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The Moorlands of England and Wales: An Environmental History 8000 BC to AD 2000
Abstract
This is a history of the moorlands and the part they have played in English and Welsh history over ten millennia. Ian Simmons combines the perspectives of natural science, archaeology, social history and historical geography, and draws on forty years of exploring and studying the moorlands. Starting with a description of their origins and how they have changed under the impact of human and natural forces, Simmons shows how perceptions of the moors have been influenced by writers, artists and the media (and how they have been inspired by the moors), and how these perceptions have resulted in great changes in attitudes to moorland use and management. The book begins by offering some concise understanding of the physical and natural characteristics of moorlands. It then gives an account of how hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic period altered their surroundings using fire. It describes how millennia of agricultural production wrought distinctive moorland landscapes and how these in turn were affected and sometimes transformed by industrialisation, afforestation and changes in farming methods.The renewed impetus in the twentieth century for environmental management and conservation brings the story near to the present. The North Pennines, Dartmoor and South Wales are the subject of detailed accounts that reveal the common characteristics of the moorlands as well as their marked contrasts. Beyond the recent crises of overgrazing and the 2001 foot and mouth outbreak, Ian Simmons lays out some possible futures for the moors.
... While in some northern and western regions these ecosystems may have a natural origin (e.g. [5]), in most locations they are the result of forest clearance and domestic livestock grazing that may date back several thousand years [6]. Most moorland vegetation is highly flammable, which favoured the use of fire as an important tool in their management throughout the past [6]. ...
... [5]), in most locations they are the result of forest clearance and domestic livestock grazing that may date back several thousand years [6]. Most moorland vegetation is highly flammable, which favoured the use of fire as an important tool in their management throughout the past [6]. Even apparently very wet bogs can be burnt in the early spring prior to the green-up of vegetation despite standing water at the ground surface [7]. ...
... Today, managed burning is strongly associated with habitat management for red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus Latham 1787) on privately owned shooting estates. The current form of rotational patch burning associated with grouse moor management (figure 1) has been used for approximately the past 200 years [6]. However managed burning can be used to achieve a wide variety of ecological objectives and it is not only associated with traditional grouse moor management [8]. ...
Fire has been used for centuries to generate and manage some of the UK's cultural landscapes. Despite its complex role in the ecology of UK peatlands and moorlands, there has been a trend of simplifying the narrative around burning to present it as an only ecologically damaging practice. That fire modifies peatland characteristics at a range of scales is clearly understood. Whether these changes are perceived as positive or negative depends upon how trade-offs are made between ecosystem services and the spatial and temporal scales of concern. Here we explore the complex interactions and trade-offs in peatland fire management, evaluating the benefits and costs of managed fire as they are currently understood. We highlight the need for (i) distinguishing between the impacts of fires occurring with differing severity and frequency, and (ii) improved characterization of ecosystem health that incorporates the response and recovery of peatlands to fire. We also explore how recent research has been contextualized within both scientific publications and the wider media and how this can influence non-specialist perceptions. We emphasize the need for an informed, unbiased debate on fire as an ecological management tool that is separated from other aspects of moorland management and from political and economic opinions.
This article is part of the themed issue ‘The interaction of fire and mankind’.
... Burl 2005;Tilley 2010). Palaeoenvironmental reconstructions of past upland landscapes from sampled peat deposits have therefore provided an important tool for providing context to human land use in upland areas (Simmons 2003). Upland peatlands preserve a record of changing landscapes, climate and society-environment interactions over the last 10,000 years. ...
... They are also a potential source of preserved archaeological remains due to their anaerobic, waterlogged conditions (Coles and Coles, 1986;Fyfe and Greeves 2010), and can preserve earthwork evidence of past human exploitation of the landscape, such as peat cutting (Charman 1994;Newman 2010). Over the past 50 years the peatland palaeoenvironmental record has provided great insights into the development of upland landscapes, their function for past societies, and the complex interrelationships between people and their environment (Simmons 2003). The role of peatlands with regard to heritage is increasingly being recognised; for example, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's review of peatlands within the UK took the Historic Environment into consideration (Gearey et al. 2010). ...
... Postmodern discourse has led numerous authors to question the way archaeologists project their own concepts of upland marginalitybased on an economic or functionalist view of uplands as unproductive or barren (Winchester 1987;Bailey 1989;Dyer 1989); or a romantic view of uplands as idealised, picturesque 'wilderness' (Simmons 2003;Edmonds 2004)onto past peoples (Bender 1999;Thomas 2001 communities, and how their inhabitation perpetuated these views (Altenberg 2003). ...
... Fire has been proposed as an alternative means of maintaining open areas and ensuring the continued success of light-demanding species (Bradshaw & Hannon 2004;Svenning 2002). Indeed, Simmons (2003) argues that fire was routinely used to manipulate the landscapes of the British uplands by Mesolithic peoples. Oak, hazel, and Scots pines are all favoured, relative to their more shade-giving competitors, by fire. ...
... Differences in these states are inevitable because climate and soils have changed, as well as biotic changes such as extirpation of large predators and introduction of invasive alien species. Original-naturalness, of course, becomes more difficult to define if the influence of Mesolithic peoples is considered to be significant Simmons 2003), but this is an issue whichever model (open or closed forest) is considered most likely for the pre-Neolithic, Atlantic landscape. ...
... Vera (2000), for example, virtually ignores the importance of fire in succession and Rackham (2003) maintains its insignificance at least for broadleaved woodland. However archaeologists and palynologists, particularly those working in the uplands (eg Edwards & Whittington 2000;Moore 1993;Simmons 2003), see vegetation manipulation by burning as a prime factor in forest structure, encouraging hazel, initiating peat formation and by maintaining an open browse-rich canopy, allowing higher herbivore populations. ...
... Fire has been proposed as an alternative means of maintaining open areas and ensuring the continued success of light-demanding species (Bradshaw & Hannon 2004;Svenning 2002). Indeed, Simmons (2003) argues that fire was routinely used to manipulate the landscapes of the British uplands by Mesolithic peoples. Oak, hazel, and Scots pines are all favoured, relative to their more shade-giving competitors, by fire. ...
... Differences in these states are inevitable because climate and soils have changed, as well as biotic changes such as extirpation of large predators and introduction of invasive alien species. Original-naturalness, of course, becomes more difficult to define if the influence of Mesolithic peoples is considered to be significant Simmons 2003), but this is an issue whichever model (open or closed forest) is considered most likely for the pre-Neolithic, Atlantic landscape. ...
... Vera (2000), for example, virtually ignores the importance of fire in succession and Rackham (2003) maintains its insignificance at least for broadleaved woodland. However archaeologists and palynologists, particularly those working in the uplands (eg Edwards & Whittington 2000;Moore 1993;Simmons 2003), see vegetation manipulation by burning as a prime factor in forest structure, encouraging hazel, initiating peat formation and by maintaining an open browse-rich canopy, allowing higher herbivore populations. ...
... In the Mesolithic period there was a progressive creation of semi-natural habitats through native woodland clearance (initially to supply timber and assist foraging and stalking, and more recently for hill sheep). This was followed by a progressive intensification of sheep production and, since the 1920s, afforestation with coniferous plantations and a more recent trend towards extensification of production ( Simmons, 2003;Davies, 2008). Now and in future, upland areas are subject to a range of significant environmental, socio-cultural and economic drivers which, on top of historic trends, may affect their capacity to respond and adapt to future pressures ( Orr et al., 2008;Bonn et al., 2009a;Hubacek et al., 2009b). ...
... Many UK uplands are iconic landscapes of exceptional scenic beauty, and they are often characterised by distinctive cultural identities related to traditional land use activities ( Simmons, 2003). Local buildings and dry-stone walls, and land uses such as hay meadows and common grazing, can represent a rich cultural heritage that is also sympathetic to the natural landscape and resources. ...
... In landscape terms, this sustains a strong sense of place and identity for both local people and visitors (Countryside Agency and SNH, 2002). As many UK uplands have not been subject to intensive cultivation and are covered by peat soils with good preservation qualities, they offer a rich source of palaeo-environmental evidence of past landscapes and land uses, settlement and field patterns and vegetation change with respect to land use and climate change ( Simmons, 2003). Furthermore, UK uplands have acted as major inspiration for generations of writers, poets and artists, as well as providing cognitive and educational stimuli as dynamic, living landscapes. ...
... The ecological effects of fire in European peatlands and heathlands are the focus of considerable research and debate due to the important services these ecosystems provide (Whitfield et al. 2011), their conservation importance (Thompson et al. 1995), and the threats they face from climatic (Gallego-Sala et al. 2010) and land-use changes (Acs et al. 2010). Though heathland and peatland ecosystems occur naturally in NW Europe, for instance at high elevations above the tree-line or in areas of cool temperatures and high rainfall, across much of their British range heathlands and peatlands are fundamentally anthropogenic landscapes deriving their current ecological composition, structure and function from millennia of low-intensity human management (Simmons 2003). Despite this, human interventions in the more recent past, including drainage, high rates of livestock grazing, and intensive use of managed burning have interacted with other anthropogenic impacts such as nutrient deposition, acidification and climate change to have significant ecological consequences (Holden et al. 2007). ...
