Huila at the junction of Cauca, Huila, and
Tolima (Graves and Giraldo 1987, Collar et al. 1992): the
latter two areas are located between Tolima and Puracé
Volcanoes.
Although this species is a páramo and a forest-páramo
ecotone inhabitant, it has been recorded in areas as low as
2,835m (Ridgely 1982). Little is known of the natural
history of this species. A few sightings indicate that this
species eats grass seeds (Graves and Girald 1987) and
achenes of Espeletia hartwegiana (Renjifo 1991, J.
Hernández in litt. 1995), and nests in burrows in banks (D.
Uribe in litt. 1996, J. Hernández in litt. 1997). The total
population has been estimated at 1,000–2,000 individuals
(Graves and Giraldo 1987) but is perhaps lower (Collar et
al. 1992). Rufous-fronted parakeets were seen in 1993 and
1994 between 3,000m and 3,900m in Los Nevados National
Park (Salaman and Giles in litt. 1997).
The species’ habitat is far from intact. The species is
considered common by farmers in the vicinity of Laguna
del Otún. The rufous-fronted parakeet was observed twice
(four and six individuals respectively) during circa 30 days
of bird censuses over a one year period. Other rare parrots
such as Hapalopsittaca fuertesi were seen more often
(Renjifo 1991). B. ferrugineifrons may be more at risk than
previously suspected.
(See multi-species remarks in Ognorhynchus icterotis.)
Threats: Information on wild B. ferrugineifrons appears to
have been so scarce because of its restricted range, and
particularly because of its specialised niche in the forest-
páramo ecotone. Although this zone, the “potato-belt”,
has been highly modified, it still appears suitable for the
species and most recent observations are from agricultural
fields.
Given the species’ apparent preference for feeding in
old fields it seems questionable that deforestation poses
an immediate risk. It would also appear that, like
B. orbygnesius, the species nests in ground burrows on a
cliff-face/steep slope, thus tree-cavity nests largely restricted
to old growth forest do not seem to limit nesting resources.
Other, more subtle medium-term changes may be affecting
this and other parrot species within its range, these include
agricultural intensification (e.g., widespread use of
herbicides), and increasing páramo overgrazing and
burning.
The two areas from which the species is known are
currently located within national parks, namely Los
Nevados National Park and Puracé National Park.
Nevertheless, extensive habitat loss has occurred and is
still continuing within these and other areas where the
species could potentially be found (N. Gomez and W.
Vargas in litt. 1997, L.M. Renjifo in litt. 1997). The
underlying problem is that although these areas have
received legal protection, the Colombian State has been
unable to purchase pre-existing landholdings within the
national parks. As a result, extensive overgrazing, seasonal
páramo burning to obtain new sprouts for cattle, and
agriculture to a minor extent, are modifying most of the
range of this species within and outside “protected” areas.
Failure to protect the remaining good quality habitat and
to restore altered habitat will result in further decline of
this already endangered species.
Actions: Clearly, studies of the species population
movements and its densities and distribution would be
ideal; threats could be clarified and future conservation
action proposed. Also, confirmation of nesting habits is
very important in assessing the species’ conservation
priority.
Grey-cheeked parakeet
Brotogeris pyrrhopterus
Contributors: Niels Krabbe, Michael Parr, Felipe Campos,
and David Wege.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (A1b, c,d).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to deciduous
and dry forests of south-west Ecuador and extreme north-
west Peru and occurs in the Manabi south and Los Rios,
Guayas, Azuay to Loja and crosses into Peru in the
Tumbes and Piura regions (Juniper and Parr 1998). Two
main and possibly disjunct populations exist, one in the
coastal area of Manabi and Guayas in Ecuador and a
second in the Ecuador and Peru border (Juniper and Parr
Rufous-fronted parakeet
Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons

130
1998). Birds are seen in small groups and feed on a variety
of local fruits and sometimes in local maize and banana
crops (Best et al. 1995).
Threats: An estimated 59,320 birds were recorded in
international trade between 1983 and 1988 (Best et al.
1995). It is suspected that the population may have declined
by more than 70% in the last ten years (Juniper and Parr
1998). Although locally common, local trade and
accelerated habitat destruction (Campos et al. 1998) may
have lead to catastrophic pressure being exerted on existing
populations.
Actions: International trade is banned from both Ecuador
and Peru (Juniper and Parr 1998). The bird occurs in four
protected areas: the Cerro Blanco protected forest, Arenilla
military reserve, and Manglares Churute Ecological reserve
in Ecuador; and the Tumbes Reserve Zone in Peru. Rapid
habitat destruction for marginal cattle and goat herding
are the main threats. Priority actions include an education
campaign and further research of the species habitat needs
and population size.
Spix’s macaw
Cyanopsitta spixii
Contributors: David Waugh and Carlos Yamashita.
Conservation status: IUCN: Critically Endangered (D1; D2).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Protected by Brazilian
legislation.
Distribution and status: With only one known bird
remaining in the wild, and at least 42 in captivity spread
over three continents, the Spix’s macaw is one of the most
threatened parrot species in the world. Its Caraiba woodland
habitat has suffered long-term habitat destruction, and has
always been a small and scarce habitat within the more
widespread Caatinga woodland and scrub of the dry to
semi-arid region of north-east Brazil. However, the trapping
of adult birds has been the most significant force in its
population decline. In 1995 a wild caught female was re-
introduced from captivity. During the second month the
female paired with a wild male though after this second
month the female could not be found.
Threats: The Spix’s Caraiba woodland habitat has suffered
habitat destruction for a very long time, possibly centuries.
The trapping of adult birds during the 1970s was the main
cause for the recent decline of an already threatened species
with a very restricted range. With only one lone male
remaining in the wild, and all other known individuals in
captivity, strong co-ordination of the captive breeding
programme is the only hope for this parrot. However, co-
ordination among parties has not been entirely transparent,
despite efforts by the Brazilian authorities and the Recovery
Committee (see below). Prospects for the captive breeding
Grey-cheeked parakeet
Brotogeris pyrrhopterus

131
programme are not optimistic. As a former holder of this
parrot, Smith (1991) commented: “The truth is that captive
breeding attempts so far have been appalling. The few
reared do not make up for the numbers of adults that have
died, and continue to die”. There is scant information on
the most recent captive-rearing results, and they do not
tend to offset this pessimistic outlook. All parties should
remember that time is the most critical factor in the
conservation of Spix’s macaw (Collar et al. 1992, Reynolds
1997).
Actions: An extensive account of previous actions is reported
by Collar et al. (1992: 266–282). A meeting co-ordinated by
the CBSG (Captive [now Conservation] Breeding Specialist
Group of the Species Survival Commission of IUCN-The
World Conservation Union) at Loro Parque, Spain in
1987, established the basis for combined in situ/ex situ
action. In 1989 the Brazilian Government formed a Special
Working Group on the Spix’s macaw, followed in 1990 by
the establishment of the Permanent Committee for the
Recovery of the Spix’s macaw (CPRAA). Also, in October
1990 the Brazilian government issued a decree (Portaria
2161) providing amnesty to current holders of captive
specimens that agreed to participate in the Permanent
Committee to manage the captive populations. A
Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) was
carried out in Brazil in October 1992. A workshop of the
CPRAA at the 1989 CITES meeting in Lausanne
recommended the re-introduction from captivity of the
female Spix’s macaw, released in 1985. Although it is
considered of high priority to establish, finally, whether
further Spix’s macaws occur in the wild, after various
searches this now seems unlikely. Since 1990 a major in situ/
ex situ combined programme has been in operation under
the direction of the CPRAA. This includes management of
the global population, with 42 captive birds (all the Spix’s
macaws declared to IBAMA/CPRAA) held by some
members of the CPRAA. New pairings are expected to
increase breeding success from the presently low rate of
captive reproduction. However, recent negotiations for
movement of individuals among breeding facilities have
often been tortuous. Rumours of captive Spix’s macaw
individuals outside the declared population tend to surface
at regular intervals, but none have been verified.
The field programme is studying the species’ ecological
needs and is preparing the ground for an eventual re-
establishment of the species in the wild. As a prerequisite
for re-introduction, protection efforts for remaining habitat
in addition to habitat restoration are in progress, as are
botanical studies in view of the paucity of information on
exact habitat requirements. The possible need for habitat
management is also being examined. An assessment of the
extent of Caraiba gallery forest forms part of this work.
The possibility of purchasing important areas of Caraiba
should also be considered. The field programme also
includes a strong element of local community involvement,
with school-house construction, provision of an
environmental/cultural centre, and training of teachers
and students from local colleges and universities.
Yellow-faced parrotlet
Forpus xanthops
Contributors: Alfredo Begazo, Charles Munn, and Thomas
Valqui.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (A1a,c; B1+2c,e;
C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Resolucion Directorial No.
014-83-DGFF prohibits capture and trade in this species,
effective 1983.
Spix’s macaw
Cyanopsitta spixii
Yellow-faced parrotlet
Forpus xanthops

