Self-Criticism, Anxious Attachment, and Avoidant Attachment as Predictors of Career Decision Making

Abstract

This study examined a model in which the anxious and the avoidant forms of insecure attachment were related to career indecision through the mediation of self-criticism. One hundred seventy-three college students completed questionnaires measuring anxious and avoidant dimensions of insecure attachment, self-criticism, and career indecision. Path analysis indicated that avoidant attachment was indirectly related to career indecision through the full mediation of self-criticism and that the linkage between anxious attachment and career indecision was partially mediated by self-criticism. These findings advance the understanding of how internalized relationships with significant others may impact career planning and development, suggesting distinct mechanisms by which the anxious and the avoidant forms of insecure attachment may exacerbate career decision making. In addition, the findings highlight the centrality of self-criticism in the process of career decision making. Implications for the career decision-making process and career planning are suggested, and recommendations for career counseling interventions are presented.

Full text

Article
Self-Criticism, Anxious
Attachment, and Avoidant
Attachment as Predictors
of Career Decision Making
Hedva Braunstein-Bercovitz
1
Abstract
This study examined a model in which the anxious and the avoidant forms of insecure attachment
were related to career indecision through the mediation of self-criticism. One hundred seventy-
three college students completed questionnaires measuring anxious and avoidant dimensions of
insecure attachment, self-criticism, and career indecision. Path analysis indicated that avoidant
attachment was indirectly related to career indecision through the full mediation of self-criticism and
that the linkage between anxious attachment and career indecision was partially mediated by self-
criticism. These findings advance the understanding of how internalized relationships with significant
others may impact career planning and development, suggesting distinct mechanisms by which the
anxious and the avoidant forms of insecure attachment may exacerbate career decision making. In
addition, the findings highlight the centrality of self-criticism in the process of career decision making.
Implications for the career decision-making process and career planning are suggested, and recom-
mendations for career counseling interventions are presented.
Keywords
self-criticism, anxious attachment, avoidant attachment, career indecision, career planning
Over the last two decades, there has been a growing interest in the way that family dynamics are
involved in career development. Theoretical approaches have posited that the quality of the interna-
lized relationship with one’s parents is associated with career development and career adjustment
(e.g., Blustein, 2011; Blustein, Prezioso, & Schultheiss, 1995; Lopez & Andrews, 1987), a position
supported empirically (see Whiston & Keller, 2004 for a review). The primary focus of the current
study was on what roles relationships with significant others (specifically, attachment) and their
ramifications on the development of personality traits play in career indecision. Career indecision
1
The Academic College of Tel Aviv-Yaffo, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel
Corresponding Author:
Hedva Braunstein-Bercovitz, School of Behavioral Sciences, The Academic College of Tel Aviv-Yaffo, 14 Rabenu Yeruham St.,
Tel Aviv-Yafo 68114, Israel.
Email: hedvab@mta.ac.il
Journal of Career Assessment
2014, Vol 22(1) 176-187
ªThe Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permission:
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DOI: 10.1177/1069072713492938
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is defined as an inability to choose a career goal and to commit to it (e.g., Gati, Krausz, & Osipow,
1996).
Attachment, regarded as an emotional bond developing in the early child–parent relationship, has
been related to career indecision (e.g., Downing & Nauta, 2010; Tokar, Withrow, Hall, & Moradi,
2003; Vignoli, 2009). However, the manner in which attachment is linked to career decision-making
difficulties has yet to be clarified. Based on the claim that the relationship between childhood
maltreatment and maladjustment outcomes could be better understood when personality traits are
involved as mediators (e.g., Philippe, Laventure, Beaulieu-Pelletier, Lecours, & Lekes, 2011), the
author of the current study has suggested that incorporating personality traits as mediators in a model
linking attachment insecurity and career decision making would advance our understanding of these
dynamics. More specifically, it was expected that self-criticism would mediate this relationship:
First, self-criticism is viewed as an outcome of insecure attachment (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007).