... This is merely the latest (and in ecological terms fairly recent) phase in their history and evolution. The classic text by the eminent Charles Gimingham (Gimingham 1972) and the excellent volume by Ian Simmons (Simmons 2003) highlight the long (pre)history of heaths, moors and bogs in the UK. These systems are a reflection of millennia of post-glacial human modifications and climatic changes, extend along the Atlantic regions of Europe from Portugal to northern Norway, and are not simply the outcome of 19 th century style grouse shooting in the UK. ...
The far‐reaching impacts of livestock grazing in terrestrial grasslands are widely appreciated, but how livestock affect the structure and functions of sensitive coastal ecosystems has hitherto lacked synthesis. Grazing‐induced changes in salt marshes have the potential to alter the provision of valuable ecosystem services, such as coastal protection, blue carbon and biodiversity conservation.
To investigate how livestock alter soil, vegetation and faunal properties in salt marshes, we conducted a global meta‐analysis of ungulate grazer impacts on commonly measured ecosystem properties (498 individual responses from 89 studies). We also tested stocking density, grazing duration, grazer identity, continent and vegetation type as potential modifiers of the grazing effect. The majority of studies were conducted in Europe (75) or the Americas (12), and investigated cattle (43) or sheep (22) grazing.
All measures of above‐ground plant material (height, cover, above‐ground biomass, litter) were decreased by grazing, potentially impairing coastal protection through diminished wave attenuation.
Soil carbon was reduced by grazing in American, but not European marshes, indicating a trade‐off with climate regulation that varies geographically. Additionally, grazing increased soil bulk density, salinity and daytime temperature, and reduced redox potential.
Biodiversity responses depended on focal group, with positive effects of grazing on vegetation species richness, but negative effects on invertebrate richness. Grazing reduced the abundance of herbivorous invertebrates, which may affect fish and crustaceans that feed in the marsh. Overall vertebrate abundance was not affected, but there was provisional evidence for increases over a longer duration of grazing, potentially increasing birdwatching and wildfowling opportunities.
Synthesis and applications . Our results reveal that the use of salt marshes for livestock production affects multiple ecosystem properties, creating trade‐offs and synergies with other ecosystem services. Grazing leads to reductions in blue carbon in the Americas but not in Europe. Grazing may compromise coastal protection and the provision of a nursery habitat for fish while creating provisioning and cultural benefits through increased wildfowl abundance. These findings can inform salt marsh grazing management, based on local context and desired ecosystem services.
... The ecological effects of fire in European peatlands and heathlands are the focus of considerable research and debate due to the important services these ecosystems provide (Whitfield et al. 2011), their conservation importance (Thompson et al. 1995), and the threats they face from climatic (Gallego-Sala et al. 2010) and land-use changes (Acs et al. 2010). Though heathland and peatland ecosystems occur naturally in NW Europe, for instance at high elevations above the tree-line or in areas of cool temperatures and high rainfall, across much of their British range heathlands and peatlands are fundamentally anthropogenic landscapes deriving their current ecological composition, structure and function from millennia of low-intensity human management (Simmons 2003). Despite this, human interventions in the more recent past, including drainage, high rates of livestock grazing, and intensive use of managed burning have interacted with other anthropogenic impacts such as nutrient deposition, acidification and climate change to have significant ecological consequences (Holden et al. 2007). ...
... This is merely the latest (and in ecological terms fairly recent) phase in their history and evolution. The classic text by the eminent Charles Gimingham (Gimingham 1972) and the excellent volume by Ian Simmons (Simmons 2003) highlight the long (pre)history of heaths, moors and bogs in the UK. These systems are a reflection of millennia of post-glacial human modifications and climatic changes, extend along the Atlantic regions of Europe from Portugal to northern Norway, and are not simply the outcome of 19 th century style grouse shooting in the UK. ...
The effects of fire and its use on European peatlands and heaths are the focus of considerable research and debate due to the important services these ecosystems provide and the threats they face from climatic and land-use change. Whilst in some countries ecologists are actively promoting the restoration of historic fire management regimes, in the UK the debate has become increasingly acrimonious. Positions seem entrenched between continuing the intensive form of management associated with grouse moors or ceasing burning and seeking to eliminate fire altogether. In a recent paper we argued that participants’ positions appeared influenced by political and philosophical beliefs associated with, for example, private land-ownership, hunting, and associated conservation conflicts such as raptor persecution. We also suggested there was inadequate engagement with key concepts and evidence from fire and peatland ecology. We argued that management debates should aim to be inclusive and evidence-based, and to understand the benefits and costs of different fire regimes. In a strongly-worded critique of our paper, George Monbiot (author of “Feral: Searching for Enchantment on the Frontiers of Rewilding”) suggested we: i) framed our research question too narrowly; ii) made the implicit assumption that moorlands were the “right” ecosystem for the UK countryside; and iii) failed to adequately engage with arguments put forward for cessation of managed burning. Here we critically examine each of these issues to provide further insight into how adaptive, participatory land-management could develop. We argue that a productive debate must acknowledge that complex trade-offs are inevitable during ecological management. Choosing the “right” ecosystem is difficult, especially in a landscape with a long history of human influence, and the answer depends on the values and ecosystem services we prioritize. Natural resource management decisions will be improved if based on an understanding and valuation of the multiple scales and levels of organization at which ecological diversity exists, the role of disturbance in controlling ecosystem composition and function, and the need for participatory action.
... Many of Scotland's uplands are iconic landscapes of exceptional scenic beauty that inspire people and form part of Scotland's cultural and national identity, as refl ected in their designation under European and national legislation (Lorimer 2000;Simmons 2003;SNH 2008). Th ey off er 'attractive scenery, exposure to the elements in oft en remote locations, areas to engage in outdoor pursuits, sites of historic human artefacts and a wide variety of plant and animal species' (van der Wal et al. 2011, 115). ...
... Cultural heritage Symbolic cultural assets and heritage can be found in the uplands (e.g. monuments, relics etc.) (Simmons 2003). Scotland's uplands have been promoted as symbols of national identity (Lorimer 2000) and include Scotland's two national parks. ...
... Peatlands cover ,4.4 Â 10 6 km 2 of the Earth's surface (Yu et al. 2010) and, in the United Kingdom (UK), peatlands cover 18% of the total land area (DEFRA 2010). These ecosystems constitute some of the most heavily managed environments in the UK, with landscape changes dating back several thousand years (Simmons 2003). Practices such as artificial drainage, grazing, commercial forestry and rotational heather burning have been blamed for exacerbated catchment erosion, increased stream sediment loads and increased loads of dissolved organic carbon (Holden et al. 2007;Ramchunder et al. 2009;Yallop and Clutterbuck 2009). ...
... Rotational burn management constitutes the systematic burning of small patches of peatland heather (usually ,5000 m 2 ) on 8-25-year rotations and has been a traditional practise in UK uplands over the past 150-200 years (Simmons 2003;Davies 2008;Ramchunder et al. 2009). Recently, controlled burning has been increasing in both frequency and extent (Yallop et al. 2006), resulting in a landscape mosaic dominated by ling heather, Calluna vulgaris Hull, in different stages of recovery from fire. ...
Rotational burn management has been practiced for >150 years in UK peatlands; however, little information exists on its effects on streams. An experiment investigated effects of ash input on four UK headwater streams by depositing ash onto trays filled with natural stream substrata. Before the experiment, streambed samples (SS) were taken to describe ambient macroinvertebrate assemblages. Macroinvertebrate response after 21 days was compared among SS, low (50 g), high (100 g) and top-up (50 g + 50 g dosed twice) ash-addition treatments and control trays (0 g ash addition). Additions increased tray ash-free dry mass (AFDM), and by the end of the experiment, some trays retained more ash than did others (F12,72 = 5.15, P < 0.001). Macroinvertebrate assemblages differed among streams (r = 0.84, P < 0.001) and treatments (r = 0.23, P < 0.001). SS contained fewer shredders than did other treatments (range: r = 0.35–0.52, P = 0.005). A significant relationship was found between assemblages and environmental conditions (Spearmans rho: 0.203, P = 0.001). Stream depth and AFDM showed strongest correlations with assemblages. Ash deposition affects macroinvertebrate assemblages when deposited onto streambeds. However, the high among-stream variation in assemblage composition typical of UK headwaters is a stronger source of variation, suggesting that the effect of deposition is reasonably small in these streams.
... Fire has been used to control upland vegetation in the UK since ∼7700-6300 BCE (Goodfellow 1998), but over the last 100 to 150 y, many upland landscapes have been subjected to intensive and regular prescribed rotational burning regimes (Simmons 2003). For example, >⅓ of the upland peat cover in the Peak District of northern England now undergoes regular prescribed burning geared at encouraging Red Grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotica) production (WCA Environment Limited 2010). ...
... Much of the UK's uplands were covered historically by woodland. However, anthropogenic deforestation in the early to mid-Holocene, subsequent grazing of domestic livestock to minimize tree regrowth, and a wet climate promoted the development of peat (Simmons 2003). Several management interventions that have occurred mainly within the last 2 centuries have reduced the extent of undisturbed blanket peatland in the UK uplands. ...