132
Distribution and status: The yellow-faced parrotlet occurs
in the arid woodland, riparian thickets, and desert scrub of
the upper Marañón valley at 600–1,700m in three areas
(southern Amazonas, Cajamarca, and extreme eastern La
Libertad) in north-central Peru (Girdler 1982, Riveros et
al. 1991, Begazo 1996).
Threats: Trapping for the domestic pet trade is the main
threat to this species. Captive birds suffer very high mortality
rates. Its typical habitat is not well suited for agriculture or
intensive grazing. Some habitat loss by subsistence farmers
and their goat herds may be occurring in the region.
Actions: This species may require a back-up population in
captivity as the wild birds are unlikely to attract ecotourism
or other attention that might lead to habitat protection. In
the Huallaga valley it is not yet possible to predict whether
conservation is possible over the short, medium, or long-
term. This area is a major coca producing area and the
social, political, and the environmental situation is very
unstable. This species seems to do well in forest patches
comprising of secondary growth and original forest.
Therefore it may not need primary habitat. Possibly only
two to three families trap this species, which has low local
value because of its similarity with Forpus coelestis. Given
also that the birds breed in colonies in rocky ravines, it
might be possible to effectively involve key local people in
conservation efforts (A. Begazo in litt. 1997).
Golden parakeet
Guarouba (Aratinga) guarouba
Contributors: Paulo Martuschelli, and Carlos Yamashita.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (A2c,d; C1; C2b).
CITES: Appendix I (as Aratinga guarouba).
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The golden parakeet is restricted
to Brazil, where it occurs in northern Maranhão
(comprising of five localities, four of them close to or
within the Gurupi Biological Reserve), south-eastern
Amazonas, northern Pará (many localities all north of
5°S), and north-central Matto Grosso. Recently the species
has been recorded from Rondônia. The most important
area is in Pará state, between the Tocantins and lower
Xingú Rivers. This species appears to roam widely and is
not predictably found in one area at any given season.
Threats: This species suffers from both the destruction of
its (almost exclusively terra firme) rainforest habitat and
illegal trapping (being a much desired aviary bird, both
internationally and nationally) and hunting for food. Its
main distribution range is centred in an area of land
conflicts between farmers, ranchers, forest loggers, Indians,
and landless peasants, including the controversy over
mining at the Carajas site (Serra Leste). In the eastern part
of the range (the Tocantins-Xingú area) illegal logging
and mahogany exploration is resulting in habitat
destruction. As Guarouba roosts in tree cavities at night it
is relatively easy to trap.
Actions: Information is urgently required on its distribution
(including habitat use), status, and threats.
Rusty-faced parrot
Hapalopsittaca amazonina
Contributors: Luis Miguel Renjifo, JonPaul Rodriguez,
Franklin Rojas-Suarez, and Chris Sharpe.
Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered (A1c; A2c;
B1+2c,d; C1).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The rusty-faced parrot is confined
to Colombia and Venezuela, are is very local throughout
its range. In Venezuela, H. a. teresae occurs in Mérida and
??
?
Golden parakeet
Guarouba (Aratinga) guarouba

133
northern Táchira states, from 2,000–3,000m. It is found
mainly in the Sierra Nevada National Park, but also in
Páramos Batallón and La Negra National Park. A small
population may also exist in La Carbonera on the north-
west side of the Rio Chama. H. a. amazonina occurs in El
Tamá and apparently also in Sierra de Perijá National
Park (Desenne and Strahl 1994). In Colombia it is found
in Norte de Santander, Santander, Cundinamarca, Caldas,
and possibly Cauca and Huila. Of the three subspecies,
one is endemic to Colombia (H. a. velezi), one (H. a.
amazonina) occurs mainly in Colombia and whose range
marginally covers Venezuela, and the third (H. a. theresae)
is endemic to Venezuela. The two protected areas of
relevance to the species in Venezuela are the most threatened
areas in the country: Tamá National Park (which may
have a population of H. a. amazonina) and Sierra Nevada
National Park (the only conservation area in existence for
H. a. theresae). In Colombia the species is recorded in
protected areas including Chingaza National Park, Puracé
National Park, and Cueva de los Guácharos National
Park. It is not known whether it frequents these areas only
seasonally. A well protected but probably small population
of Hapalopsittaca amazonina velezi is found in the Rio
Blanco watershed in the outskirts of the city of Manizales.
Here the species seems to be a permanent resident (D.
Uribe in litt. 1996). The area lies within the city boundaries
and is conserved for watershed protection. Probably fewer
than 1,100 individuals (of both subspecies) occur in
Venezuela (Rodriguez and Rojas-Suarez 1995) and
population trends are not known.
Threats: In Venezuela, the loss of habitat for cattle raising,
subsistence agriculture, and settlements is the main threat
to this species. The Andean forests where this species is
found are becoming increasingly fragmented. However,
even in suitable habitats the species is rare.
Actions: Research should be carried out on the distribution
and ecology of the species to clarify whether the existing
protected area system is adequate to ensure the survival of
the three subspecies. Preparation of a long-term
management plan and protection of Sierra Nevada National
Park in Venezuela is also needed. Unprotected forests in
the Andes need identifying and require urgent protection,
not only for this species, but also for the 25 other endemic
birds found there (Collar et al. 1992). Currently the
environmental group PROVITA is targeting this species in
Venezuela. The first steps must be a census and ecological
study of their breeding biology and habitat requirements.
Azure-winged parrot
Hapalopsittaca fuertesi
(Fuertes’s parrot in Collar et al. 1994. Name changed here
to conform to Colombian usage.)
Contributor: Luis Miguel Renjifo.
Conservation status: IUCN: Critically Endangered (D1; D2).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The azure winged parrot is known
only from the humid temperate forest on the western slope
of the central Andes of Colombia in the Alto Quindío,
Quindío area. This area is found close to the border of
Risaralda, and Tolima areas. The species is known to
survive only in the Acaime Reserve and in the Quindío
Canyon (2,600–3,500m), where the population is thought
to be less than one hundred individuals. It may also occur
in the adjacent upper parts of the Toche Canyon.
Unfortunately, this pass is being cleared. Local habitat
protection efforts such as purchasing discrete parcels of
forests can protect impressive forested habitats and would
be more effective for this species than for Ognorhynchus or
Leptosittaca. H. fuertesi appears to be rather sedentary
but is difficult to observe because of its reticent behaviour
(as with other species of the genus Hapalopsittaca). Often,
Rusty-faced parrot
Hapalopsittaca amazonina
Azure-winged parrot
Hapalopsittaca fuertesi

134
the only evidence of their presence is their rather soft
vocalisations (which are different between H. fuertesi and
H. amazonina).
(See multi-species remarks in Ognorhynchus icterotis.)
Threats: In many parts of its potential range the threat of
habitat loss and fragmentation is severe.
Actions: Highest priority should be given to supporting
Alto Quindío, where the ecology of azure-winged parrot,
especially with respect to feeding and breeding, should be
researched, and every step taken to ensure optimum
management to maximise the population there. The Los
Nevados National Park (and the adjacent Navarco Nature
Reserve) should be surveyed for the possible occurrence of
this species. Appropriate management should follow if it
is found to exist in these areas. The remnant patch of forest
in which it may have been sighted in 1980 and adjacent
habitat should also be investigated and protected.
Institutional support for Fundación Herencia Verde will
assist in maintaining their Acaime private reserve.
Red-faced parrot
Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops
Contributors: Jeremy Flanagan, and Paul Toyne.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (A1b; A2b;
B1+2c; C1; C2a; D1).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The red-faced parrot is restricted
to high Andean cloudforests on the eastern slopes of the
Andes of Ecuador (Morona Santiago, Azuay and Loja
provinces) and in the adjacent Piura province of Peru. In
this area it is rare and uncommon. Surveys in the
Podocarpus National Park of Loja Province, from
Cajanuma to Yagana reveal that the parrot occurs in low
density and is rarely seen in flocks of more than six
individuals (Rasmussen et al. 1996, Toyne unpublished
data). This species is found in greater abundance in the
north of Loja Province around the Saraguro area, where
surveys located a sedentary population in the community-
owned conservation area at Huashapamba (Toyne
unpublished data). Selva Alegre forest in north Loja
Province, located on the Saraguro-Manu road (see Toyne
et al. 1995 for details), has a sedentary population of
around 20 individuals. A maximum flock size of 29
individuals was recorded by Jacobs and Walker (1999).
This small forest patch is heavily degraded by tree clearance
and cattle grazing. Red-faced parrots were found to inhabit
the fragmented forests around Saraguro e.g., Torré and El
Sauce, Lomo del Oro (Toyne and Flanagan 1996, 1997,
Jacobs and Walker 1999). Two pairs with young were
recorded at Páramos de Matanga in early 1995/6 (Krabbe
et al. 1997). Cerro Chinguella in northern Peru, where
Parker et al. (1982) twice recorded red-faced parrots in the
1970s, still has large tracts of undisturbed cloud forests;
however, in a seven day survey in 1996, no H. pyrrhops
were recorded (Toyne and Flanagan unpublished data).
Threats: The main threat to this species is habitat
loss principally through fragmentation from human
encroachment (cattle ranching and timber collection for
construction and fuel). How tolerant red-faced parrots are
to habitat degradation remains uncertain.
Actions: Conservation efforts must be directed to the
remaining cloud forests of the Saraguro area where red-
faced parrots are found in greater abundance (Toyne
Left to right: Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops, H. fuertesi. H. amazonina
Red-faced parrot
Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops

135
1996). The feasibility of a network of connecting Andean
forests should be explored (Toyne and Flanagan
unpublished data, see L. branickii). Efforts should be
made to protect the forest patch between Selva Alegre and
Manu in the Chilla mountains.
It is of paramount importance that all mining activities
in the Podocarpus National Park are stopped. This would
secure habitat for three globally Endangered parrots: The
golden-plumed parakeet Leptosittaca branickii, the white-
breasted parakeet Pyrrhura albipectus, and the red-faced
parrot Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops. In Peru, surveys are
required to assess whether viable populations of the species
survive, and assess what options for their conservation
exist.
Golden-plumed parakeet
Leptosittaca branickii
Contributors: Jeremy Flanagan, Gustavo Kattan, Paul
Salaman, and Paul Toyne.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (A1b; A2b; C1;
C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The golden-plumed parakeet is
distributed throughout the Andes from central Colombia
to southern Peru. It inhabits temperate cloud forest and
elfin woodland usually at 2,400–3,400m, although
occasionally as low as 1,400m (Collar et al. 1992). Within
its range, it is localised and considered nomadic (Fjeldså
and Krabbe 1990, Collar et al 1992), making it difficult to
study, which explains why it is a poorly known species.
In Colombia, the species’ movements over large areas
may follow a temporal pattern, with individuals foraging
the same day in areas that are kilometres apart. A large
population may exist in and around the Volcán Ruíz-
Tolima complex. There is a healthy population in the
Central Andes of Ucumarí-Los Nevados-Quindío region
with groups of up to 40 individuals commonly seen. Birds
seem to cross often from the west to the east slope of the
central Andes. The Rio Blanco protected watershed may
hold a population of up to 150 individuals within 10km of
the City of Manizales.
The species feeds on Podocarpaceae fruits, including
Podocarpus and Prumnopytis, but contrary to previous
published data, L. branickii does not seem to be a true
Podocarpus specialist (Flanagan and Toyne in litt. 1997,
Kattan in litt. 1997). Since large Podocarpaceae are only
found in primary forest, the species is closely associated
with this habitat. It may depend upon this habitat for most
of its food items, and during reproduction. However in
Toche as well as in lower parts of Ucumarí Reserve, the
species also feeds in secondary forests.
In Ecuador it is only known from nine sites, five of
which are in Loja Province. Prior to the 1990s there are few
records of this species in Loja Province and consequently
their distribution and status in the Province is sparsely
documented.
This species has been recently observed in small flocks
in the following areas: In Ecuador: Acanama
(Huashapamba), Angashcola, El Quingueado, Cordillera
de Allapacha, Torré, Hiñuiña, Loma del Oro, and El
Golden-plumed parakeet
Leptosittaca branickii