Second, self-criticism is also a predictor of difficulties related to career decision making, such as
indecisiveness (Cooper, Fuqua, & Hartman, 1984), diminished goal pursuit (Powers, Koestne, Zur-
off, Milyavskaya, & Gorin, 2011), and failure-generating behaviors (Priel & Shahar, 2000). Hence,
the aim of this study was to explore the role that self-criticism plays in the association between
attachment insecurity (the anxious and the avoidant forms, see below) and career indecision. To the
best of our knowledge, self-criticism has not been investigated in the context of career development,
despite the pronounced detrimental effects it has on individuals’ adjustment (e.g., Zuroff, Koestner,
& Powers, 1994). The value of clarifying the role that self-criticism plays in career decision making
is in the prospect of extending our knowledge about antecedents of career indecision, as it is a major
source of distress (Multon, Heppner, Gysbers, Zook, & Ellis-Kalton, 2001), with long-term negative
effects on career adaptability (e.g., Gati, Garty, & Fassa, 1996).
Attachment and Career Decision-Making Difficulties
Attachment, which is regarded as an emotional bond that develops in the early child–parent relation-
ship, has ramifications on the nature of an individual’s interpersonal relationships in adulthood (Ains-
worth, 1989). The parent–child bond may provide a secure base when it is experienced as a source of
physical and emotional support, a result of which is a sense of attachment security, characterized by
trust of others, a high tolerance of interpersonal closeness, as well as the ability to manage problems in
life (Bowlby, 1982). A diminished sense of security would, according to Bowlby, result in attachment
insecurity, characterized by fewer resources to explore the environment and to be engaged in self-
actualization activities. The literature distinguishes between two forms of insecure attachment, each
having distinct ramifications on personality development: (a) anxious attachment is characterized
by doubts about self-worth, dependence on others, an unmanageable stream of negative thoughts and
emotions, and cognitive disorganization and (b) avoidant attachment involves discomfort with inter-
personal relationships and intimacy, blocked access to emotions, considerable difficulties in coping
with stressful situations that require active confrontation and initiative, and high levels of self-
criticism (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007).
The notion that attachment is associated with career decision making is grounded in theoretical
approaches of career choice. The developmental approaches (e.g., Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994;
Roe, 1956; Savickas, 2005; Savickas et al., 2009; Super, 1980) posit that the process of choosing
a career originates in early developmental stages and is subject to various psychological and contex-
tual factors. The relational-oriented theories underscore the role of the family of origin’s relational
dynamics in career development and choice (e.g., Blustein et al., 1995; Lopez & Andrews, 1987).
Indeed, previous studies have demonstrated that attachment is linked to a variety of career devel-
opmental variables. Secure attachment was positively linked to effective career developmental
indices, such as commitment to career choice (Blustein, Walbridge, Friedlander, & Palladino,
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1991; Wolfe & Betz, 2004), college adjustment (Mattanah, Lopez, & Govern, 2011), career explo-
ration (e.g., Vignoli, Croity-Belz, Chapeland, de Fillipis, & Martine, 2005), career self-efficacy
(O’Brien, Friedman, Tipton, & Linn, 2000), and career decision making (Tokar et al., 2003; Vignoli,
2009). Insecure attachment was on the other hand positively linked to ineffective developmental
variables, such as career indecision (e.g., Tokar et al., 2003). However, the sparse literature on each
of the forms of insecure attachment and career decision making are somewhat equivocal: Several
studies have demonstrated that anxious attachment is positively related to indecision (Braunstein-
Bercovitz, Benjamin, Asor, & Lev, 2012; Downing & Nauta, 2010; Tokar et al., 2003), whereas van
Ecke (2007) reported that anxious attachment was not significantly related to career decision-
making confusion. In addition, avoidant attachment was either directly related to career decision-
making confusion (van Ecke, 2007), indirectly related to career indecision (Downing & Nauta,
2010), or not related to career indecision (Braunstein-Bercovitz et al., 2012). Following from the
theoretical contentions and the evidence noted above, it was hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 1: Anxious and avoidant attachment are positively related to career indecision.