Peatlands are found around the world and cover similar to 3.4% of the Earth's surface. In the UK, peatlands cover 17.2% or similar to 1.58 Mha of the land surface and occur mainly in upland areas covering the headwaters of most major British rivers. However, large areas are now subject to prescribed vegetation burning despite policy guidance that recommends a strong presumption against burning on deep blanket peat. Wildfires occur sporadically but are forecast to increase in frequency in the future. This paper provides a synthesis of current knowledge about how UK peatland-dominated river catchments respond to fires caused by prescribed vegetation burning and uncontrolled wildfire. We provide insight into the effects of fire on the hydrology, biogeochemistry, and biota of peatland river ecosystems, and the peatland-soil-driven controls on these effects at the catchment scale. Burning increases the depth to water table and water-table variability, although some small-scale studies indicate shallower water table in some places. More work is needed on fire effects on peatland river flow, but recent results suggest a complex response with smaller flow peaks for burned systems associated with most rainfall events, but enhanced peaks compared to unburned systems for the top quintile of rainfall events with the largest total rain. Evidence from biogeochemical studies suggests that fire leads to increased dissolved organic C concentrations in rivers. River biota responses primarily include significant reductions in the density of grazing mayflies but increases among detritivores including Chironomidae and Baetis mayflies. We provide a conceptual synthesis that links the main responses of terrestrial and aquatic systems to fire, and we summarize some major research gaps that should be prioritized to inform future policy around peatland management.
... Dans la péninsule de La Hague, l'évolution des paysages est sous l'emprise des sociétés au moins depuis la charnière Néolithique final -âge du Bronze. Cela est en concordance avec les observations réalisées dans les tourbières littorales du nord et de l'ouest de la Bretagne (Morzadec-Kerfoun, 1974;Marguerie, 1992) ou les tourbières de plateaux du sud de l'Angleterre (Caseldine, 1999;Gearey et al., 2000b;Simmons, 2003). L'ouverture des paysages reste néanmoins modérée tout au long de l'âge du Bronze même si les premiers paysages de landes à fougères sont repérés. ...
... Cependant l'installation et la généralisation des formations prairiales et de landes océaniques emblématiques de la péninsule semblent bien plus tardives. Ces premiers résultats sont en retrait par rapport aux évolutions constatées dans certains espaces littoraux du monde armoricain où le recul forestier peut être notable et s'accompagner de la mise en culture dès l'âge du Bronze (Marguerie, 1992) mais surtout par rapport à ce qui a été montré en Grande-Bretagne et en particulier dans le sud-ouest de l'Angleterre où l'on observe le déclin généralisé du couvert forestier en relation avec le développement de l'élevage et parfois même la mise en place de système d'enclos (Caseldine, 1999;Gearey et al., 2000 ;Simmons, 2003). ...
The palaeoenvironmental researches conducted in the Hague peninsula contribute to the knowledge of the landscapes changes of Northwestern France. A small coastal plain and valleys bottoms were particularly investigated by field work and drillings. The alluvial and landscape changes are determined on the basis of sedimentological, micromorphological and palynological analyses. The dating control is given by radiocarbon dating and archaeological remains.
In the coastal plain, the peaty aggradation begun around 4500 yrs BP whiles in the valleys it begun later around 2000 yrs BP. The first indices of clearance appear at the cusp of Neolithic and Bronze Age. Nevertheless, the final forest clearing become latter, during the Late Iron Age and the Gallo-roman period, in relation with the land use and cattle breeding increase. Locally, the relationship between the impoverishment of the soils and the development of current healthland is testified.
... Despite the limited agricultural value of northern peatlands (Heal and Smith 1978), these ecosystems have been subjected to a long history of land-use change in the UK, including forestry, peat extraction, grazing and management for game which necessitates regular managed burning (Ward and others 2007;Farage and others 2009). Well-managed burns are relatively cool and short-lived, and are designed to burn only the vegetation at intervals of 10-20 years, to create a mosaic habitat of old and new plant shoots (Simmons 2003). This is in contrast to wildfires, which cause extensive damage to vegetation and soils, releasing considerable amounts of C to the atmosphere (Turetsky and others 2002). ...
... This blanket bog community, dominated by the ericoid dwarf-shrub Calluna vulgaris, the sedge Eriophorum vaginatum and hypnoid plus sphagnum mosses, is typical of UK upland ombrogenous peat with harsh winter conditions (Rodwell 1991). It is found extensively in the north Pennines, Welsh mountains and Scottish Highlands of the UK and, has International equivalents in Europe (Eddy and others 1969;Rodwell 1991;Simmons 2003). The long-term burning and grazing land-use experiment consists of four replicate blocks (60 9 90 m), each with six 30 9 30 m plots. ...
Northern peatlands are recognized as globally important stores of terrestrial carbon (C), yet we have limited understanding of how global changes, including land use, affect C cycling processes in these ecosystems. Making use of a long-term (>50 year old) peatland land management experiment in the UK, we investigated, using a 13CO2 pulse chase approach, how managed burning and grazing influenced the short-term uptake and cycling of C through the plant–soil system. We found that burning affected the composition and growth stage of the plant community, by substantially reducing the abundance of mature ericoid dwarf-shrubs. Burning also affected the structure of the soil microbial community, measured using phospholipid fatty acid analysis, by reducing fungal biomass. There was no difference in net ecosystem exchange of CO2, but burning was associated with an increase in photosynthetic uptake of 13CO2 and increased transfer of 13C to the soil microbial community relative to unburned areas. In contrast, grazing had no detectable effects on any measured C cycling process. Our study provides new insight into how changes in vegetation and soil microbial communities arising from managed burning affect peatland C cycling processes, by enhancing the uptake of photosynthetic C and the transfer of C belowground, whilst maintaining net ecosystem exchange of CO2 at pre-burn levels.
... Decisions made in the next decade will be important in allowing us to react to such changes and manage their impacts. For most of its history management burning in the British uplands has been almost solely concerned with promoting grass and forage productivity for grazing and, for the last 200 years or so, habitat structures that produce large red grouse surpluses for shooting (Simmons 2003). New objectives, and a concern with the provision of a range of ecosystem services such as biodiversity, carbon sequestration, water quality and recreation, are now becoming important and opening debates about modifying, or even banning, the use of management fire in some areas or habitats. ...
... Though still relatively common in the UK, Callunadominated moorlands are globally a rare and declining habitat with an unusual and characteristic flora, supporting internationally important populations of breeding birds and other wildlife (Usher and Thompson 1993;Thompson et al. 1995). The most significant feature of these landscapes is that they are anthropogenic, derived largely as a result of human action from forest and woodland clearance in the Neolithic era through to the rotational pattern of burning that became common roughly 200 years ago with the increasing popularity of grouse shooting (Simmons 2003). The objectives of management practice today are nearly identical to those two centuries ago: fire is used to maximise Calluna productivity and create a diversity of stand ages that support high-population densities of breeding red grouse. ...
Prescribed and wild fires play a significant role in the ecology of upland areas; changes in the frequency and intensity of both can have significant effects on biodiversity and ecosystem function. Whilst the way we manage fire in the future will depend on desired outcomes, the risk of wildfires and the suitability of conditions for prescribed burning will depend on climate, land-use and environmental change. Changes in relative fire risk and hazard therefore need to be carefully considered when setting management policy. Fire has long been used as a management tool in the uplands of the UK but there has been little formal support or training, and emphasis has been placed on traditional knowledge. While there is pressure in some quarters for a reduction in the use of fire, prescribed burning can be used to protect biodiversity assets and reach a range of management objectives. Large areas of old heather excluded from rotational burning pose a significant fire hazard. Wildfires in such areas will be more intense and severe, and more likely to ignite peat, causing considerable environmental damage and releasing large quantities of carbon. We argue for an ecological basis for the use of fire and seek to open a debate by briefly reviewing the main controls on fire risk in upland areas and discussing existing management and its challenges with regards to three case studies: traditionally managed moorland, forestry and peatland soils. We make recommendations for future management and suggest significant challenges exist for managers and researchers that need to be dealt with urgently.
... Controlled burning in the English uplands has a history of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years (Pearsall 1950;Birks 1988;Simmons 2003) and, in conjunction with livestock grazing, is probably the most extensive and ecologically important management activity undertaken in these areas of the British Isles. As a natural absence of tree cover in England is rare (Dimbleby 1952;Simmons 2003), without this management, following Mesolithic/ Neolithic clearances of upland woodland (Brown 1997), the extent of the Ericaceae-, Cyperaceae-and Poaceaedominated moorlands would be far smaller than is seen today. ...
... Controlled burning in the English uplands has a history of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years (Pearsall 1950;Birks 1988;Simmons 2003) and, in conjunction with livestock grazing, is probably the most extensive and ecologically important management activity undertaken in these areas of the British Isles. As a natural absence of tree cover in England is rare (Dimbleby 1952;Simmons 2003), without this management, following Mesolithic/ Neolithic clearances of upland woodland (Brown 1997), the extent of the Ericaceae-, Cyperaceae-and Poaceaedominated moorlands would be far smaller than is seen today. ...