136
Sauce. In Podocarpus National Park, flocks have been
seen in Cajanuma, Lagunas del Compadre, Yangana-
Valladolid (including Quebrada Honda), Quebrada
Rabadilla de Vaca, and San Francisco. In Colombia it has
been observed in: Ucumarí Regional Park, Los Nevados
National Park, the Quindío River, Rio Blanco, and the
Volcán Galeras. And in Peru in: Selva Alegre and Chilla
Mountains in Manu National Park.
Due to Leptosittaca’s mobility it is difficult to assess its
status at any one site. However, it must be deemed as
extremely rare and, at present, highly unpredictable.
Threats: The species is threatened by habitat fragmentation
resulting in the interruption of altitudinal and seasonal
migration, and lack of nesting habitat (possibly in the
form of large mature trees within forests). In the Loja
province of Ecuador, the main threat is habitat loss due to
human encroachment (caused by cattle ranching and tree
felling for construction material and fuel).
Actions: Conservation for Leptosittaca will require a
landscape approach. This includes the conservation of a
high variety of habitats with fruit-bearing trees and Cordia
cylondrostachya, Axinea macrophylla, and old growth
stands of Podocarpus. In both Colombia and Ecuador, a
network of interconnected montane forests at various
altitudes is needed to secure the long-term future of this
and other Andean parrots. The network can include
private and community-owned reserves. Efforts should
focus on protecting forest patches in the Quindío region
in Colombia and at Selva Alegre and Acanama-
Huashapamba areas in the Chilla Mountains of Ecuador.
In Peru, surveys are required to assess whether viable
populations of the species survive, and what options for
their conservation exists.
(See multi-species remarks in Ognorhynchus icterotis).
Yellow-eared conure
Ognorhynchus icterotis
Contributors: Niels Krabbe, Luis Miguel Renjifo, Paul
Salaman, Paul Toyne.
Conservation status:IUCN: Critically Endangered (A1b;
C1; C2a; D1).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This large parakeet, once numerous
(Collar et al. 1992), is now on the brink of extinction as a
result of hunting for food and loss of habitat. The species
is only known to roost and nest in wax palms Ceroxylon.
All recent records may refer to three flocks, each of 20–24
birds. These flocks occur in a large wax palm forest in the
Central Cordillera of Colombia; a nearly deforested area
in western Ecuador; and south-west Colombia and adjacent
north-west Ecuador. After vanishing recently the latter
flock is considered extinct. The exact whereabouts of
groups for much of the year is still unknown, rendering
protective measures difficult.
While the species is strongly seasonal and highly mobile,
there are several sizeable areas of apparently suitable
habitat existing throughout its historical range. For
example, from at least 1983 until 1989 a flock would
appear at La Planada Nature Reserve, Nariño, almost
every day each year in February (often staying until May).
The flock increased in size, reaching a maximum of 21
birds (1985), and roughly that number thereafter. Sadly,
in 1990 the flock never appeared, and has never been seen
since, despite excellent safe habitat remaining and plenty
of observers (Salaman 1994). This population may have
moved to the area between Nariño and Carchi, but it is
now thought to be extinct (Krabbe and Sornoza 1996).
Yellow-eared conure
Ognorhynchus icterotis

137
An undisclosed location on the Volcán Ruiz-Tolima
massif, Central Cordillera of Colombia, contains the largest
surviving fragment of wax palms, estimated at over 10km2
(P. Salaman in litt. 1997). These Ceroxylum quindiense
palms are intermixed with montane humid forest and
form a mosaic habitat. This habitat also includes pasture.
Most Colombian reports of this species in the past seven
years originate from this one unprotected location, with
the first confirmation in 1997 by L. G. Olarte and later the
observation of a flock of 24 birds in October 1997 (P.
Salaman in litt. 1997). Despite the close proximity to Los
Nevados National Park and other private nature reserves,
the species has not been recorded from these areas in the
past decade. The species is so conspicuous, that it is
unlikely to have been overlooked by the many
ornithologists working in these areas. In the case of the
Volcán Ruiz-Tolima massif, where there appears to be
sufficient feeding and nesting habitat, it is suspected that
hunting is responsible for the very low population levels.
This also appears to be the case in Ecuador. Recent reports
of two flocks totalling 61 birds in a remote location of the
Central Cordillera of Colombia, and the discovery and
monitoring of the first ever active nest is a wax palm have
dramatically increased the natural history knowledge base
of this species (Salaman and Lopez-Lanus, 1999).
Multi-species remarks: The Volcán Ruiz-Tolima massif,
including the High Quindío region and the Toche Canyon
of the Colombian Andean Central Cordillera are largely
within the Los Nevados National Park and adjacent
regional or private reserves. Forest cover is nearly
continuous between the High Quindío (western slope) and
Toche (eastern slope). Furthermore, the ridge between
both slopes has pristine and inaccessible páramo. This
area is probably one of the few remaining untouched areas
within the range of Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons. In 1989
and 1990 B. ferrugineifrons was observed only a few times
in areas with more disturbed páramo in the High Quindío
(L.M. Renjifo in litt. 1997). There is also a healthy population
of Leptosittaca branickii in the High Quindío-Toche area
that moves frequently between the two slopes using the
same forested pass. In summary, these areas are the most
important areas to preserve globally important populations
of Ognorhynchus icterotis, Leptosittaca branickii,
Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons, and Hapalopsittaca
fuertesi in the Colombian Andes, and certainly the only
ones for which there is more detailed information.
Leptosittaca branickii, Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons, and
Hapalopsittaca fuertesi have little altitudinal range-overlap
with Ognorhynchus icterotis, for which protective measures
must, therefore, be considered separately.
Threats: Although rapidly diminishing, there are still
several sizeable areas of apparently suitable habitat
throughout its historical range (Renjifo 1991, Salaman
1994, Krabbe and Sornoza 1996, P. Salaman in litt. 1997),
suggesting that factors other than habitat destruction are
responsible for its rapid decline. It has always been rare in
captivity, and only a handful of individuals have ever
reached western markets (Collar et al. 1992): two wild
caught specimens were recorded in international trade
between 1991 and 1995, both in 1992 (seized by the USA:
CITES Annual Report database). Undoubtedly the severe
fragmentation of its habitat, and perhaps in particular the
destruction of traditional nesting palms, have had a large
impact, but it is suspected that hunting at traditional
roosts is the major cause of the species’ decline. Indeed, in
the valley of a traditional roost in Ecuador, nearly all
families had shot the parrot for food at the roost (Krabbe
and Sornoza 1996). The conservative habits of the species
render it particularly vulnerable. Despite persecution of
the roosts in Ecuador, the parrots continued to use the
same palm, and when the palm fell, they only then moved
to the neighbouring palm (Krabbe and Sornoza 1996).
Lack of information concerning the whereabouts of the
two remaining flocks for much of the year poses a major
obstacle to its conservation. Critically, the largest fragment
of wax palms in the Central Cordillera of Colombia is
unprotected and highly threatened.
Actions: Without an immediate multilateral conservation
strategy and immediate intervention, the species is
threatened with total extinction within the next decade.
Research is desperately required to locate more breeding
areas, roost sites, potential migration routes, and favoured
feeding sites. Studies should also identify specific threats
and conservation priorities. Conservation actions will
require urgent and creative land management strategies,
such as strengthening the protection of all roosting and
breeding sites (purchasing these areas if possible), and
reverting pasturelands adjacent to wax palm to forest.
Large-scale propagation of the wax palms is not
recommended as a cost-effective conservation action. It is
more important to concentrate conservation efforts on
establishing secondary growth forest from pasturelands
that lie next to the wax palms. Indeed, wax palm forests in
general are currently highly fragmented, young wax palms
do very well in secondary growth, and the seeds of wax
palms are readily dispersed by large frugivores in the
region.
The involvement of local people in managing protected
areas is necessary as they pose the greatest direct threat.
Whenever possible ecotourism development should be
considered. However, potential political instability
associated to guerrilla warfare should be considered when
developing ecotourism initiatives. Community involvement
should be enhanced with an active environmental education
campaign (i.e., distribution of posters, talks at local schools).
But the greatest threat may be avoided by simply locating
and talking to local hunters.