Self-Criticism, Insecure Attachment, and Career Indecision
Self-criticism, a maladaptive form of self-definition, is characterized by negative cognitive apprai-
sals of the self, and a tendency to respond with feelings of guilt and a punitive stance when perceiv-
ing failure to meet standards (Blatt & Zuroff, 1992). Self-criticism might be rooted in early
childhood experiences with significant others. More specifically, individuals who have experienced
attachment insecurity—especially attachment avoidance—at early stages of their relationship with
significant others are more likely to become self-critical than those who have experienced attach-
ment security (Davila, 2001; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Accordingly, it was hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 2: The avoidant and anxious forms of attachment are related to self-criticism,
although the association with the avoidant form is stronger than with the anxious one.
In the literature, self-criticism is also considered an antecedent of various negative outcomes
across a variety of domains. For instance, self-critical individuals tend to generate failure-related
events (Shahar & Priel, 2003), are characterized by (trait) indecisiveness (Cooper et al., 1984) and
low self-efficacy (Stoeber, Hutchfeld, & Wood, 2008), as well as below average occupational status
and fewer years of education (e.g., Zuroff et al., 1994). In addition, self-criticism constitutes a risk of
psychopathology, particularly the development of depression (Zuroff & Fitzpatrick, 1995). This evi-
dence suggests that self-criticism is involved in career decision-making difficulties, since indeci-
siveness (e.g., Brown & Rector, 2008), self-efficacy (e.g., Nota, Ferrari, Solberg, & Soresi,
2007), and depression (Rottinghaus, Jenkins, & Jantzer, 2009) are associated with career indecision.
Furthermore, maladaptive perfectionism, which is related to self-criticism (e.g., Powers et al., 2011),
is a predictor of career indecision (Lehmann & Konstam, 2011) and of career immaturity (Park,
Choi, Nam, & Lee, 2011). Hence, it was hypothesized that self-critical individuals would experience
pronounced difficulties when making a career decision.
Hypothesis 3: Self-criticism is positively associated with career indecision.
The Current Mediating Model
The claim that personality traits mediate the relationship between negative childhood maltreatment
and a variety of maladjustment outcomes (e.g., Philippe et al., 2011) was already supported, with
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self-criticism as the mediator. For example, self-criticism mediated the association between child-
hood abuse indices and psychopathological outcomes (e.g., Dunkley, Masheb, & Grilo, 2010) and
also the link between childhood emotional maltreatment and young adults’ problematic romantic
relationships (Lassri & Shahar, 2012). In the field of career development, various trait- and
state-personality variables mediate the association between attachment insecurity and career indeci-
sion. For example, this association was mediated by self-concept crystallization (Tokar et al., 2003),
identity diffusion (Downing & Nauta, 2010), self-esteem (Vignoli, 2009), and career-choice anxiety
and pessimism (Braunstein-Bercovitz et al., 2012). The above claim, when considered collectively
with the aforementioned theoretical approaches and empirical evidence, may imply that insecure
attachment (especially the avoidant form) is related to career indecision by the mediation of
self-criticism (i.e., insecure attachment increases the likelihood of becoming a self-critical individ-
ual, which in turn may result in career indecision). Hypothesis 4 and Figure 1 present a model deli-
neating these associations:
Hypothesis 4: avoidant attachment is indirectly related to career indecision through a full media-
tion of self-criticism, while anxious attachment is related to career indecision by a partial media-
tion of self-criticism.
Method
Participants
A sample of 173 college freshmen majoring in the behavioral sciences, consisting of 122 females
and 51 males, with the mean age of 23.8 (ranging from 17 to 30 years), participated in the study.
All participants were Caucasian Israelis; 91%were born in Israel, with the remaining having
emigrated from either North America or Europe. The participants had no prior academic education
or significant working experience. This is due to the fact that the majority of Israeli students hold
temporary jobs until a relatively advanced age—up to their early 30s—since military service of 2
or 3 years is mandatory for both men and women. In addition, many of them go on long backpack
trips after completing their military service and before they begin their higher education.