World‐wide, the controlled use of fire is an important ecological management tool and is essential for the continuance of many communities. It is used extensively in upland regions of England to maintain dwarf shrub habitats for game‐bird rearing. Inappropriate burning, however, is now cited as the second most important reason for the poor condition of conservation sites in these areas. Despite this there are few data on the extent and frequency of its use to help judge its potential impact on biodiversity.
This study, using aerial photography of a 2% sample (208 km ² ) of the English uplands, surveyed the national scale of fire management for the first time, and used historical photography to identify medium‐term trends in its use.
Management burning in the English uplands is now widespread on ericaceous‐dominated moorland; in the year 2000 17% of the area of this habitat had been burned within the previous 4 years, equivalent to 114 km ² year ⁻¹ . The present median burn repeat time of consistently managed sites is approximately 20 years.
Within most of the English national parks there has been a significant increase in the extent of new burns (from 15·1% to 29·7%) over this period, indicating an intensification of burning regimes in some areas.
Synthesis and applications . The extent and frequency of burning, and the habitats in which this management occurs, are contentious issues. Reconciling the differing objectives of conservation, game rearing and agricultural stakeholders to allow the development of both strategic and local management planning to address these issues requires information on the extent and history of burning practices. This study provides a much needed first national estimate of burning practices in England and serves as a baseline against which changes in management regimes and their impacts on habitats can be judged.
... There is evidence that the removal of peat for fuel or horticulture drastically reduces C storage (Immirzi and others 1992) and afforestation has been shown to increase soil microbial activity and C loss through decomposition (Brake and others 1999;Maljanen and others 2001;Martikainen and others 1995). In the UK low-density sheep grazing has been occurring for over 2,000 years and habitat management for game birds, which necessitates periodic controlled burning, since the early 1800s (Simmons 2003). Both practices are recognized as important drivers of vegetation change (Miles 1988; Bardgett and others 1995), holding back natural vegetation succession to woodland below the tree line (Gimingham 1960;Rodwell 1991). ...
... Rough livestock grazing is recognized as the primary driver of habitat form and function with an estimated 14,150 km 2 (that is, approximately 10%) of England and Wales being subjected to low-density sheep grazing (Bardgett and others 1995). Habitat management for game bird populations (Red Grouse, Lagopus lagopus) is also a feature of many UK peatlands where the land is often too poor for agriculture (Simmons 2003). In England and Wales alone, this activity occupies 400,000 ha, making grouse shooting worth more than £10 million y )1 . ...
Using a 50-year-old field experiment, we investigated the effects of the long-term land management practices of repeated burning
and grazing on peatland vegetation and carbon dynamics (C). Plant community composition, C stocks in soils and vegetation,
and C fluxes of CO2, CH4 and DOC, were measured over an 18-month period. We found that both burning and grazing reduced aboveground C stocks, and
that burning reduced C stocks in the surface peat. Both burning and grazing strongly affected vegetation community composition,
causing an increase in graminoids and a decrease in ericoid subshrubs and bryophytes relative to unburned and ungrazed controls;
this effect was especially pronounced in burned treatments. Soil microbial properties were unaffected by grazing and showed
minor responses to burning, in that the C:N ratio of the microbial biomass increased in burned relative to unburned treatments.
Increases in the gross ecosystem CO2 fluxes of respiration and photosynthesis were observed in burned and grazed treatments relative to controls. Here, the greatest
effects were seen in the burning treatment, where the mean increase in gross fluxes over the experimental period was greater
than 40%. Increases in gross CO2 fluxes were greatest during the summer months, suggesting an interactive effect of land use and climate on ecosystem C cycling.
Collectively, our results indicate that long-term management of peatland has marked effects on ecosystem C dynamics and CO2 flux, which are primarily related to changes in vegetation community structure.
... The landscapes overlying these soils also support a range of ecologically sensitive habitats of both national and global importance (Ratcliffe and Thompson, 1988;Thompson et al., 1995;EEA, 2010). Together these provide other ecosystem services including: water provision and regulation (Viviroli and Weingartner, 2004); field sports (Simmons, 2003); tourism (Fredman and Heberlein, 2005); renewable energy production (Thompson et al., 2005); agriculture (Mansfield, 2011); and commercial forestry (Bunce et al., 2014). Mountains cover 25% of the Earth's land surface but the ecological value and importance of upland ecosystems are often disproportionate to their extent. ...
Uplands cover around 25% of the Earth's land surface and comprise highly sensitive soils and habitats of global ecological importance that together provision a suite of valuable ecosystem services. Access to upland areas for land management and recreation is increasingly dependent on the use of motorised vehicles. However, despite the widely acknowledged detrimental consequences of vehicle track development and use, this activity is not currently quantified or monitored.
In this study, surfaced and unsurfaced vehicular tracks, footpaths and land cover in an approximately 5% sample of mainland British uplands (1910 km²) were mapped using aerial imagery dating between 2007 and 2016. An information theory approach was used to identify models that best predicted the presence and extent of surfaced tracks as a function of land cover, protected status, extent of blanket peat, proximity to human population and altitude.
A total of 2104 km of track were recorded, with 27% defined as being surfaced. This equates to a mean (±SE) track density of 1.10 ± 0.15 km km⁻² in current use by vehicles across upland Britain. Areas of managed heather and grass-dominated habitat were the primary predictors of the presence and extent of surfaced tracks and we found no evidence that areas of conservation interest with protective designation were less susceptible to track construction. These data indicate that wide-ranging vehicular track networks exist in ecologically sensitive environments across the British uplands, with implications for the integrity of sensitive habitats and soils. Land use and management activities that are not facilitating ecological improvement or conservation appear to be driving the presence of surfaced tracks in ‘protected’ areas. The findings suggest that: a) urgent review and revision of upland track legislation is required in Great Britain; and b) wider assessment of upland tracks should be undertaken to inform global conservation strategies for these environments.
... In particular, North Gill on the North York Moors (Figure 1), has been the focus of highly detailed and influential palynological studies over the last four decades (e.g. Simmons 1969Simmons , 2003Simmons and Cundill 1974;Simmons and Innes 1981, 1987, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c, 1988d, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1996dSimmons et al. 1989;Innes and Blackford 2003;Turner et al. 1993;Innes et al. 2013;Albert and Innes 2015). In this paper we review the available evidence for the elm decline in Yorkshire and Humberside, producing new chronological estimates for the palaynological signals for this event across the region, and compare these to new evidence for the end of the Mesolithic and start of the Neolithic in the region. ...
The Neolithic in Britain saw the first appearance of domestic plant and animal resources, pottery, polished stone axes, monuments, and new house structures. With the introduction of domesticates and associated subsistence strategies, the Neolithic represents a significant change in human–environment interaction. Other changes have been observed in the palynological record of Britain in the early fourth millennium cal BC, including the elm decline, and archaeologists and paleobotanists have long discussed the degree of human involvement in this. This paper presents the first Bayesian statistical analysis of the elm decline using the case study of the east of Yorkshire and Humberside and key sites in west Yorkshire, and evidence for the last hunter-gatherer Mesolithic material culture and the first Neolithic material culture record. This region is critical because it is the only area of Britain and Ireland where we have robust and accurate published estimates for the timing of the latest Mesolithic activity and timing for the earliest Neolithic activity. Unpacking this perceived chronological correlation between the elm decline and the start of the Neolithic is critical to understanding the scale of human–environment modification at this time, and the nature of the first Neolithic societies in Britain.
... Tipping et al. 1999;Tipping 2012). On the North Yorkshire Moors and Dartmoor, Mesolithic manipulation of open woodland led to the creation of moorland in the earliest Neolithic (Simmons 2003). Woodland clearance and Neolithic monument building across the chalk of eastern England and particularly Wessex made this a more open landscape (e.g. ...
The polished stone objects known as 'wrist-guards' found in Early Bronze Age graves in Britain and Continental Europe have proved difficult to interpret. Are they connected with archery, as has long been supposed, or were they instead associated with falconry? Using trained birds of prey for hunting is an elite practice in many historical and ethnographic contexts, and would be consistent with the appearance of exotic materials in these graves. Detailed consideration of the wrist-guards and associated objects from a falconer's perspective, however, demonstrates that the argument is unconvincing.
... It is often assumed that human influence on the landscape in the early Holocene was limited and that, therefore, the landscape could be regarded as 'natural' (whether your preferred vision for this period is closed forest or a half-open landscape). However, humans were even then a force in the landscape; they seem to have contributed to the elimination of the Pleistocene megafauna, and they may have created or maintained open areas, perhaps through fire, so that they could hunt prey animals more easily (Innes and Blackford, 2003;Simmons, 2003). Farming spread across Europe from about 7000 years bp (Ammerman and Cav- alli-Sforza, 1971;Pinhasi et al., 2005), and human populations and their domestic stock started to become the dominant driver of forest change. ...