138
In Ecuador, Niels Krabbe, with funding from the
Zoological Society for the Preservation of Species and
Populations, Fonds fur Bedrohte Papageien, and the Loro
Parque Foundation, has begun a long-term conservation
programme for the country’s last known flock.
Approximately 0.5km2 of land surrounding a traditional
roost in western Ecuador has been purchased and has been
reforested with the parrot’s favourite food plants, Sapium
and Croton (both Euphorbiaceae). Three areas nearby, all
used by Ognorhynchus and covering 1.5km2 are presently
being purchased, and a further 2km2 may be added later in
1998. Formerly the parrot was heavily persecuted at this
roost, which is now protected effectively (Krabbe and
Sornoza 1996).
White-breasted parakeet
Pyrrhura albipectus
Contributors: C.S. Balchin, Jeremy Flanagan, Niels
Krabbe, and Paul Toyne.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The white-breasted parakeet is
known from three general areas of south-east Ecuador
(Cordillera de Cutucú, Cordillera del Condor, and
Podocarpus National Park), where it inhabits upper
tropical and subtropical forest and possibly disturbed
areas, between 940 and 1,800m (Robbins et al. 1987,
Collar et al. 1992, Toyne et al. 1992, Krabbe and Sornoza
1996, Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). Also possibly
recorded in Peru. This parakeet has been recorded in both
pristine and degraded habitat, as it has been observed in
partially and severely deforested areas around Podocarpus
National Park (Toyne et al. 1992).
The lower forested slopes of the Río Nangaritza valley
may also prove to be ideal habitat for this parakeet (Toyne
et al. 1992). They have been recorded here once during a
short survey in 1994 (Balchin and Toyne 1998) and were
encountered between 1,300 and 1,800m above the Río
Mariposa, a tributary of the Río Nangaritza. However, in
nearby Podocarpus National Park the parakeet is a
common, permanent resident of Río Bombuscara and
Romerillos (Toyne et al. 1992). This suggests, at least for
the area of Podocarpus National Park, that they are not as
severely threatened as first feared (Toyne et al. 1992,
Toyne 1996).
Threats: Along the southern perimeter of Podocarpus
National Park, encroachment by humans along the borders
of the park is causing habitat loss. Occasional trapping of
this species has been recorded in the areas surrounding
Zamora where they are kept as pets (Toyne et al. 1992).
Gold mining activities (e.g., mercury poisoning of rivers
that provide the local water supply) in and around the
park also poses threats (Toyne et al. 1992, Vallée 1992).
Local miners left the park in 1993 but quickly returned in
1994–95 (Toyne 1994). Presently, there are approximately
90 miners in the area of San Luis, and they have formed
strong ties with local politicians. Recently the Ministry of
Mining (DINAMI) decreed that the miners’ activities are
illegal; it is now up to the new Ministry of the Environment
to take steps to remove them (J. Flanagan in litt. 1997).
The two other areas where this species is found
(Cordillera de Cutucú and Cordillera del Condor) are also
threatened by deforestation, gold mining, and road
building, but the current situation is not known (Collar et
al. 1992, Toyne et al. 1992).
Actions: A public awareness and environmental education
campaign about Podocarpus National Park and its
importance has been initiated by Fundación ArcoIris.
This work needs further encouragement and the relevance
of the Podocarpus National Park for parrot conservation
needs to be highlighted. Fortunately Podocarpus National
Park has been receiving international assistance for the
last few years. These efforts have led to the strengthening
of local institutions (both NGOs and governmental) and
a new management plan being published.
Flame-winged parakeet
Pyrrhura calliptera
Contributor: Paul Salaman.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (A1b; A2b; C1;
C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
White-breasted parakeet
Pyrrhura albipectus

139
Distribution and status: Population estimates for the flame-
winged parakeet range from between 5,000 and 10,000
individuals. It is confined to remnant patches of upper-
premontane to montane forest and páramo 1,800 to 3,400m
on the central Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. The
population is suspected to be similar to Pyrrhura viridicata
in that it is found to be not uncommon in remaining forest
patches within restricted range. However, the species range
is far more fragmented and human pressures much greater.
Few sizeable forest fragments remain.
Threats: Forest clearance for agriculture and timber is still
very active. Road/track construction in the region
(although slow and limited owing to rough terrain) will
undoubtedly have severe consequences in the future.
Actions: As with other species of the Colombian Andes, a
field study on the species should concentrate on determining
population densities in different forest types. It should
include estimating current population levels according to
the area of suitable remaining habitat. Knowledge of the
extent of altitudinal movements and the distance travelled
over open country (between forest patches) would also be
of value.
Blue-throated parakeet
Pyrrhura cruentata
(Blue-chested parakeet in Collar et al. 1994. Name changed
here to conform to Brazilian usage.)
Contributor: Jaqueline Goerck.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (A1b; B1+2c; C2a).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The blue-throated parakeet is
found in scattered Atlantic Forest fragments in southern
Bahia, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. Although sometimes fairly common where it occurs,
it may be unable to move between widely dispersed patches
of forest, since it seems to be restricted to forested areas.
Threats: Extreme deforestation and fragmentation
threatens the species throughout its range. The sparse
remaining forest existing in southern Bahia is still being
felled. There were four specimens recorded in international
trade between 1991 and 1995, all in 1992 (pets: CITES
Annual Report database).
Actions: Few actions, if any, are taking place. In fact, one
of the areas where this species occurs in Espírito Santo
(Córrego do Veado Biological Reserve) had more than half
its original area (24km2) irreversibly burnt 12 years ago.
This reserve, as many others in Brazil is threatened by
Flame-winged parakeet
Pyrrhura calliptera
Blue-throated parakeet
Pyrrhura cruentata

140
uncontrolled hunting, cattle grazing, and poor enforcement.
Required conservation actions would be similar to those of
Amazona rhodocorytha, since the range of these two species
is similar.
El Oro parakeet or Orces parakeet
Pyrrhura orcesi
Contributor: Niels Krabbe.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (B1+2c; C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The orces parakeet is restricted to
very humid upper tropical forest on the west slope of the
Andes in Azuay and El Oro Provinces, south-western
Ecuador. In these areas it can be found at altitudes of 300
and 1,300m. Population estimates range from between
2,000 and 10,000 birds.
Threats: Continuing habitat clearance for cattle production
threatens this species (Collar et al. 1992, Best et al. 1993).
Actions: Information is urgently required on its
distribution, population status, and threats.
Santa Marta parakeet
Pyrrhura viridicata
Contributors: Thomas Arndt, and Paul Salaman.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (C1; C2b).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The Santa Marta parakeet is
restricted to upper-premontane to montane forest 1,800 to
2,800m on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta massif,
Colombia. Highly vocal parties (5–20 birds) are commonly
observed flying over the San Lorenzo-Cerro Kennedy
trail, which has been extensively deforested. Research is
required into the extent of remaining suitable habitat for
the species. Estimates of population numbers in primary
and non-primary forest are also needed. It is suspected
that large healthy populations of the species can be found
where sizeable forest fragments remain. The total
population is estimated at 5,000 to 10,000 individuals.
Threats: Conifer plantations, and forest clearance for
agriculture and timber threaten this species. It is a cavity-
nester that requires dead limbs, although not necessarily
large trunks. It is largely restricted to old secondary and
primary forest. Some large and many small fragments of
forest still remain on the massif, however the human
pressures are very strong in the region. The extent of
altitudinal movements is also unknown. Seasonal variation
of numbers gained through general observations along the
San Lorenzo road may help to provide such data. Until
further research clarifies the species status, the species
should be designated a threatened status.
Actions: Ideally, research should concentrate on the
tolerance of the species to habitat change, population
densities in different forest types, and estimates of current
population levels.
El Oro parakeet
or Orces parakeet
Pyrrhura orcesi Santa Marta parakeet
Pyrrhura viridicata

141
Thick-billed parrot
Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha
Contributors: Andrew Burton, Javier Cruz-Nieto, Miguel
A. Cruz-Nieto, Ernesto Enkerlin-Hoeflich, Alberto Lafón-
Terrazas, Dirk Lanning, Tiberio Monterrubio, Jesus
Montes, Roger Otto, Jim Shiflett, Noel Snyder, and Diana
Venegas.
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (A1b; A2b; C1;
C2a).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Endangered in Mexico (Peligro
de extincion, NOM-ECOL-059-1994) and Endangered in
the USA (US Fish and Wildlife Service).
Distribution and status: This species is restricted during
breeding to pine forests in mountainous areas of northern
Mexico, largely in the states of Chihuahua and Durango
and, to a much lesser extent in Sonora and Sinaloa
(Howell and Webb 1995; Enkerlin-Hoeflich et al. 1996),
with some individuals reported in historic times from
extreme southern Arizona in the USA. Populations have
declined markedly in Mexico. Breeding pairs are now
found only in undisturbed remote areas, in disturbed
areas with a few remaining suitable nest sites, and in
islands of forest on steep slopes and ridges that are not
accessible or currently economical to log. In the non-
breeding season this species roams more widely within the
Sierra Madre Occidental (Enkerlin-Hoeflich et al. 1996).
See map by Howell and Webb (1995).
The progressive decline in the population of the thick-
billed parrot is apparent to all long-term residents across
the range (Lanning and Shiflett 1983, Lammertink et al.
1996, M.A. Cruz-Nieto in litt. 1997). The parrot is only
one of many species currently in jeopardy in the region.
While the parrot still persists in suitable numbers in the
best remaining forested areas, all will surely be cleared of
their large trees in the near future unless conservation
efforts now being started prove successful. Lammertink
et al. (1996) have offered a rough estimate for the total
wild population still in existence as 500 to 2,000 pairs.
Although this estimate may be on the conservative side,
no adequate basis for estimating total numbers in the
wild has yet been developed. The numbers in captivity
were estimated by Snyder and Wallace (1987) to possibly
exceed 1,000 individuals almost all taken illegally. At least
200 birds use the general vicinity of Cebadillas de
Tosanachic study site in Chihuahua. This may be the last
relatively large healthy population, numbering in the low
hundreds of pairs, as a fraction of the area contained 61
nests in 1997 (D. Venegas and T. Monterrubio in litt.
1997). There is an excellent account of this species in
Collar et al. (1992) and a full account is found in Snyder
et al. (1999)
Threats: Unfortunately, the thick-billed parrot suffered
heavily from shooting in the USA, and was very likely
extirpated north of the border as a result (Snyder et al.
1994). Much of the recent decline is undoubtedly due to
large scale felling of the pine forests of the Sierra Madre
Occidental. This has been carried out since World War II
(Lanning and Shiflett 1983, Lammertink, et al. 1996, Cruz-
Nieto 1998). The species has also been under stress from
extensive trapping for the pet and avicultural trades (Snyder
and Wallace 1987). The thick-billed parrot is not limited to
virgin forest, and can exist in selectively logged areas
provided suitable dead standing trees (snags) for nesting
are available and shooting and trapping does not occur.
Significant efforts to manage and conserve major remaining
habitats of the species are now being pursued in Mexico
(Enkerlin-Hoeflich et al. 1996). Thick-billed parrots are
rarely kept as pets because they do not talk, although large
numbers of confiscations in the US followed a surge in
illegal importation of birds in 1985–1986. They are not
known to raid agricultural crops, and are not shot for food.
Actions: Forest management practices need to be modified
to conserve thick-billed parrot nesting habitat. Properly
Thick-billed parrot
Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha

142
located and managed reserves could protect several prime
nesting areas; no such reserves currently exist, although a
number of efforts are currently underway (R. Otto in litt.
1997, Enkerlin-Hoeflich et al. 1996).
A re-introduction project began in south-eastern
Arizona in 1986 (reviewed in Snyder et al. 1994). Efforts
have not yet led to a viable wild population being
established. However initial experiments are encouraging
and demonstrate that this may be possible. A number of
birds still persist in Arizona, and experimentation has
shown that at least some wild-caught birds will stay in the
region of re-introduction, with reasonable levels of survival
and reproduction. Experimentation has also shown that
while confiscated wild-caught birds are a viable release
source from a behavioural standpoint, they may harbour
diseases. Captive-reared thick-bills from various zoos and
aviculturists have not proved to be a viable source from
both behavioural and disease standpoints. Future efforts
should involve direct wild to wild transfers and the
employment of extensive disease screening.
Continued efforts to achieve appropriate habitat
conservation measures include; additional extensive
understanding of the biology of the species, including
documentation of wintering ranges of various breeding
populations; the development of better means for
monitoring population sizes and trends; the reactivation
of a programme to re-establish extirpated populations
both in Mexico and the US, using wild-caught birds from
populations that are vigorous enough to serve as donors.
These activities should all take place within the next five
years.
Maroon-fronted parrot
Rhynchopsitta terrisi
Contributors: Ernesto Enkerlin, Aldegundo Garza, Jaime
Gonzalez-Elizondo, Claudia Macías, José Luis Manzano-
Loza, Sergio Marines, Gabriela Ortiz, Andres M. Sada,
Alejandro Salinas, Noel Snyder, and Ruperto Zepien.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (B1+2C; C2a).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Endangered in Mexico (Peligro
de extincion, NOM-ECOL-059-1994) and Endangered in
the USA (US Fish and Wildlife Service).
Distribution and status: The maroon-fronted parrot is
restricted to pine forests and rock cliffs in the mountain
areas of northern Mexico (specifically in Nuevo León and
Coahuila states). These areas are used as nesting sites. A
degree of winter activity occurs in Tamaulipas State.
Breeding colonies are known only from the northernmost
25% of the range. Recent intensive studies (initiated by
PROFAUNA [a conservation group based at the
Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro in Saltillo]
and continued by the Monterrey Technological Institute
[MTI]) have resulted in an almost complete inventory of
nesting cliffs. Approximately 24 nesting areas have been
documented. These consist of populations ranging from a
single nesting pair to close to 100 nesting pairs each
(Enkerlin-Hoeflich et al. 1996). Until recently the population
had been estimated at between 2,000 and 4,000 birds. This
figure was calculated using data obtained in the early 1970s
when a flock of approximately 1,500 individuals was
observed (Snyder and Lanning cited by Collar et al. 1992).
Presumed to be declining by some observers (i.e., Gómez-
Garza 1991), yet confirmed stable or at least within historic
population estimates in 1994 with a simultaneous count of
about 1,400 (Snyder and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 1996). A high
historic count in 1996 recorded 2,213 birds and a quasi-
simultaneous survey in September of the same year yielded
an additional count of approximately 300 individuals at
nearby nesting cliffs (J.J. Gonzalez-Elizondo in litt. 1997).
This sets the minimum estimate at 2,500 and suggests a
small but relatively stable population.
Threats: The main threats to this species are: (i) destruction
of its mixed-conifer forest habitat by fire; (ii) housing
development; (iii) logging; and (iv) forest clearing for
agricultural purposes. The large Cumbres de Monterrey
Maroon-fronted parrot
Rhynchopsitta terrisi

143
National Park exists within the maroon-fronted parrot’s
range. However an increase in the frequency and intensity
of forest fires is causing passive deforestation. Areas that
regenerate naturally usually become oak chaparral. This
habitat is of no value to the parrots in terms of food.
Reforestation with native species is not occurring except
in small areas by private landowners. The maroon-fronted
parrot is highly dependent on free flowing water on a daily
basis. The lack of springs from which to drink have
sometimes forced it to drink from water troughs. During
the 1994 drought at least 50 birds drowned in a single
incident while attempting to drink water from a walled
cement tank. Greater understanding of the ecology of the
species is needed to propose a variety of measures to avert
these threats (Enkerlin-Hoeflich et al. 1996).
Actions: In the last few years a long-term conservation
programme for the species has evolved. An integrated
conservation plan using the maroon-fronted parrot as the
flagship species has been initiated by MTI with multiple
collaborators both in Mexico and abroad. The plan includes
a three level strategy to achieve conservation of habitat.
This in turn provides ecological services, and scenic and
recreational values to neighbouring cities of Monterrey
and Saltillo. The combined population of these cities
numbers approximately five million (Enkerlin-Hoeflich et
al. 1996). The plan includes El Taray Sanctuary, the most
important nesting colony. This site harbours nearly 100
breeding pairs which comprise 40% of the breeding
population. This site was acquired by the Mexican
Commission on Biodiversity (CONABIO) and is managed
by a local NGO, the Museo de las Aves de Mexico. A 20-
year strategic plan for the reserve includes financial
management, conservation management, conservation
research, and education and outreach components that
hope to make El Taray a show-case for sustainable land use
in the region. This plan may even provide a useful model for
other regions. The overall effort includes an ecological
planning process that would safeguard the most important
nesting cliffs. A Mexican foundation (Fundación ARA) is
also developing a plan for community-based protection of
the second or third most important cliff nesting site known
as El Condominio (or “High-rise”).
Brown-backed parrotlet
Touit melanonota
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (C2a;D1).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This small and inconspicuous
species is very poorly known. During this century it has
been recorded only in Rio de Janeiro State and three sites
in São Paulo, Brazil. It was also recorded in Bahia in the
last century. It inhabits humid forest, mainly at moderate
elevations (500–1,000m), but descends to lower elevations
at times, perhaps seasonally (Collar et al. 1994).
Threats: Touit melanonota appears to be a victim primarily
of widespread habitat loss and fragmentation, with many
recent records limited to protected areas (Collar et al.
1992).
Actions: Information is urgently needed on the current
distribution, population status, and threats for this species.
Spot-winged parrotlet
Touit stictoptera
Contributors: C.S. Balchin, Niels Krabbe, Luis Miguel
Renjifo, Paul Salaman, and Paul Toyne.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This inconspicuous species occurs
in five general areas extending through Colombia
(Cundinamarca, Meta, and Cauca), Ecuador (Napo,
Morona-Santiago, and Zamora-Chinchipe), and northern
Peru (Cajamarca, and San Martín). It inhabits the upper
tropical and lower subtropical zone, using tall humid
montane forest at 500–2,300m, though mostly 1,050–
1,700m. It was recently recorded in Miazi and elsewhere in
the Cordillera del Cóndor in Ecuador. No recent sightings
have been made of this species despite searches in its upper
tropical-premontane altitudinal zone on the east slope of
the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia.
Spot-winged parrotlet
Touit stictoptera

144
Threats: Deforestation and fragmentation threaten this
species.
Actions: Information is urgently required on the
distribution, population status, and threats to this species.
Golden-tailed parrotlet
Touit surda
Conservation status:IUCN: Endangered (C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: Touit surda has been recorded
from four states in north-eastern Brazil – Ceará, Paraiba,
Pernambuco, and Alagoas – and from four states in south-
eastern Brazil – Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and
São Paulo. The majority of records have come from humid
lowland forest areas up to approximately 800m in the
foothills. It appears to be migratory to some degree.
Threats: This species has evidently suffered from continuing
large-scale habitat destruction. Many sightings have been
limited only to protected areas (Collar et al. 1992).
Actions: Information is urgently needed on the current
distribution, population status, and threats to this species.
Blue-bellied parrot
Triclaria malachitacea
Contributors: Glayson Ariel Bencke, Paulo Martuschelli,
Marco Aurelio Pizo, and Carlos Yamashita.
Conservation status:IUCN: Vulnerable (B1+2c,d; C1,
C2a). Formerly Endangered (C2a: see Collar et al. 1994).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Protected under federal law
and included on IBAMA’s list of Brazilian species
threatened with extinction (Bernardes et al. 1990).
Distribution and status: The blue-bellied parrot Triclaria
malachitacea is a threatened Psittacine endemic to the
Atlantic Forest region of south-eastern Brazil. Its current
status has been attributed to its natural rarity coupled with
the effects of hunting and loss of habitat. Within its range,
Triclaria still survives in Rio Grande do Sul, where it
inhabits a highly fragmented landscape along the
escarpment of the state (Serra Geral) and is confined to
remaining patches of forest on hilltops and steep mountain
slopes (Bencke 1996). The species is uncommon at
Intervales State Park, São Paulo State, and from 1989–
1993 there has been no noticeable decline in this population
(Pizo et al. 1995). Numbers may be higher than suspected
due to the fact that this is one of the most secretive parrots
in the world. In central-eastern Rio Grande do Sul Triclaria
is mostly associated with the humid broadleaf forests
along the escarpment, which are now severely fragmented.
It is presently restricted to the largest remnants of mature
forest. However, preliminary radio-telemetry studies
showed that individuals of Triclaria are able to disperse
among habitat patches using narrow forest corridors,
such as strips of second growth woodland, and also crossing
small open areas (100–200m).
The total population of Triclaria was tentatively
estimated at less than 5,000 individuals by Lambert et al.
(1993). A recent survey (Bencke 1996) of remaining natural
vegetation in central-eastern Rio Grande do Sul revealed a
forest cover of 17.32%, corresponding to an area of 1,222km2
(total area surveyed = 7,056km2). This calculation includes
remnants greater than 0.5km2 of arboreal vegetation (both
primary and secondary) and low second growth. Based on
the amount of habitat available its population was estimated
at a maximum of approximately 10,000 individuals. This
number was calculated assuming a maximum density of 10
individuals per 1km2 of forest (an assumption based on
field observations conducted mainly at Monte Alverne).
However, it is possible that the amount of suitable habitat
has been overestimated due to the inclusion of areas of
second growth in the survey of remnant vegetation.
Therefore, population numbers may be lower.
Unlike other parrots species in the region, Triclaria
lives primarily in the forest interior, where it often occupies
the lower strata. At Monte Alverne, most records inside
the forest were of birds in the understorey canopy, between
five and ten metres above the ground. Triclaria nests in
natural cavities inside primary-forest remnants. Three
nests have been found in Santa Cruz do Sul and were all
quite low (between about three and five metres above
ground) and thus easily accessible to nest poachers.
The main foods of Triclaria in the region are the seeds
and pulp of several common species of native plants,
especially those of families Euphorbiaceae (such as
Pachystroma longifolium, Actinostemon concolor, and
Blue-bellied parrot
Triclaria malachitacea