Measures
Anxious attachment and avoidant attachment. Attachment was measured by the Experience in Close
Relationships Inventory (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998). The Hebrew version of the Inventory
Figure 1. The proposed mediating model.
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(Mikulincer & Florian, 2000) was administered in this study. It comprises 36 items, 18 measuring
the anxious component of insecure attachment (avoidant attachment, a¼.93; I worry about being
abandoned) and another 18 measuring the avoidant component of insecure attachment (avoidant
attachment, a¼.92; I prefer not to show others how I really feel). Responses were recorded on a
Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (totally disagree)to7(completely agree). Each of the two sub-
scale scores (anxious and avoidant forms) were computed as the mean of the ratings of subscale
items, with a higher score indicating a higher level of attachment insecurity. Test–retest reliability
was 0.82 and 0.86 for anxious attachment and avoidant attachment, respectively (Wei, Russell,
Mallinckrodt, & Vogel, 2007). Brennan, Clark, and Shaver (1998) have reported that
convergent validity with other measures of attachment (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994; Simpson,
1990) were relatively high, and ranged between 0.68 and 0.88 for anxious attachment and between
0.39 and 0.9 for avoidant attachment.
Self-Criticism. Self-criticism was measured with a short 6-item version (Rudich, Lerman, Wexler, Gur-
evich, & Shahar, 2008) of the self-criticism factor of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ;
Blatt, D’Afflitti, & Quinlan, 1976). The DEQ is a 66-item scale, measuring three factors (yielded by
means of the principal component analysis method with varimax rotation), and is devised to evaluate
patterns of experiences that cause depressive states: self-criticism, dependency, and efficacy. The cur-
rent short version, Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, Self-Criticism Six Items (DEQ-SC6), mea-
sures trait self-criticism, assessing the participant’s preoccupation with achievement, and a sense of
inferiority and guilt in view of perceived failure to meet standards (e.g., I often find that I do not live
according to my standards or ideals,I find it hard to accept my weaknesses,andI have a tendency to
be very self-critical). Participants rated the items on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼strongly disagree,
7¼strongly agree), with a higher score indicating a higher level of self-criticism. Rudich et al.
reported that the DEQ-SC6 has a reasonable content validity with the construct of self-criticism and
is strongly correlated with the original self-criticism factor of the DEQ (r¼.80). In addition, the DEQ-
SC6 has correlations equivalent in their magnitude to those of the original DEQ factor with depression
and related constructs, indicating adequate validity. Finally, the internal reliability reported in Rudich
et al. was .80, and in the current study .79.
Career Indecision. The Career Decision scale (CDS; Osipow, 1987) was used to measure the extent of
career indecision. The CDS consists of 18 items, with the first two assessing how responders regard
their career and major, and the remaining 16 items assessing the degree of career indecision (e.g.,
There are several professions I’m equally interested in and I’m having a really hard time choosing
among them). Responses were recorded on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me)to4(exactly
like me), with higher scores in Items 3–18 indicating higher levels of career indecision (in the current
study only Items 3–18 were analyzed). Osipow (1987) reported test–retest reliabilities ranging from
.82 to .90. In addition, Osipow demonstrated that career counseling significantly diminishes scores
on the scale (construct validity). The coefficient afor the scale ranges between .60 and .80.
Procedure
The participants signed up for the study via the Internet. They attended small-group data collection
sessions in which they gave informed consent, were presented with the research main goal
(‘‘a research focusing on career decision making and personality’’), and completed the question-
naires described below anonymously in the presence of a graduate research assistant. The assistant
then gave participants documentation of their participation and provide a debriefing.
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Results
Descriptive Statistics
Means, standard deviations, intercorrelations, and internal consistency reliability estimates for study
and control variables are presented in Table 1. As shown, the control variables, gender and age, were
not related to the independent and the dependent variables, allowing the exclusion of the control
variables from subsequent analyses.