... Plus inattendu, c'est le cas également dans certains finistères océaniques de l'Ouest européen, où l'impact des sociétés sur l'environnement a pu être mis en évidence dès la fin du Néolithique et l'Âge du Bronze. Dans certains espaces littoraux du monde armoricain (Marguerie, 1992) et dans le sud-ouest cristallin de l'Angleterre (Caseldine, 1999 ;Gearey et al., 2000a et b ;Simmons, 2003) ...
... These moors are currently cultural landscapes that have been created and maintained by anthropogenic activity, mainly sheep grazing and prescribed burning (Rosenburgh et al., 2013). Whilst fire has been used for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years (Simmons, 2003), its use has increased in the last 200 years to enhance the productivity of the moors for sheep grazing and especially for red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus Latham) (Harris et al., 2011a;Lee et al., 2013a). Nowadays, approximately, 65% of British upland moors are managed using prescribed burning for the benefit of red grouse (Sotherton et al., 2009). ...
... For example, in the UK, which hosts 8-10 90 % of the world's blanket peatland (Taylor, 1983), prescribed burning is mainly carried 91 out to regenerate young heather shoots to support red grouse habitats as desired by the 92 rural gun-sports industry and to regenerate palatable sedges and grasses for sheep and 93 deer (Grant et al., 2012). Burn management, which typically consists of small patches 94 (mainly 50-1000 m 2 ), burned on 5 to 25 year rotations, has become common-place 95 over the past 150 years (Simmons, 2003) on many blanket peatlands in the UK 96 producing a mosaic landscape of vegetation in different stages of recovery from fire. 97 ...
Many peatlands have been subjected to wildfire or prescribed burning, but it is not known how these fires influence near-surface hydrological processes. Macropores are important flowpaths in the upper layers of blanket peat and were investigated through the use of tension disc infiltrometers, which also provide data on saturated hydraulic conductivity. Measurements were performed on unburnt peat (U), where prescribed burning had taken place 2 years (B2), 4 years (B4) and >15 (B15+) years prior to sampling, and where a wildfire (W) had taken place 4 months prior to sampling. Where there had been recent burning (B2, B4 and W), saturated hydraulic conductivity was approximately three times lower than where there was no burning (U) or where burning was last conducted >15 years ago (B15+). Similarly, the contribution of macropore flow to overall infiltration was significantly lower (between 12% and 25% less) in the recently burnt treatments compared to B15+ and U. There were no significant differences in saturated hydraulic conductivity or macropore flow between peat that had been subject to recent wildfire (W) and those that had undergone recent prescribed burning (B2 and B4). The results suggest that fire influences the near-surface hydrological functioning of peatlands but that recovery in terms of saturated hydraulic conductivity and macropore flow may be possible within two decades if there are no further fires. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... However, the presence of grazing animals also prevents the colonisation of successional vegetation species such as birch. Indeed, human encouragement of grazing after forest clearance in the early Holocene, in some locations such as the British Isles, probably supported further blanket peat development once it was initiated (Simmons, 2003). ...
There is concern that ecosystem services provided by blanket peatlands have come under threat due to increasing degradation. Blanket peatlands are subject to a wide range of drivers of degradation and are topographically variable. As a result, many degradation forms can develop, including those resulting from eroding artificial drainage, incising gullies and areas of bare peat. Many degraded blanket peatlands have undergone restoration measures since the turn of the century. However, there has been little formal communication of the techniques used and their success. Using practitioner knowledge and a review of the available literature, this paper discusses the methodologies used for restoring sloping blanket peatlands. It then considers current understanding of the impact of restoration on blanket peatland ecosystem services. There is a paucity of research investigating impacts of several common restoration techniques and much more is needed if informed management decisions are to be made and funding is to be appropriately spent. Where data are available we find that restoration is largely beneficial to many ecosystem services, with improvements being observed in water quality and ecology. However, the same restoration technique does not always result in the same outcomes in all locations. The difference in response is predominantly due to the spatial and temporal heterogeneity inherent in all blanket peatlands. Peatland practitioners must take this variability into account when designing restoration strategies and monitoring impact.
... The climate of this region is cool temperate with a rainfall distribution that is complicated by a rain shadow effect produced by the high Pennines to the West. This results in only the highest points in the area receiving over 1000 mm year À1 (Simmons, 2003). The Esk catchment in particular has long been home to one of the best salmonid fisheries in Northern England. ...
Delivery of fine sediment to fluvial systems is of considerable concern given the physical and ecological impacts of elevated levels in drainage networks. Although it is possible to measure the transfer of fine sediment at high frequency by using a range of surrogate and automated technologies, the demands for assessing sediment flux and sediment properties at multiple spatially distributed locations across catchments can often not be met using established sampling techniques. The time-integrated mass-flux sampler (TIMS) has the potential to bridge this gap and further our understanding of fine sediment delivery in fluvial systems. However, these devices have undergone limited testing in the field. The aim of this paper was to provide a critical validation of TIMS as a technique for assessing fluvial fine sediment transfer. Fine sediment flux and sediment properties were assessed over 2 years with individual sampling periods of approximately 30 days. Underestimation of sediment flux ranged between 66% and 99% demonstrating that TIMS is unsuitable for assessing absolute sediment loads. However, assessment of relative efficiency showed that six of seven samplers produced statistically strong relationships with the reference sediment load (P < 0.05). Aggregated data from all sites produced a highly significant relationship between reference and TIMS loads (R2 = 0.80; P < 0.001) demonstrating TIMS may be suitable for characterizing patterns of suspended sediment transfer. Testing also illustrated a consistency in sediment properties between multiple samplers in the same channel cross section. TIMS offers a useful means of assessing spatial and temporal patterns of fine sediment transfer across catchments where expensive monitoring frameworks cannot be commissioned. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... At Westerdale in 2009, 130 days recorded over 0.2 mm of rainfall whereas only six days had over 25 mm of snowfall (http://weather.westerdale.info). The distribution of rainfall in this region is complicated by local orographic effects with average annual rainfall at Moorhouse in the Northern Pennines is 1930 mm yr -1 , whereas only the highest points in the NYMNP receive on average over 1000 mm yr -1(Simmons, 2003). In 2009, Westerdale received just 820 mm of rainfall (http://weather.westerdale.info). ...
... Despite their limited agricultural value, British upland ecosystems show a long history of land use (Simmons, 2003), particularly grazing management (Anderson and Yalden, 1981;Done and Muir, 2001). Effects of grazing on upland ecosystems include the replacement of vegetation dominated by Calluna vulgaris and other dwarf-shrubs (moorlands) by acidic, low productivity grasslands of a lower conservation value (Bardgett et al., 1995;Thompson et al., 1995). ...
We evaluated the impact of 7 years of grazing exclusion on vegetation and belowground properties related to soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling in grazed, upland grassland in northern England. For this, we compared a landscape-level, moorland restoration project (grazing exclusion) with adjacent continuously grazed acidic grasslands to test whether changes in vegetation composition after restoration impacted on soil properties including soil C storage. Grazing exclusion significantly increased the proportion of dwarf-shrubs at the expense of graminoids. Despite high seasonal variability, this change in vegetation was associated with increased plant litter mass, soil moisture content and the ratio of dissolved organic to inorganic N, and reductions in rates of ammonium mineralisation, soil microbial activity, and microbial biomass N. Our observations suggest that grazing-exclusion as a restoration tool for upland habitats results in a slowing down of rates of C and N cycling. However, as yet, this has had no detectable impact on total C and N stocks in surface soil. Whereas increases in soil C and N stocks might be expected in the longer term, our results suggest that a certain level of grazing is compatible with the provision of ecosystem services such as soil C storage under traditional upland farming practices.
... The resultant vegetation is dominated by Calluna vulgaris intermixed with other dwarf-shrubs and patches dominated by Eriophorum spp., and a large bryophyte component. Whilst fire has been used for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years (Simmons, 2003), it has increased in frequency over the last 150 years as a result of its use in grouse management (Bonn et al., 2009). Currently, approximately, 65% of British upland moors are managed using prescribed burning for the benefit of red grouse (Sotherton et al., 2009). ...
... Uplands have a very long history of native woodland removal and agricultural intensification leading to the loss of semi-natural habitats (e.g. Simmons 2003). Afforestation with conifer plantations has not replaced the area of native woodland lost. ...
The UK uplands are highly sensitive and significant cultural landscapes that. have been created by woodland clearance for agriculture and are at threat from fire, over-grazing, mineral extraction, land drainage, air pollution and recreation. Some of these activities increase upland sensitivity to climate change, contributing to increased flood risk, or soil carbon losses. Many distinct areas Of public policy impinge on the uplands, but most have yet to integrate climate change protection within their objectives. Placed within the emerging ecosystems services perspective, policies could be modified to deliver land management services to secure soil carbon stocks, and to protect the goods, services and functions that uplands deliver. There are, therefore, both new opportunities and threats to tackle. The present paper outlines climate sensitivity and change in the uplands; reviews adaptation and mitigation options; and considers available policy, information and management tools. Within an ecosystems framework, emphasis is placed on safeguarding key regulatory services. We offer a research agenda to support adaptation and outline measures that Could be developed within existing regulatory frameworks, or signal where policies may need revision, Research priorities include better quantification of carbon fluxes under different. soils and land management practices, techniques for up-scaling local interventions to quantify landscape-scale benefits, and the evaluation of adaptive responses in the context of sustainable land use. Potential adaptation strategies include improved spatial planning for land and water, the creation of networked habitats to enable species migration, and practical guidance on appropriate locations for intensification and extensification of land use.