145
Sebastiana brasiliensis) and Myrtaceae (principally Eugenia
rostrifolia and Campomanesia xanthocarpa), and also
cultivated maize (Galetti 1997). Some of these plant species
proved to be keystone food resources, as they fruit (and
are consumed) over extended periods, are available in
large quantities in periods of low overall fruit diversity or
constitute the main food item during the breeding season.
Several reports clearly indicate that the fruits of Euterpe
edulis are not a particularly important food resource for
Triclaria in Rio Grande do Sul.
Threats: The main threat currently affecting the population
of Triclaria in the centre-east of Rio Grande do Sul is
the continuing process of habitat degradation and
fragmentation. The illegal clearing of forests at a small
scale to provide wood for curing tobacco and fuel for the
winter is still very common throughout the region. As a
result, primary-forest remnants are becoming increasingly
smaller and more distant from each other. Additionally,
this piecemeal process has been conducive to a progressive
substitution of primary forests by second growth and to a
consequent process of ecosystem impoverishment in the
region. Attempts to evaluate the extent of deforestation in
Rio Grande do Sul have been controversial, but all indicate
an enormous reduction in forest areas since the time of
colonisation. (Forest cover has decreased in area from 35%
in 1940 to approximately 2% in 1990, G. Bencke in litt.
1998). The continuation of habitat fragmentation through
the illegal clearing of primary forests and loss of connections
between mature-forest remnants presently poses the most
serious threat to the long-term survival of the blue-bellied
parrot population in central-eastern Rio Grande do Sul.
Local farmers living around primary-forest remnants
throughout the region occasionally take young from parrot
nests to keep as pets. The magnitude of the effects of this
practice on the local Triclaria population is currently
unknown. The capture of chicks from nests is the cause of
a number of nest failures every year. The forest fragments
where the species nests in central-eastern state are small
and easily accessible to trappers. Location and capture of
Triclaria nestlings is further facilitated by the loud
vocalisations often delivered by both adults and young
near the nest and the usually low heights of nest holes.
There were 20 wild caught specimens recorded in
international trade between 1991 and 1995, all in 1991
(CITES Annual Report database).
Actions: The main recommended measure to achieve the
protection of the species and its habitat in the region is the
establishment of protected areas with some degree of
connectivity. The hilltop forests near Santa Cruz do Sul
and in the boundary with the township of Candelária are
among the most representative of Rio Grande do Sul’s
remaining vegetation deserving protection by the Programa
Mata Atlântica-Rio Grande do Sul (Pagel et al. 1992). In
spite of this, there is not a single protected area in central
Rio Grande do Sul and extensive tracts of undisturbed
forest no longer exist in the region. Primary-forest remnants
are the only components of the landscape suitable to be set
aside as reserves. These remnants are small (few are larger
than 4km2, but the great majority are much smaller) and
often shared by several small land owners (mostly poor
tobacco planters with an average property size of 0.02km2.:
Farias 1993).
A particularly important issue is the protection or
enhancement of wildlife corridors between the protected
areas (i.e., habitat islands). This may be achieved through
the implementation of a local plan for sustainable
management of timber (see below). Given the financial
constraints on the federal and state conservation bodies,
the creation of new public reserves has been recognised as
a difficult approach to achieve the protection of habitats
for wildlife conservation. Alternatively, the creation of
public or private reserves at the municipal level is considered
feasible. The process of land acquisition seems to be the
most appropriate strategy to achieve the establishment of
protected areas in the region because the economic situation
in Santa Cruz do Sul region is believed to be favourable for
such an approach. Large branch industries of important
international tobacco companies established in Santa Cruz
do Sul and Venâncio Aires could provide a substantial part
of the funds for land purchase. The rest could be sought
from national and international conservation agencies.
Another important step to reduce forest degradation
would be the implementation of a plan for sustainable
management of forest to cease the non-sustainable and
inappropriate harvesting of wood from native forests.
Brazil is currently the world’s leading exporter of tobacco
in natura and one of the main exporters of cigarettes.
International importers of tobacco leaves and manufactured
products originating from the Santa Cruz do Sul region
should be made aware that the tobacco is planted over
areas where a globally threatened species of parrot occurs,
and that this activity has resulted in the fragmentation of
natural habitats and led to a decline of several wildlife
species. Such an “overseas” awareness campaign would
certainly be more effective if conducted by external
conservation agencies rather than by local groups.
Brazil’s tobacco planters association (Afubra) from
Santa Cruz do Sul, in conjunction with tobacco companies,
started several campaigns aimed at introducing in the
region alternative sources of timber to replace the wood
from native forests in the curing of tobacco. However, all
these actions failed, apparently because of the lack of
continuity and inadequate implementation. In view of the
ineffectiveness of the previous campaigns, and also because
of some fines imposed to farmers during occasional law
enforcement activities in the region, the Afubra has recently
adopted a different approach. It is now leading a campaign
to change the state legislation governing the use of native

146
forests (Código Florestal Estadual). If approved, the
proposed amendment to the law will allow (upon licensing)
the exploitation of second growth forests, regardless of
their successional stage and location, to use the wood as
fuel in the curing of tobacco. However, this proposal is
obviously not based on technical criteria and may have
catastrophic consequences in areas where secondary forests
predominate. The situation is rapidly worsening,
particularly in the region around Santa Cruz do Sul. Here
the wood used in the curing of tobacco is extracted
principally from native forests.
Souza Cruz, one of the largest tobacco companies in the
region, has recently announced the installation of a new
industrial plant at Santa Cruz do Sul which will significantly
increase the company’s capacity for processing tobacco
leaves. This measure will require an estimated additional
13,700 tobacco planters in the region to satisfy the plant’s
demand for tobacco, which in turn will result in a
corresponding increase of agricultural areas to maintain
these farmers and in consumption of wood for curing the
leaves. Moreover, tobacco industries have recently been
given special incentives by the Rio Grande do Sul’s
government to install new plants or to increase their
investments in the state.
Environmental education and public awareness will
remain a high priority. Triclaria is an unknown bird for the
great majority of the local population. Only rural inhabitants
living in farms around primary forest remnants are familiar
with the species. Consequently, public awareness and
environmental education should be carried out in properties
around the largest primary-forest remnants in the region
and in elementary schools of communities near these
properties. Awareness of urban populations in the region
requires a different approach. This target group should be
made aware of the situation of forests and wildlife in the
interior of the townships, especially the effects of habitat
fragmentation. Several species of bird are known to have
already vanished from the whole region, and many others
are locally threatened, primarily as a result of habitat
fragmentation (Bencke 1996). Newspaper articles, lectures,
and television interviews should complement the urban
public awareness campaign.
Accounts for species proposed for
consideration for inclusion on the Red List
Yellow-naped parrot
Amazona auropalliata
Contributors: Ernesto Enkerlin-Hoeflich, Celia Valverde,
and David A. Wiedenfeld.
Conservation status: IUCN: To be considered. Vulnerable
A2d.
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The yellow-naped parrot is patchily
distributed along the Pacific (southern) coast of Central
America from Chiapas, Mexico to north-western Costa
Rica, and on the Caribbean slope from central Honduras
to central Nicaragua. No formal, or even anecdotal, data
are available for Mexico, although it is presumed to be
critical in the Mexican part of the range. There are no
reports in Mexico of large flocks as in other Amazona or
Aratinga species. Present in at least the low hundreds in
southern Guatemala in very disturbed cane and cattle
areas. Thurber et al. (1987) also reported diminished
numbers in El Salvador. In Honduras, the species exists in
very low numbers on the Pacific Slope (Wiedenfeld 1993).
It takes refuge for roosting and nesting in the mangroves
around the Gulf of Fonseca; this may also be true for the
remaining birds in El Salvador. On the Caribbean slope of
Honduras, the species is restricted to the areas of Colón
and Olancho. The Caribbean subspecies Amazona
auropalliata parvipes is still fairly numerous, with an
estimated population of approximately 140,000 individuals
in 1992 (Wiedenfeld 1993). On the Caribbean slope, the
parrot is restricted to relatively undisturbed habitats,
including both broad-leaved forest and pine savanna, but
shuns cultivated areas and second-growth (Wiedenfeld
1993). The species may possibly be still extant in the Bay
Islands, off the Caribbean coast of Honduras, but reports
of birds there may represent escaped captive birds.
In Nicaragua, the yellow-naped parrot numbers
approximately 180,000 individuals (Wiedenfeld 1995). As
in Honduras, it occurs on both the Pacific and Caribbean
slopes, but not in the southern Central Highlands. Its
population density is nearly twice as high on the Caribbean
as the Pacific slope (Wiedenfeld 1995). Stiles (1985) reported
some reductions in yellow-naped parrot populations in
Costa Rica, which he attributed to cage bird trapping. He
also mentioned that the species had been extirpated from
some areas.
Threats: Because of its facility in learning to “talk”, this
amazon is a preferred pet by Central Americans. As a
result, there is great pressure on its populations for internal
trade as pets. The threat of capture for internal trade is
believed to be much greater than the threat of capture for
external trade (both legal and illegal combined). Especially
on the Pacific slope of Central America, where yellow-
naped parrot populations are already low and human
populations are high, the harvest for internal trade may
have a very significant effect on the amazon’s populations.
In Honduras, those who sell amazons usually demand
about US$25 in the field in the Mosquitia, and about
US$60 in Tegucigalpa (Wiedenfeld 1993). The daily
minimum wage in Honduras is about US$2. Heavy