In addition, Table 1 demonstrates that it was justified to proceed with the analysis of the mediat-
ing model for both the anxious and the avoidance attachment forms, as all the conditions for media-
tion expounded by Baron and Kenny (1986) were met: Both anxious attachment and avoidant
attachment (the predictors) were significantly related to career indecision (the outcome) and to
self-criticism (the mediator), with the latter also significantly related to the outcome.
Testing of Mediation
The general view of mediation in the current study was based on the work of Baron and Kenny
(1986), who suggested a set of four conditions for empirically establishing the presence of media-
tion. Accordingly, mediation is plausible when (1) the predictor is significantly related to the med-
iator; (2) the predictor is significantly related to the outcome; (3) the mediator is significantly related
to the outcome; and (4) the relationship between the predictor and the outcome is significantly
reduced (partial mediation) or decreases to zero (full mediation) if the mediator is added to the
model. In order to test Hypothesis 4, the path analysis method (using AMOS version 18.0; Arbuckle,
2009) was employed, using several criteria to evaluate the fit of the model to the data. The ratio of w
2
to the degrees of freedom (df) was an index for model fit and parsimony. Joreskog and Sorbom
(1982) recommended a value approaching 2 as acceptable for w
2
/df. In addition, the fit indices of
the proposed model were compared against commonly used criteria (i.e., Goodness-of-Fit Index
.90; Comparative Fit Index .90; Tucker–Lewis index .90; and Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation .06; Byrne, 2001; Hu & Bentler, 1999).
Following Brown’s (1997) recommendation, the direct and the indirect relationships between the
predictor and the outcome were estimated simultaneously. In terms of total variance accounted for,
the association of anxious attachment, avoidant attachment, and self-criticism with career indecision
was significant (R
2
¼.21, p< .0001). Nevertheless, the overall fit of the indirect relationship was
better than that of the direct one. Table 2 presents the standardized path estimates of the final model
and summarizes this information in terms of Baron and Kenny’s (1986) four steps. As shown, the
direct relationship between attachment forms and career indecision (Step 1) was significant,
Table 1. Intercorrelations, Means, Standard Deviations, and Internal Consistency Reliabilities of Study and
Control Variables.
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 MSDa
1. Age 23.8 1.8 —
2. Gender .34** 1.7 .5 —
3. Anxious attachment .05 .19* 3.0 0.9 .88
4. Avoidant attachment .07 .02 .13 3.5 1.2 .89
5. Self-criticism .06 .04 .31** .59** 4.0 1.2 .79
6. Career indecision .02 .05 .29** .24** .42** 2.0 .6 .89
Note.M¼mean; SD ¼standard deviation.
N¼173. Gender (1 ¼males;2¼females).
*p< .05. **p< .001.
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confirming Hypothesis 1. In addition, the direct associations of the attachment forms with the med-
iator, self-criticism (Step 2), and the direct association between the mediator and career indecision
(Step 3) were significant, confirming Hypotheses 2 and 3, respectively. However, the association of
self-criticism with avoidant attachment was, as expected, higher than with anxious attachment (bs
for the avoidant and anxious forms were .56 and .24, respectively). Finally, when the mediator was
introduced to the analysis of the direct relationships between attachment forms and career indecision
(Step 4), anxious attachment remained significantly related to career indecision. However, avoidant
attachment and the outcome proved to be unrelated. The results of Step 4 along with the Sobel test
(1982), conducted to assess the significance of the indirect effects, indicated that the relationship
between anxious attachment and career indecision was partially mediated by self-criticism, whereas
avoidant attachment was fully mediated by self-criticism.