... Upland blanket peats represent some of the most heavily managed environments in the UK, with landscape changes dating back several thousand years (Table 1). The UK blanket peats have been managed by humans ever since their development began around 9000-5000 BP (Simmons, 2003). Such management essentially combined the felling of trees and the grazing of sheep which prevented re-expansion of forests. ...
Peatlands are important ecosystems for carbon (C) storage, provision of water resources and biodiversity. UK blanket peats represent 10-15% of those found worldwide. While many peatlands continue to be managed through artificial drainage and vegetation burning, it has long been recognized that local habitats and ecological diversity are strongly influenced by these practices. This paper reviews the hydrological, physicochemical and ecological effects of three widespread UK peatland management practices, namely artificial drainage, drain-blocking and rotational heather burning. Drainage and burning of peat often lead to altered runoff regimes, oxidation of organic matter, changes to C, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) cycling, and increased metal and suspended sediment concentrations in streams relative to intact peatlands. Although artificial drainage is now rarely implemented on UK upland peats, a great number of historical drains remain, thus drain-blocking is increasingly being applied to restore many peatlands. In contrast, recent increases in the intensity and extent of rotational heather burning may result in further changes to peatland ecosystems. Relatively little is known about the environmental effects of rotational heather burning compared with drainage and drain-blocking management, and for all three of these management techniques there is scarce information on river ecosystem response. We hypothesize some likely effects of basin-scale drainage, drain-blocking and heather burning on stream ecosystems and illustrate these with a schematic model. Such a holistic consideration of peatland river basins is particularly timely with respect to the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive.
... The palaeoenvironmental data relate primarily to plant ecology and atmospheric chemistry, rather than faunal communities which are harder to study and for which less detailed information is available. (Gimingham 1995) Heaths and moorlands are readily acknowledged to be cultural landscapes, created and maintained by land managers (Thompson et al. 1995a, Smout 2000, Simmons 2003, although the frequent emphasis on 'naturalness' in upland conservation creates tensions with land managers (e.g. Johnston & Soulsby 2006). ...
This review draws together information on the historical processes and drivers which underlie the current state of the uplands in order to illustrate the range of accumulated legacies which threaten or enhance the resilience of upland habitats and rural communities. The target audience for the review includes ecologists, conservationists (in research and practice), land managers and policy-makers
... Upland environments in the United Kingdom occupy approximately one third of the land area and comprise a range of seminatural vegetation communities that experience a cool, wet temperate maritime climate (Simmons, 2003). Upland moorlands are open environments dominated by slow-growing dwarf shrub communities, notably heather (Calluna vulgaris), acid grasslands and bogs (Holden et al., 2007). ...
This paper tests the application of airborne hyperspectral image data for estimating live vegetation fuel moisture content (FMC) in a Calluna vulgaris-dominated semi-natural upland area in the United Kingdom. Airborne hyperspectral imagery was collected over a north/south flight line covering the study site in May and July 2008. Ground data on live FMC were collected concurrently with the flights for ten study plots. Radiance values for the study plots were extracted from the airborne imagery and calibrated to reflectance using spectral measurements from reference targets measured on the ground at the time of the overflights. First derivatives, and a number of vegetation indices (VI), were calculated and correlated with field measured live FMC collected at the study plots. Vegetation FMC maps were produced for the study site for both dates. The results showed that live FMC exhibited spatial and temporal variations that affect the spectral reflectance measured by the airborne hyperspectral instrument, particularly in the near infrared and shortwave infrared regions. Using the first derivative and specific VI improved the correlation between the hyperspectral data and live FMC, but the simple two-wavelength Moisture Stress Index, based on measurements in the near infrared and shortwave infrared, was shown to be effective for FMC estimation. Live FMC was estimated with a root mean square error of 16.8% for all vegetation plots and 10.0% when considering plots composed only of C. vulgaris. The results point to the prospect of FMC mapping for improved modelling of fire risk in UK uplands using remotely sensed data.
... Controlled moorland burning has been practised for many centu- ries in parts of upland England (Simmons, 2003) and is undertaken widely by land managers on moorlands ( Yallop et al., 2006) to create vegetation patchworks where birds such as the red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotia) thrive. In addition to combustion, PAH in peatland settings can also be derived from vegetation and its decayed remains ( Malawska et al., 2002) or atmospheric deposition from industrial emissions ( Sanders et al., 1995). ...
This study reports the concentrations of 18 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from managed burning of moorland vegetation and compares them to PAH in catchment vegetation, underlying peats, head water suspended sediment (HSS), stream water and reservoir sediment cores. Total PAH ranged from 203 to 11,112μg/kg in the blanket peats, 101-290μg/kg in the fresh moorland vegetation, 4186μg/kg at the burnt site, 17,439μg/kg in the HSS, 56ng/L in the stream water and 987 to 7346μg/kg in the reservoir sediments. No total or individual PAH concentrations exceeded the published sediment quality guidelines. The perylene content of selected moorland vegetation (sphagnum, heather and bilberry) ranged from 10 to 18% as compared to only 2% for the sediment hosted PAH. A comparison of whole and <250μm fractions from the burnt surface layer revealed a near threefold increase in PAH concentration in the fine fraction and a change in the PAH distribution such that naphthalene>phenanthrene>2-methylnaphthalene. Elevated total PAH contents were observed close to the blanket peat sediment surface (0-10cm) and then declined at greater depths. The high PAH content of the HSS was attributed to the high sorption capacity of the organic-rich particles (TOC 25.8% (wt/wt)). The distribution of individual PAH in reservoir cores and HSS was consistent and the results of the principal component analysis and isomeric ratios suggest mainly pyrolytic inputs, from either vegetation burning and coal combustion. A comparison of the reservoir core PAH profiles shows that the source(s) have remained largely unchanged since the reservoir construction in 1929A.D. reflecting consistent moorland management practices.
... Lightning initiated fires account for up to 98% of annual areal peatland disturbances in the forested peatlands of Western Canada (Turetsky et al., 2002), making it the most prevalent natural disturbance for this type of system. Since the early 1800s in the UK and Northern Europe, controlled fire has been used as a management strategy for upland peatland, often for game conservation (Simmons, 2003). In other soil ecosystems, it has been shown that fire affects decomposition, through changes in soil temperature (Viereck and Service, 1982), soil moisture (Imeson et al., 1992), microbial communities (e.g. ...
... Differences in these states are inevitable because climate and soils have changed, as well as biotic changes such as extirpation of large predators and introduction of invasive alien species. Original-naturalness, of course, becomes more difficult to define if the influence of Mesolithic peoples is considered significant (Innes & Blackford 2003;Simmons 2003), but this is an issue whichever model (open or closed forest) is considered for the pre-Neolithic landscape. ...
... This implies that variables such as precipitation, frequency of storm events and drought are more likely to have a significant year-on-year and seasonal effect on flux rates in UK peatlands compared to those developed under more continental climates. Blanket peats in the UK are therefore unusual in a global context as the climate is generally wetter and they are often developed in upland areas (with steeper hydrological gradients); peatland development in the UK during the Holocene is also thought to be strongly linked to past human impact as a direct result of early forest clearance leading to wetter soil conditions (Charman 2002, Simmons 2003). UK peatlands are often actively managed in ways which can alter the net ecosystem C balance (NECB) (Chapin et al. 2006). ...
The retention of peatland carbon (C) and the ability to continue to draw down and store C from the atmosphere is not only important for the UK terrestrial carbon inventory, but also for a range of ecosystem services, the landscape value and the ecology and hydrology of similar to 15% of the land area of the UK. Here we review the current state of knowledge on the C balance of UK peatlands using several studies which highlight not only the importance of making good flux measurements, but also the spatial and temporal variability of different flux terms that characterise a landscape affected by a range of natural and anthropogenic processes and threats. Our data emphasise the importance of measuring (or accurately estimating) all components of the peatland C budget. We highlight the role of the aquatic pathway and suggest that fluxes are higher than previously thought. We also compare the contemporary C balance of several UK peatlands with historical rates of C accumulation measured using peat cores, thus providing a long-term context for present-day measurements and their natural year-on-year variability. Contemporary measurements from 2 sites suggest that current accumulation rates (-56 to -72 g C m(-2) yr(-1)) are at the lower end of those seen over the last 150 yr in peat cores (-35 to -209 g C m(-2) yr(-1)). Finally, we highlight significant current gaps in knowledge and identify where levels of uncertainty are high, as well as emphasise the research challenges that need to be addressed if we are to improve the measurement and prediction of change in the peatland C balance over future decades.