147
laundering of this species to the USA from Central America
through Mexico makes it impossible to judge levels of
harvest within Mexico. The average number of yellow-
naped parrots exported during 1989–1994 was 733 birds
per year (Wiedenfeld 1995). Because of the high value of
each amazon and because of the large numbers exported,
the yellow-naped parrot accounts for a high percentage of
the economic value of the birds in trade. Other export
figures are provided by the CITES Annual Report database
which recorded 4,018 wild caught specimens in
international trade between 1991 and 1995, with an annual
maximum of 930 in 1995. The export quota from Nicaragua
for 1997 and 1998 was set at 800 ranched birds (CITES
Notification to the Parties No. 980, 1997; CITES
Notification to the Parties No.1988/07).
Habitat loss is an especially serious threat on the
Pacific slope, where human populations are highest and a
large amount of habitat has already been destroyed. The
mangroves around the Gulf of Fonseca, which serve as a
roosting and nesting refuge for the Honduran and El
Salvadorian populations of the amazon are presently
being cleared for conversion to shrimp farming ponds. To
obtain young from the nest, many harvesters fell the nest
trees. This has two detrimental effects on the amazons: it
kills some of the young when the tree falls, and it reduces
the availability of nest sites. On most of the Pacific slope
of Central America and in some parts of the Honduran
Mosquitia, destruction of nest sites in the process of
harvesting may be so severe as to reduce the proportion of
the adult population which can breed each year. A multi-
year project in southern Guatemala revealed extremely
high levels of poaching, little predation from natural
predators, and an apparently stable adult population.
Actions: Plans for the conservation of this amazon should
be developed soon and implemented quickly, before the
situation becomes critical. The yellow-naped parrot is a
long-lived species, and most of the birds harvested are
taken as young from the nest. Therefore, even if all young
are harvested each year, the adult population may show
only slight declines for many years. As the adults reach
senescence and begin to die from normal old-age mortality,
the population could crash in a very short time. It is
imperative that a study be completed to determine the
extent of the harvest for internal pet market consumption,
which remains largely unquantified. A formal programme
for monitoring the amazon’s population numbers also
should be put in place.
In addition, immediate efforts should be made to
reduce demand for the amazon in the pet trade, and
therefore to reduce the harvest. These should probably
include encouragement of captive-breeding programs using
birds already in captivity and educational programs in
both the importing and exporting countries, so that people
will understand the effect of the harvest on this species.
Cuban amazon
Amazona leucocephala
Contributors: Vicente Berovides, Patricia Bradley,
Frederick Burton, Xiomara Gálvez, Rosemarie Gnam,
and James Wiley.
Conservation status:IUCN: To be considered. Vulnerable
B1 in Cuba and Endangered B3b in Bahama Islands and
Cayman Islands.
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is native to Cuba, the
Bahama Islands, and Cayman Islands. It strictly inhabits
forests at all elevations. Populations have dramatically
declined through most of its range. There are five races of
parrots that comprise the leucocephala complex, including
two Cuban forms Amazona l. leucocephala and A. l.
palmarum, the Bahama amazon A. l. bahamensis, the
Grand Cayman amazon A. l caymanensis, and the Cayman
Brac amazon A. l. hesterna (Peters 1928).
Cuban populations
Amazona leucocephala leucocephala
and A. l. palmarum
Distribution and status: The Cuban amazon was formerly
widespread and common throughout Cuba and Isla de la
Juventud (Isle of Pines). The species is locally found in all

148
of the provinces, except that of La Habana. It is common
in some areas, e.g., Ciénaga de Zapata in the Sierra de
Najasa (Camagüey), and in some mountainous zones
(Sierra Maestra) in Granma and Santiago de Cuba
provinces (González et al. 1993, Gálvez 1996b). The parrot
was formerly abundant throughout Isla de la Juventud,
but the population underwent considerable declines,
notably in the 1960s. More recently, several populations
have increased in numbers.
Threats: Although the Cuban amazon is protected from
capture and shooting by national and international law, it
is still marketed in Eastern European countries. In 1988,
US Fish and Wildlife Service agents seized 49 Cuban
amazons en-route to the United States. A lively trade in
parrots as local pets continues. Nevertheless, the most
serious threat to the parrot is habitat destruction for
agriculture, cattle, and firewood, and natural disasters
such as hurricanes that limit the number of dead trees for
nesting for both A. leucocephala and Aratinga euops (de las
Posas and González 1984).
Actions: The parrot continued to decline in range and
numbers throughout Cuba until the late 1970s, when
government measures were taken to control the export of
parrots for pets. That control resulted in notable increases
in several parrot populations in the 1980s. Also, the
recovery of some populations has been the result of
intensive protection and habitat restoration by the Empresa
Nacional para la Conservación de la Flora y la Fauna, for
example, in continuing efforts since 1979, this government
agency established dead palms with nesting cavities in the
Los Indios Ecological Reserve in Isla de Juventud. The
population increased from 196 parrots in 1976 to a total of
1,100 parrots for the northern part of the Isla de la
Juventud in 1996.
Both A. l. leucocephala and A. l. palmarum have been in
captivity in Cuba and elsewhere (Tavistock 1916; Noegel
1977, 1978; González et al. 1993). Although the important
Ciénaga de Zapata and other habitats critical to A.
leucocephala and Aratinga euops’ survival have been made
reserves, additional large conservation areas are needed in
sites where the species persists. The Empresa Nacional
para la Conservación de la Flora y la Fauna, in co-operation
with the Zoológico Nacional de Cuba, and the Biblioteca
Nacional de José Martí, has undertaken a vigorous
education programme, including annual conservation
festivals involving local communities since 1995, with events
to date at the Isla de la Juventud and Ciego de Ávila.
Bahama populations
Amazona leucocephala bahamensis
Distribution and status: The Bahama amazon was once
plentiful and probably present on all major islands of the
Bahama Archipelago, although records exist only for
Abaco, New Providence, San Salvador, Long, Crooked,
Acklin’s, Great Inagua, and Long Cay. By the 1940s, it was
found solely on Abaco, Acklin’s, and Great Inagua. The
population on Acklin’s was made extinct shortly thereafter.
The southern third of Abaco (1,681km2) is considered the
parrot’s primary stronghold on that island (Attrill 1980,
Gnam 1990). Amazons occur island-wide on Great Inagua
(1,544km2), but are patchy in distribution. The parrots
formerly visited nearby Little Inagua, and may continue to
do so today. The Abaco population nests in holes in the
limestone ground, rather than traditional tree cavities as
used by the Inagua population. The population on Abaco
was estimated at 450–800 birds in 1976 (Snyder et al. 1982).
In 1989, the Abaco population was estimated at 830–1082
birds (Gnam and Burchsted 1991). A population survey
there in 1995 yielded 1,100–1,200 parrots.
Threats: Populations of A. l. bahamensis are thought to be
relatively stable (possibly increasing on Abaco), but
vulnerable to exotic predators, poaching, possible habitat
loss, and hurricanes. With its small population size,
restricted distribution, and the threats facing it, this
population cannot be considered secure.
Actions: A successful public awareness campaign (Clarke
1993), and a parrot reserve has been established on
Abaco. An urgent study to determine current population
size and distribution is needed on Great Inagua. A
comprehensive long-range management plan based on
sound knowledge of parrot biology is needed for Abaco
Island. Comprehensive fire policies and feral cat control in
the nesting areas on Abaco would be of benefit. Also, it
seems timely and prudent to re-establish A. l. bahamensis
on other islands. A re-introduction on Acklin’s Island or
northern Abaco Island now appears particularly feasible
in view of the parrot’s recent extinction, stability of the
habitat in these areas, and the present respect by Bahamians
of bird protection laws. The great strength of re-
introduction is its power to rally public support for
conservation. The Bahama race of the Cuban amazon has
been bred in captivity (e.g., Fitzgerald and Larson 1989),
although translocation of birds from the healthy Abaco
population is probably the most feasible strategy for re-
establishing populations on other islands.
Cayman Islands populations
Amazona leucocephala caymanensis
and A. l. hesterna
Distribution and status: Two forms of Amazona leucocephala
parrots inhabit the Cayman Islands, A. l. hesterna from the
Cayman Brac, and A. l. caymanensis from the Cayman
Island. Both races inhabit coastal and inland forests and
are of concern because of their small populations and the