Discussion
The proposed mediating model was supported by the findings, demonstrating that self-criticism
mediates the association between insecure attachment and career indecision. Moreover, the respec-
tive unique mechanisms by which each of the two insecure attachment forms are related to career
indecision were destinctive and confirm Hypothesis 4: avoidant attachment was indirectly related
to career indecision, fully mediated by self-criticism, whereas the association between anxious
attachment and career indecision was only partially mediated by self-criticism (i.e., anxious attach-
ment was related to career indecision both directly and indirectly by mediation). Thus, the final
model elucidates how career decision making is impaired among individuals who are characterized
by attachment insecurity. According to the model, when insecure attachment is followed by self-
criticism, problems in career decision making may arise, as self-criticism triggers negative cognitive
appraisals of the self, and generates failure-related behaviors (Blatt & Zuroff, 1992). This mechan-
ism characterizes individuals who had experienced both anxious attachment and anxious attach-
ment. However, anxious attachment may also directly hamper career decision making. In a recent
study, Braunstein-Bercovitz, Benjamin, Asor, and Lev (2012) found that career-related negative
emotions (anxiety and pessimism) mediated the association of anxious (but not avoidant) attachment
with career indecision. Taken together, it seems that distinct mechanisms link the anxious and the
avoidant forms of insecure attachment to career indecision.
The current findings, indicating that insecure attachment hampers career decision making, con-
firm Hypothesis 1, and support the literature which points to insecure attachment as a foundation for
career indecision (e.g., Downing & Nauta, 2010; Vignoli, 2009). In addition, the findings confirm
Hypothesis 2, namely, that insecure attachment is positively related to self-criticism, and support
recent evidence that self-criticism ensues attachment insecurity (e.g., Cantazaro & Wei, 2010), or
Table 2. Standardized Path Estimates (bs) of the Final Model, From Attachment to Career Indecision Through
Self-Criticism.
Predictor
(P)
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Indirect Paths
Mediation (Sobel Test)P!OP!MM!ONew P!OP!M!O
ANXA .28** .24** .38** .17* .09 Yes (Z¼2.2*)
AVDA .19* .56** .38** .01 .21 Yes (Z¼3.9**)
Note. ANXA ¼anxious attachment; AVDA ¼avoidant attachment. N¼173.
The path of Step 1 represents the direct effect from each of the predictors (P) to the outcome (O), career indecision. The
paths of Step 2 represent the direct effects from each of the predictors to the mediator (M), self-criticism. The paths of Step 3
represent the direct effects from the mediator to the outcome. The paths of Step 4 represent the direct effects from each of
the predictor to the outcome, when the mediator was included.
*p< .05. **p< .001.
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other types of emotional maltreatment during childhood (e.g., Lassri & Shahar, 2012). It appears that
insecure attachment, especially the avoidant form, fosters the tendency to internalize criticism
expressed by significant others, and to direct it toward one’s own self. As such, the self-critical atti-
tude that has developed, which is related to general maladjustment (Zuroff et al., 1994), might also
exacerbate work–adjustment outcomes. Indeed, self-criticism was positively related to career inde-
cision, as predicted by Hypothesis 3. These findings are consistent with previous findings that
demonstrate a positive linkage between career indecision and maladaptive-related traits, such as
anxiety, neuroticism, low self-esteem, external locus of control, and pessimism (see Brown &
Rector, 2008, for a review).
Implications
The current findings underscore the centrality of self-criticism in career decision making, especially
as a mediator in the relationship between attachment and career indecision. These findings extend
previous ones, indicating that self-defining variables, such as self-concept crystallization (Tokar
et al., 2003) and self-esteem (Vignoli, 2009) are crucial in the linkage between attachment and career
indecision. This aggregated evidence is consistent with the contention that a clear self-concept,
which is a developmental consequence of secure attachment (Bowlby, 1982), is a prerequisite for
making cogent career decisions (Savickas, 1994). The current findings also support career-choice
theories that incorporate the self-concept (Savickas, 2005; Super, 1980) and the family relational
dynamics (Blustein et al., 1995; Lopez & Andrews, 1987) as core elements in career development.