... There is significant variability in fire behaviour on heathlands, and this variation is closely linked to the age and structure of the vegetation when burnt (). Despite this, and despite the fact that fire has been systematically used as a management tool in the British uplands for at least 200 years (MacDonald 1999; Simmons 2003), we do not have a good understanding of how the nature of individual fires affects post-fire vegetation. Current management recommendations are to burn moorland vegetation dominated by Calluna vulgaris (hereafter Calluna) on a 10–20 year rotation, or when 20–30 cm tall (Natural England 2007; SEERAD 2008), though fire return intervals vary significantly regionally *Correspondence author. ...
1. Upland heaths in the UK are of significant conservation importance. Large areas are managed through prescribed burning to improve habitat and grazing for red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, deer Cervus elaphus and sheep Ovis aries. Previous research has identified trends in vegetation development following burning, but has not linked this to variation in fire behaviour and severity.
2. We burned 15 experimental fires on an area of Calluna vulgaris-dominated moorland, and recorded pre- and post-fire vegetation structure and composition, fire behaviour characteristics, and several ‘proxy measures’ of fire severity.
3. We distinguished measures of fire severity, describing the immediate physical effects of burning, from the long-term ecosystem responses of substrate development and Calluna regeneration. Proxy measures of fire severity did not relate strongly to fire behaviour or ecosystem response.
4. Post-fire regeneration was strongly linked to stand age and post-fire substrate type. Fire behaviour and severity had little effect, though fire-induced ground-surface heating may promote Calluna seedling establishment. Vegetative regeneration of Calluna was extremely poor in older stands, as was seedling establishment in areas where the post-fire substrate was dominated by live or dead pleurocarpous moss mats.
5.Synthesis and applications. Significant nonlinearities exist in fire severity on heathlands, with step changes related to the depth and moisture content of moss/litter layers and peat. Younger stands, less than c. 30 cm tall, should be the focus of management if the objective is to maximize Calluna regeneration. Burning older and uneven-aged stands is discouraged except for the purposes of fire hazard management. Managers should develop landscape-level burn plans to target burning effectively and create diverse fire regimes.
... Mesolithic hunter-gatherers contributed to woodland clearance in areas that were originally forested, to assist their foraging and stalking. In combination with pedogenesis and climate change this assisted the spread of blanket peat [6]. Iron Age and Medieval farmers continued to clear more of the remaining woodland, and the moorland edge advanced and retreated in response to changes in demographic, climatic and commercial pressures. ...
Uplands around the world are facing significant social, economic and environmental changes, and decision-makers need to better understand what the future may hold if they are to adapt and maintain upland goods and services. This paper draws together all major research comprising eight studies that have used scenarios to describe possible futures for UK uplands. The paper evaluates which scenarios are perceived by stakeholders to be most likely and desirable, and assesses the benefits and drawbacks of the scenario methods used in UK uplands to date. Stakeholders agreed that the most desirable and likely scenario would be a continuation of hill farming (albeit at reduced levels) based on cross-compliance with environmental measures. The least desirable scenario is a withdrawal of government financial support for hill farming. Although this was deemed by stakeholders to be the least likely scenario, the loss of government support warrants close attention due to its potential implications for the local economy. Stakeholders noted that the environmental implications of this scenario are much less clear-cut. As such, there is an urgent need to understand the full implications of this scenario, so that upland stakeholders can adequately prepare, and policy-makers can better evaluate the likely implications of different policy options. The paper concludes that in future, upland scenario research needs to: (1) better integrate in-depth and representative participation from stakeholders during both scenario development and evaluation; and (2) make more effective use of visualisation techniques and simulation models.
... Woodland clearance and livestock grazing in the uplands can be traced back to the Neolithic, over 2000 years ago (Bevan In press). This clearance, in combination with climate change, led to the spread of heather moorland and blanket peat (Simmons 2004). Up until the 18 th century moorlands were mostly unenclosed commons, part of the royal estates, and local tenants had rights to graze livestock, cut peat, quarry stone and collect plants and other natural materials (Bevan In press). ...
Rural areas are subject to changing and often competing demands. Where agricultural production was once paramount, it now competes with other ecosystem services such as carbon storage, rural amenity, and wildlife habitat. If rural areas are to be managed to produce this broad range of goods and services, then more diverse and complex management regimes are needed. This paper explores the literature on property rights before using a ‘property rights bundle’ approach in the UK uplands to (1) examine the distribution of property rights between stakeholders in a multi-resource system and (2) evaluate the effect of state intervention on the redistribution of property rights and the resulting management regimes. Private land owners were found to be the dominant type of property rights holder and private property the dominant management regime in the uplands of the UK. Government intervention has also created private-state regimes for some public goods such as biodiversity but common property management is still in its infancy with regards to ecosystem services and few stakeholders have claimant rights over resources. As a result, many stakeholders are unable to influence management to produce the goods that they want. A property rights perspective highlights that single management regimes alone are unlikely to manage land sustainably for both private and public goods. Instead, a complex mix of private, private-state and common property regimes are found to be emerging in this multi-resource system. These mixed management regimes have the potential to produce sustainable outcomes but only if the appropriate management regime is matched to each resource, if links are developed between each regime to deal with conflict and if mixed management is adaptable enough to cope with new and changing demands.
Establishing and expanding protected areas (PAs) has become a key conservation tool in efforts to halt global declines in biodiversity. Given the ubiquity of past and present human influence, PAs inevitably include landscapes and seascapes with varying levels of human modification.
We briefly review the geographical biases in England's terrestrial PA network, noting that landscape‐scale PAs (National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty) across England disproportionately occupy rugged upland terrain of low agricultural value as a result of the specific history of PA creation, but that this also biases which historic landscapes compose PAs.
We explore these biases using Historic Landscape Characterisation (HLC). Analysis of HLC revealed that PAs in our focal region in northern England are defined by land‐use changes and landscape reorganisation processes of the 18th and 19th centuries, primarily that of enclosure. The impact this landscape transformation had on biodiversity should now form a priority for further research.
This historic landscape influence on PA designation has resulted in PAs being typically owned by large estates with consequences for their biodiversity, management and wider social impact (e.g. greater wealth inequalities).
The results highlight that historic landscape perspectives are useful to address conservation priorities and practices related to the protection of biodiversity and could be especially helpful in understanding the interaction between biodiversity protection and historic land‐uses, ownership, management, access and other social impacts.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
Despite substantial contrary evidence, there has been a growing tendency to present prescribed vegetation burning as a management practice that is always damaging to peatland ecosystems in the UK. This is exemplified by the “Burning and Peatlands” position statement published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature UK Peatland Programme. Indeed, while we strongly agree with several of the statements made within this position statement, it also contains a series of unverified assertions and misleading arguments that seemingly serve to simplify the narrative and paint prescribed burning as a wholly damaging peatland management tool. Given that this position statement is published by one of the UK’s most prominent peatland conservation organisations, it is likely to be consulted when debating upland land use policy. Therefore, for the benefit of policymakers, we provide a point-by-point critical review of the “Burning and Peatlands” position statement. We also discuss several further points for researchers and policymakers to consider that are consistently ignored by those attempting to simplify the narrative about prescribed burning. Our aim in producing this discussion paper is to encourage the research and policy community to move towards an evidence-based position about prescribed burning impacts on UK peatlands.
Due to its novelty and scale, the EMBER project is a key study within the prescribed burning evidence base. However, it has several significant but overlooked methodological flaws.
In this paper, we outline and discuss these flaws. In doing so, we aim to highlight the current paucity of evidence relating to prescribed burning impacts on ecosystem services within the British uplands.
We show that the results of the EMBER project are currently unreliable because: it used a correlative space‐for‐time approach; treatments were located within geographically separate and environmentally distinct sites; environmental differences between sites and treatments were not accounted for during statistical analysis; and, peat surface temperature results are suggestive of measurement error.
Policy Implications. Given the importance of the EMBER project, our findings suggest that (a) government agencies and policymakers need to re‐examine the strengths and limitations of the prescribed burning evidence base; and, (b) future work needs to control for site‐specific differences so that prescribed burning impacts on ecosystem services can be reliably identified.
Peatlands provide globally important ecosystem services through climate and water regulation or biodiversity conservation. While covering only 3% of the earth's surface, degrading peatlands are responsible for nearly a quarter of carbon emissions from the land use sector. Bringing together world-class experts from science, policy and practice to highlight and debate the importance of peatlands from an ecological, social and economic perspective, this book focuses on how peatland restoration can foster climate change mitigation. Featuring a range of global case studies, opportunities for reclamation and sustainable management are illustrated throughout against the challenges faced by conservation biologists. Written for a global audience of environmental scientists, practitioners and policy makers, as well as graduate students from natural and social sciences, this interdisciplinary book provides vital pointers towards managing peatland conservation in a changing environment.