149
small area of available habitat. The Cayman Brac amazon
occupies the smallest range of any Amazona in the
Caribbean. It once occurred on both Cayman Brac and
Little Cayman. Cayman Brac birds were said to fly to
Little Cayman (7km) to feed, but it was likely that the
smaller island had its own breeding population. At present,
the parrot is found only in Cayman Brac, where it frequents
the dry woodland of the plateau and nearby agricultural
holdings along the coast, where the parrots often feed. In
1985, Bradley (1986) estimated a population consisting of
approximately 26 adults individuals (including 12 breeding
pairs) and 11–15 juvenile individuals. In addition, she
estimated that more than 200 parrots were in captivity
(four times more than in the wild population) on the
island, although Noegel (1976) located only eight captive
A. l. hesterna on Cayman Brac a decade earlier. Most
recently, Wiley et al. (1991) estimated a total population of
300–430 parrots. Subsequent population surveys in 1994
and 1997 have resulted in similar population estimates
(Baxter 1997).
The Grand Cayman parrot A. l. caymanensis ranges
throughout Grand Cayman, except for central George
Town, the eastern fringe of North Sound, the interior of
the Central Mangrove Swamp, Booby Cay in North Sound,
and the reclaimed land from Rum Point to Water Point.
Within its limited range, A. l. caymanensis has been
generally described as common. The adult population was
estimated in 1985 to be 935 (range = 674–1,239) individuals
(Bradley 1986). More recent population surveys have
placed that estimate at about 2,000 birds (Baxter 1997). In
1985, the captive population of parrots on Grand Cayman
was approximately 500 birds.
Threats: Among the most serious threats that affect parrot
reproductive success are: predation by rats, barn owl Tyto
alba, smooth-billed ani Crotophaga ani, greater Antillean
grackle Quiscalus niger, and feral cats; disease; starvation
of young after a hurricane or period of drought; flooded
cavities; felling of parrot nesting trees by humans; and
human harvest of chicks for pets (Wiley et al. 1991, Wiley
and Wunderle 1993). Amazons continue to be destroyed
as pests, and wounded adult parrots that survive shooting
are taken for captivity. Recently, escaped A. l. caymanensis
pets have been observed free-flying in Cayman Brac and,
in at least one case, a mixed pair consisting of caymanensis
and hesterna individuals was observed attempting to breed.
Since the initial investigations in the early 1990s, breeding
effort by the Cayman Brac amazon populations appears
to have substantially declined. Although suitable nesting
cavities are few, sites used in earlier years have not been
occupied in recent years. However, the most serious threat
is the accelerated land development for tourism.
Actions: Major steps have recently been taken by the
Cayman Islands government to ensure the survival of the
species. Some bird sanctuaries have been established, but
inclusion of larger tracts of habitat are essential to the
populations’ survival. The parrot was removed from the
Cayman Islands game list in 1990. In 1990, the National
Trust for the Cayman Islands, in co-operation with the
RARE Centre for Tropical Conservation, began an
intensive public education programme for the native
parrots modelled on the programs successfully used in the
Lesser Antilles. There were 115 specimens of the whole
species recorded in international trade between 1991 and
1995, with an annual maximum of 42 in 1992 (CITES
Annual Report database).
For both races, the conservation education programme
should be continued, since it has shown excellent results
and is the foundation of other conservation measures
(Scharr et al. 1992). In 1991, The Nature Conservancy
transferred its holding on the Bluff of Cayman Brac to The
National Trust. This provided an important first step in
protecting adequate habitat for the parrot. However, the
creation of a large, or series of smaller, yet effective, parrot
reserves on Cayman Brac is needed. Major terrestrial
reserves on Grand Cayman include the Salina Reserve
(2.53km2), Mastic Reserve (1.55km2), and Central
Mangrove Wetland (about 6.48km2). Additional habitat
protection is vital to ensuring the survival of the parrot on
that island. Further measures should include the regulation
and restriction of construction of new roads through the
important habitat of the Bluff. The removal of feral cats
from parrot nesting and foraging areas is of high priority.
Despite the removal of 250 feral cats from Cayman Brac
by the Department of Agriculture in 1991, cat populations
remain extremely high and pose a potential threat to the
survival of the parrot. Given the small population size,
regular population surveys are necessary.
Additional research is needed on availability and quality
of nesting habitat, as well as reproductive effort and
success of the Cayman Brac amazon population. A well-
managed captive propagation programme seems
appropriate in view of the small population size and
restricted range of the Cayman Brac amazon. Individuals
for the captive flock should not be taken from the wild, but
from extant captives of definite hesterna lineage. A captive
population will serve both in providing a reserve of birds
in the event of a devastating natural disaster to the wild
population and as a source of progeny for management of
the Cayman Brac population. Re-introductions may be
vital in bolstering numbers, and to increase genetic diversity
and geographic distribution. The re-establishment of A. l.
hesterna on Little Cayman appears particularly feasible in
view of the parrot’s recent eradication. However, recent
habitat surveys on Little Cayman have revealed the need
for intensive habitat management (e.g., provision of nesting
sites) before the parrot can be re-established there. Efforts,
including those of a local (Grand Cayman) aviculturist, to
breed both races in captivity have been successful.

150
Scarlet macaw
Ara macao cyanoptera
(Northern Central American populations)
Contributors: Ernesto Enkerlin-Hoeflich, James Gilardi,
Christopher Vaughan, and David Wiedenfeld.
Conservation status: IUCN: To be considered. Endangered
A1a, b, d.
CITES: Appendix I (transferred from Appendix II in
1985. Liechtenstein, Surinam and Switzerland have
reservations on this listing).
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The scarlet macaw occurs from
southern Mexico in Oaxaca southward through Central
America and throughout northern South America east of
the Andes south as far as Bolivia and southern Brazil. Its
northern Central American populations south to central
Nicaragua have been recently described as a separate
subspecies, Ara macao cyanoptera (Wiedenfeld 1994). The
remaining populations from Nicaragua southward
(including South American populations) comprise the
nominate subspecies, Ara macao macao and are not
considered globally threatened (although some isolated
populations may be at risk, such as its northernmost
populations in Panama and in the Carrara Biological
Reserve in Costa Rica).
Northern Central American populations
Ara macao cyanoptera
Distribution and status: Fewer than 100 birds are believed
to survive in Mexico, and most of these are found in the
Marques de Comillas area of the Lacandon forest. See
map in Howell and Webb (1995). A small population also
persists in north-west Guatemala in the Laguna de Tigre
region, although chicks from all known nests are poached
(Santiago Billy in litt. 1997). At least one population also
remains in Belize where a flock of up to 100 individuals
visits the Red Bank village intermittently. The scarlet
macaw apparently no longer occurs on the pacific slope in
El Salvador or Honduras. In Nicaragua, there remains a
small population at Volcán Cosigüina. On the Caribbean
slope in Honduras, the species remains in low numbers.
The majority of individuals occur in the north-eastern
part of the country, primarily in Departamento Olancho.
Wiedenfeld (1994) estimated the total population of scarlet
macaws in Honduras at 1,000–1,500 individuals. As in
Honduras, the Nicaraguan population of scarlet macaws
is restricted to the Caribbean coast. Numbers in Nicaragua
are probably somewhat higher than in Honduras, probably
in the range of 1,500–2,500 birds (Wiedenfeld 1995).
Threats: Virtually extirpated from middle America by a
combination of capture for the pet trade and habitat loss
(Iñigo-Elias 1991), the former being by far the most
important factor (Iñigo-Elias in litt. 1997). Although the
macaw is a CITES Appendix I species, some birds are still
apparently taken for illegal international trade. However,
the macaw is a popular pet species in its range countries,
and the majority of birds harvested for pets probably
remain within those countries. There were 314 specimens
of the whole species recorded in international trade between
1991 and 1995, with an annual maximum of 171 in 1994
(CITES Annual Report database). Surinam, under its
reservation, imposed an export quota of 100 specimens for
1998, although other Parties without reservations are not
allowed to import the species (CITES Notification to the
Parties No. 1998/07).
Within the next 10 years, all middle American
populations will probably disappear except for those in
highly protected (i.e., guarded) areas. In Belize a recent
sighting of over 60 birds puts this population as a special
conservation concern (Saqui in litt. 1997). Conservation
efforts are being considered for harvest of the species and
captive breeding in Mexico despite the numerous risks
involved in both courses of action. These efforts are, in the
opinion of the authors, misguided.
In Carrara Biological Reserve, Costa Rica, most nests
of this species are poached, despite attempts to guard
them, although apparently juveniles do occur in the
population each year. Nests in more remote areas with
lower human populations on the Caribbean slope of Central
America may experience lower poaching pressure.
Surprisingly, chicks are at least as valuable in their range
countries as they are in North America or Europe,
suggesting that reduction of international trade would not
stop the demand for chicks.

151
Actions: Biological research is currently being conducted
on scarlet macaw populations in Mexico, Guatemala, and
Belize. Outreach programs are being implemented in Belize
to educate schools and local communities about scarlet
macaw ecology and conservation. Similar education
programs need to be extended to other threatened macaw
populations.
The development of community-based ecotourism may
provide an opportunity for local people to extract economic
benefit from the tourist appeal of scarlet macaws. In the
Marques de Comillas community in southern Mexico and
in Red Bank village in Belize, scarlet macaw-based
ecotourism projects are currently underway. Similar
ecotourism focusing on macaws has been proposed for
Costa Rica (Marineros and Vaughan 1995). However, the
success of community-based ecotourism depends on
effective organisation, training, infrastructure, services,
and promotion, and should involve all members of the
community (Norris et al. 1998).
In Costa Rica, there has been substantial controversy
over the management of the Carrara population. An
international conference was held in 1995 and
recommendations were made to move forward with a
combination of ecological studies, nest site protection, and
the rescuing of chicks from “unprotectable” nests.
Populations in Nicaragua and Honduras still require
attention. The dispersed nature of the remaining scarlet
macaw populations in Central America, many of which
are located close to national borders, raises the need for a
regional approach to conservation which co-ordinates
national efforts, and addresses the socio-economic
problems of poaching and habitat destruction.
Saffron-headed parrot
Pionopsitta pyrilia
Contributors: Franklin Rojas, Jon Paul Rodriguez, Chris
Sharpe, Gary Stiles, and Paul Salaman.
Conservation status: IUCN: To be considered. Vulnerable C1.
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: A very uncommon parrot of the
low humid and high cloudforest of Venezuela, Colombia,
and possibly Ecuador. In Venezuela it is rarely seen, even
though good habitat is considered sufficient. In Colombia,
it may be common at one site, but only seasonally. There
are only two other recent records from the country. There
is one isolated record in Cotacachi Cayapas National Park
in NW Ecuador, and possibly represent roaming birds
from nearby Colombia. The species is certainly rare and
the estimated population is 10,000, and highly nomadic
(Juniper and Parr 1998).
Threats: Significant portions of nearly pristine habitat
remain in Venezuela, where national parks in the Andes
cover more than 1000km2of suitable habitat. In Colombia,
it has been recorded as being trapped for trade (at least
nationally), and its habitat is rapidly being lost within its
range.
Actions: Further studies on its biology, distribution,
population size, and regional movements are needed.
?
Saffron-headed parrot
Pionopsitta pyrilia