The centrality of self-criticism in the association between attachment insecurity and career deci-
sion making has practical implications for the process of career planning and career counseling, as it
implies that self-criticism can be the target of the intervention when insecure attachment and indeci-
sion are identified. Thus, during the course of career counseling, it is recommended that counselors
enhance their own awareness of the relational dynamics with the counselee. Then, if an insecure
relational dynamic is identified, they are advised to assess the degree of the counselee’s self-
criticism (which is likely to impede the process of making a career choice), and when it is high,
to engage in intervention methods aimed at decreasing the extent of self-criticism. It is noteworthy
that treating self-criticism in the course of career counseling is an attainable goal (it can be addressed
by means of short-term interventions), whereas treating relational problems is typically not a realis-
tic target. Hence, in the course of counseling, counselors may attempt to identify and diminish dys-
functional thoughts pertaining to the counselee’s maladaptive self-definition, which is liable to be a
precursor for a mistaken career decision. For example, negative cognitive appraisals of the counse-
lee’s self-concept and negative perceptions and feelings about his or her failure/success standards
could be monitored and treated. To accomplish these objectives, principles of the cognitive–beha-
vioral therapy (CBT) could be applied during the course of career counseling, as CBT is considered
an effective method for diminishing self-critical thinking (Rector, Bagby, Segal, Joffe, & Levitt,
2000). As a consequence, clients may alter some of their negative core beliefs about themselves and
be engaged in a comprehensive assessment of options before giving up their aspirations merely out
of fear of failing to meet standards. Alternatively, the principles of the Career Construction Theory
(Savickas, 2005) could be incorporated, using the Career Style Interview (Savickas, 1989). This
structured interview is designed to elicit self-defining stories, relying on childhood memories, role
models, and favorite activities. The procedure can assist counselors in identifying the extent to
which self-criticism is the essence of the client’s life themes, and whether it has had an impact
on his or her vocational personality, and/or has impeded career adaptability. Subsequently, crafting
a formula for success and composing a new life narrative could, according to Savickas, facilitate an
adequate career decision. Thus, the counselor can use this method to help the client narrate a career
story, one that includes positive self-perceptions, instead of the self-critical ones.
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Limitations
Some limitations should be considered regarding the additional insight into the career decision-
making process offered by the final model. First, due to the nature of the sample (Israeli college
freshmen, who have already made an initial career decision), caution should be exercised in applying
insights to the practice of career counseling. A replication and follow-up with real career counselees
is suggested to allow conclusions to be derived from a more authentic sample. In addition, the
relatively homogeneous sample could limit the generalizability of the findings of this study. All
the subjects were middle-to-upper socioeconomic status Israeli students, and mostly female. Future
research should examine the variables in this study with a more heterogeneous sample, given gender
differences in the distribution of self-criticism (Zuroff & Mongrain, 1987), and cultural differences
in career indecision (e.g., Mau, 2001), specifically the distinctive features of the career decision-
making process among young Israeli adults (Benjamin, Gati, & Braunstein-Bercovitz, 2011).
Furthermore, the model suggests causal relationships, but given the cross-sectional and correlative
nature of the data, such causality cannot be considered exclusively. A longitudinal study that could
better validate the reasoned causality of the current research is recommended for future research.
Finally, the measure of self-criticism, a major construct in the current study, consisted of only 6
items. However, as noted above, the reliability and validity indices of the DEQ-SC6 are similar
to those of the full version of the questionnaire (the DEQ).
Summary
The current findings put forward the notion that self-criticism is an antecedent of career indecision.
Accordingly, a self-critical stance, evolved from attachment insecurity, may have deleterious effects
on the career decision-making process, most likely due to the negative self-appraisals and failure-
related misconceptions held by self-critical individuals. The findings advance our understanding
of the mechanism by which relations with significant others are associated with career development,
and support the postulation that negative childhood experiences are related to maladjustment
through the mediation of personality traits. Hence, when attachment insecurity is identified during
career counseling, especially the avoidant form, it is recommended that the counselor assess the
degree of the counselee’s self-criticism and utilize the appropriate effective intervention. These
recommendations are consistent with the position presented in the literature (e.g., Blustein, 2006;
Richardson, 2012), that career and personal counseling essentially share the same principles, and
encourage career counselors to implement personal counseling methods, in addition to those tradi-
tionally associated with career counseling (Schultheiss, 2003).
Acknowledgments
The author thanks Itamar Gati for helpful comments and suggestions, and Dana Beery, Sharon Gordon, and
Maor Kalfon for assistance in data collection.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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