(www.cambridge.org/9781107619708)
The chapter starts with a discussion of general patterns and processes in terrestrial ecosystems, including the impacts of climate change in relation to productivity, phenology, trophic matches and mismatches, range shifts and biodiversity. Climate impacts on specific ecosystem types—forests, grasslands, heathlands, and mires and peatlands—are then discussed in detail. The chapter concludes by discussing links between changes in inland ecosystems and the wider North Sea system. Future climate change is likely to increase net primary productivity in the North Sea region due to warmer conditions and longer growing seasons, at least if summer precipitation does not decrease as strongly as projected in some of the more extreme climate scenarios. The effects of total carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems are highly uncertain, due to the inherent complexity of the processes involved. For moderate climate change, land use effects are often more important drivers of total ecosystem carbon accumulation than climate change. Across a wide range of organism groups, range expansions to higher latitudes and altitudes and changes in phenology have occurred in response to recent climate change. For the range expansions, some studies suggest substantial differences between organism groups. Habitat specialists with restricted ranges have generally responded very little or even shown range contractions. Many of already threatened species could be particularly vulnerable to climate change. Overall, effects of recent climate change on terrestrial ecosystems within the North Sea region are still limited.
Fire is known to impact soil properties and hydrological flow paths. However, the impact of prescribed vegetation burning on blanket peatland hydrology is poorly understood. We studied 10 blanket peat headwater catchments. Five were subject to prescribed burning, while five were unburnt controls. Within the burnt catchments, we studied plots where the last burn occurred ∼2 (B2), 4 (B4), 7 (B7), or greater than 10 years (B10+) prior to the start of measurements. These were compared with plots at similar topographic wetness index locations in the control catchments. Plots subject to prescribed vegetation burning had significantly deeper water tables (difference in means = 5.3 cm) and greater water table variability than unburnt plots. Water table depths were significantly different between burn age classes (B2 > B4 > B7 > B10+) while B10+ water tables were not significantly different to the unburnt controls. Overland flow was less common on burnt peat than on unburnt peat, recorded in 9% and 17% of all runoff trap visits, respectively. Storm lag times and hydrograph recession limb periods were significantly greater (by ∼1 and 13 h on average, respectively) in the burnt catchments overall, but for the largest 20% of storms sampled, there was no significant difference in storm lag times between burnt and unburnt catchments. For the largest 20% of storms, the hydrograph intensity of burnt catchments was significantly greater than those of unburnt catchments (means of 4.2 × 10−5 and 3.4 × 10−5 s−1, respectively), thereby indicating a nonlinear streamflow response to prescribed burning. Together, these results from plots to whole river catchments indicate that prescribed vegetation burning has important effects on blanket peatland hydrology at a range of spatial scales.
Upland environments have the potential to preserve relatively undisturbed multi-period archaeological remains due to reduced anthropogenic impacts such as intensive agriculture. However, these environments can also be extremely fragile and susceptible to alternative pressures from insensitive land-use practices and their dynamic geomorphological setting. This paper presents the results of research focusing on the interactions between industrial heritage sites and their semi-natural landscape context within the upland landscapes of Alston Moor, North Pennines, UK. Change detection using multispectral Landsat data was combined with detailed mapping from airborne lidar, aerial photographs and fieldwork to quantify the rate and nature of the changing condition of selected industrial archaeological sites. Results indicate that extensive degradation has been occurring at a number of former lead mining sites over recent decades, primarily due to fluvial erosion in the form of gullying but with slope and aeolian processes also of significance in particular locations. Soil samples taken from actively eroding areas within Fletcheras Rake, one of the earliest documented lead mines in the area, suggest that the reworking and redistribution of sediments from former mining sites are releasing heavily contaminated sediments into the wider hydrological catchment. It is argued that a more complete understanding of the complex interrelationships and linkages between archaeological sites and the semi-natural environments in which they are situated can only be achieved through the combined application of research methods employed by both the archaeological and geomorphological disciplines.
1. The role of prescribed burning of vegetation to manage fire risk is controversial in a variety of situations worldwide. It is becoming more topical (i) as a result of potential global warming where the risk of wildfire might increase and (ii) because fire might affect the various ecosystem services provided in a different way. Where prescribed fire is used, ecologists need to know the impact on biodiversity (post‐fire recovery) and on provisioning and regulating services such as water collection and carbon sequestration. Here, we assess the effect of prescribed burning on plant community composition and its component species at the regional scale of the Peak District, where the moorland vegetation is severely degraded.
2. Species cover (%) was assessed on five moors with respect to elapsed time since prescribed burning and vegetation height. A stratified random method was used to choose burn patches covering a range of ages since burning; quadrats were then sampled randomly within these patches over a 3‐year period. Detrended correspondence analysis was used to relate species composition to significant environmental variables, and variation partitioning was used to assess their relative contribution. Response curves were produced for the major species with respect to elapsed time since burning and vegetation height.
3. The species ordination produced two gradients, (i) a continuum from a graminoid‐dominated vegetation to one dominated by Erica tetralix , Vaccinium myrtillus and Rubus chamaemorus and (ii) a post‐fire growth response of the dominant species, Calluna vulgaris . Species composition was more highly correlated with vegetation height than elapsed time since burning. The environmental variables explained 15·2% of the variation.
4. Calluna vulgaris was the only species to show an increasing response after burning; all others showed an increase immediately after burning, but then they either decreased or showed a unimodal/skewed response. Most other species were restricted to vegetation <40 cm height and 20–25 years after burning.
5. Synthesis and applications. We found two major results of importance to policy makers and land managers: (i) that prescribed burning maintains species diversity in the immediate post‐burn phase, and (ii) as the vegetation ages and increases in height, most species disappear and the vegetation becomes dominated by C. vulgaris . From a policy perspective, prescribed burning (or some other disturbance) is needed to maintain burning and a no‐burn policy will result in a low‐diversity, C. vulgaris‐ dominated vegetation. As vegetation height is the easiest measure for land managers to use in judging when to burn, we recommend moorland vegetation be burned before it reaches 25 cm in height to maintain the pre‐burn complement of plant species. If the rotation allows the vegetation to become much taller (>40 cm), then most species will be lost and they will have to colonize after subsequent fires from the seedbank or from the surrounding area.
The recent discovery of one of the earliest Mesolithic occupation sites in northern Britain, at Howick on the Northumberland coast, in association with multiperiod archaeological evidence nearby, highlights the importance of UK coastal settings as focii of human occupation through the Holocene.
Environmental evidence from a nearby river valley (8.15 m of sediment ranging in age from about 12 000 cal. BP to the present) records local and regional environmental change. Twenty-four radiocarbon dates based on plant macrofossils provide a strong chronological framework. Calcareous microfossil assemblages (foraminifera, ostracods) have been recovered from the fine-grained sediments, recording a change from marine through to brackish and eventually freshwater conditions between about 8200 and 6500 cal. BP. A preliminary pollen study of the core has permitted a reconstruction of the regional vegetation as it responded to climatic amelioration and human influence upon the landscape. Radiocarbon dating and sedimentological evidence indicates a major hiatus between approximately 11 000 and 8000 years BP (including the period of Mesolithic occupation), represented by a 30 cm layer of coarse sands and
sandstone pebbles, probably the result of a significant high-energy event dated to about 8300 cal. BP. Although not a typical tsunami deposit, the age and context suggests that this may be associated with the Storegga Slide event, already well-documented along the eastern coast of Scotland. The sedimentary and biological remains at Howick record environmental change over much of the Holocene and are compared with other environmental change records from the region to provide an environmental framework for the archaeology of this coastline.
The effect of moorland management on the release of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from blanket peat is currently a topic
of great interest in the UK. A recent paper by Chapman et al. (Biogeochemistry, doi:10.1007/s10533-010-9474-x, 2010) reports on changes in humic colour/DOC concentrations in surface waters draining 15 upland peat catchments in the
North Pennines (UK) over two decades, and examines the possible underlying drivers of those changes. Chapman et al. identify
significant variation in water colour between adjacent catchments and over time. One potential driver of changes in DOC is
managed moorland burning, and Chapman et al. state that their study provides evidence that burning has no effect on colour
in upland catchment drainage waters. This observation counters a recent series of papers showing strong links between new
moorland burn management on blanket peat soils and colour/DOC in catchment drainage waters. We have reviewed the methodological
approach and results presented by Chapman et al. that relate to the assessment of managed burning, and show significant errors
in the data used in their analysis. This has resulted in conclusions being drawn about the role of managed burning in DOC
release that are not supported by evidence.
KeywordsWater colour–Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)–Peat–Heather burning–Land management
Managed and wild fires play a significant role in the ecology of heathlands in the UK but we currently have little ability
to forecast fire behaviour or the likelihood of accidental wildfires. Like many shrubland fuel types, heathlands display significant
structural complexity and the role of different fuel components in governing flammability has not been clear. Using a series
of small, field-based ignition tests, we demonstrate the critical importance of the moisture content of dead fine fuels in
the lower canopy for determining when sustaining fires in the vegetation canopy can develop. At moisture contents above c.
70% both spot and line ignitions failed but where moisture contents were less than c. 60% fires developed rapidly. The initial
rate of spread of successful ignitions was primarily controlled by the moisture content of the lower canopy and the moss/litter
layer. Models that predict the moisture content of elevated dead fuels and the moss litter layer are urgently needed in order
to protect heathlands from wildfire and to allow forecasts of the suitability of conditions for prescribed burning to be developed.
KeywordsFire behaviour–Fire sustainability–Heathland–Ignition–Logistic regression–Managed burning–Rate of spread–Wildfire
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