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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
DOI 10.1007/s00531-014-1070-1
ORIGINAL PAPER
The paleoclimatic and geochronologic utility of coring red beds
and evaporites: a case study from the RKB core
(Permian, Kansas, USA)
Gerilyn S. Soreghan · Kathleen C. Benison ·
Tyler M. Foster · Jay Zambito · Michael J. Soreghan
Received: 23 March 2014 / Accepted: 7 August 2014
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
from coring of deep-time loess strata in particular remains
severely underutilized.
Keywords Red beds · Core · Paleoclimate · Permian ·
Loess · Evaporites · Pangaea
Introduction
Drill core is well recognized as a key data set for recon-
structing climate records. Drilling marine sediments has
been long exploited to clarify climate dynamics and atmos-
pheric-oceanic linkages, especially for the Neogene, but
extending even to the Cretaceous (e.g., IODP 2008). Con-
tinental climate reconstructions also benefit greatly from
drill core data, and core from modern, long-lived lacustrine
systems in particular have facilitated major advances in
understanding climate dynamics of Earth’s recent record,
from the tropics to the poles (e.g., Lowenstein et al. 1999;
Scholz et al. 2007; Cohen 2011; Melles et al. 2012).
Despite these significant advances, the need remains for
highly resolved (orbital-forcing-scale) records that can shed
light on continental climate in Earth’s deep-time record
and reveal the full depth of the dynamic range of Earth’s
climate system (NRC 2011; Soreghan and Cohen 2013).
The orbital-scale record recovered from Triassic–Jurassic
strata of the largely lacustrine Newark basin system (Olsen
et al. 1996) exemplifies the potential for obtaining highly
resolved deep-time records from continental successions,
as does the promise of emerging results from Mesozoic
and lower Cenozoic strata of the Colorado Plateau Coring
Project (Olsen et al. 2010), and Bighorn Basin Coring Pro-
ject (Clyde et al. 2013), respectively. However, continuous
coring of continental red beds is relatively uncommon, as
these facies have little economic value, and have been long
Abstract Drill core is critical for robust and high-res-
olution reconstructions of Earth’s climate record, as well
demonstrated from both marine successions and modern
long-lived lake systems. Deep-time climate reconstructions
increasingly require core-based data, but some facies, nota-
bly red beds and evaporites, have garnered less attention
for both paleoclimatic and geochronologic analyses. Here,
we highlight studies from the Rebecca K. Bounds (RKB)
core, a nearly continuous, >1.6 km drill core extending
from the Cretaceous to the Mississippian, recovered from
the US Midcontinent by Amoco Production Company in
1988, and serendipitously made available for academic
research. Recent research conducted on this core illustrates
the potential to recover high-resolution data for geochro-
nologic and climatic reconstructions from both the fine-
grained red bed strata, which largely represent paleo-loess
deposits, and associated evaporite strata. In this case, avail-
ability of core was instrumental for (1) accessing a continu-
ous vertical section that establishes unambiguous superpo-
sition key to both magnetostratigraphic and paleoclimatic
analyses, and (2) providing pristine sample material from
friable, soluble, and/or lithofacies and mineralogical spe-
cies otherwise poorly preserved in surface exposures. The
potential for high-resolution paleoclimatic reconstruction
G. S. Soreghan (*) · T. M. Foster · M. J. Soreghan
School of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma,
100 E. Boyd St., Norman, OK 73019, USA
e-mail: lsoreg@ou.edu
K. C. Benison
Department of Geology and Geography, West Virginia University,
98 Beechurst Ave., Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
J. Zambito
Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey,
3817 Mineral Point Rd., Madison, WI 53705, USA
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
1 3
dismissed as of little use for paleoclimatic reconstruction,
despite limited detailed study. Many of the proxies most
commonly applied to paleoclimatic reconstructions in, e.g.,
modern/recent, organic-rich lacustrine units (e.g., organic
biomarkers, pollen, and redox-sensitive transition metals)
are considered to be compromised in oxidized systems. Yet
examples of remarkable preservation in red bed strata do
occur, such as the presence of (1) superparamagnetic mag-
netite and the accompanying magnetic susceptibility record
in Permian red beds (Soreghan et al. 1997) and (2) pristine
pollen and spores in Cenozoic and Pennsylvanian red beds
(Benison et al. 2011; Oboh-Ikuenobe and Sanchez Botero
2013; Sánchez Botero et al. 2013). Moreover, in red bed—
evaporite successions, the evaporites—if protected from
dissolution and alteration caused by post-depositional infil-
tration of dilute waters—can yield a variety of high-reso-
lution quantitative and qualitative paleoclimate data (e.g.,
Benison and Goldstein 1999; Sánchez Botero et al. 2013;
Zambito and Benison 2013). In addition, sedimentary
structures and primary fluid inclusions in Cenozoic and
Permian bedded halite can represent arid climate flooding-
evaporation-desiccation cycles and air temperature prox-
ies, respectively (Benison and Goldstein 1999; Lowenstein
et al. 1999; Zambito and Benison 2013). Paleoclimate
reconstructions from such strata, however, are dependent
upon obtaining cores drilled using methods suitable for
extracting intact evaporites and (commonly friable) fine-
grained red beds. To date, such specialized coring has been
rare, but yields remarkable data when accomplished.
The purpose of this contribution is to highlight the
importance of continuous core to develop a detailed geo-
chronologic framework and paleoclimatic record from
generally overlooked facies—in this case fine-grained red
beds and associated evaporites, even from deep-time suc-
cessions. Fortuitous access to drill core in this case ena-
bled study of (1) a stratigraphically complete section, key
for assessing a magnetic reversal stratigraphy, and (2) an
unaltered section, containing phases (evaporites, clays)
otherwise easily dissolved or compromised by traditional
drilling methods and by late-stage near-surface diagenesis.
Obtaining a continuous vertical section that establishes
unambiguous superposition is particularly critical for this
expansive, low-relief region characterized by severely lim-
ited outcrop exposures. Furthermore, the fine-grained red
beds highlighted here record an example of paleo loess, a
facies type with the potential to rival deep-sea and lami-
nated lacustrine sediments in their ability to archive high-
resolution paleoclimatic data (Liang et al. 2012), but little
exploited for Earth’s deep-time climate record. Hence, we
also highlight the vast paleoclimatic potential offered by
coring deep-time loess.
Geologic setting
Midcontinent North America during the Permian was bor-
dered by a series of orogenic systems associated with the
final assembly of Pangaea: the Ouachita-Marathon sys-
tem southward, the Appalachian system eastward, and
remnant uplifts of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains to the
west, southwest and northwest (Johnson 1978; Kluth and
Coney 1981; Slingerland and Furlong 1989; Fig. 1). This
greater region, extending from southern Saskatchewan to
Texas (north–south) and Wyoming through Kansas (west–
east), preserves a variable but commonly thick (102–103 m)
Lower-Middle Permian section (McKee and Oriel 1967;
Fig. 1 Paleogeographic map
of North America for Middle
Permian (265–255 Ma) time,
from Blakey (Colorado Plateau
Geosystems, http://cpgeosys
tems.com), modified to show
orogenic belts of the Appala-
chian, Ouachita-Marathon, and
ARM (Ancestral Rocky Moun-
tains) systems. Permian red bed
strata are preserved across a
broad region of Midcontinent
North America (see Fig. 2).
Note paleoequator line and
paleoequator
Region
of
Midcontinent
Permian
Red Beds
500 km
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
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Walker 1967) that extends across various basins and posi-
tive areas and reflects as-yet poorly understood subsidence
that is perhaps related to post-orogenic and/or far-field
effects (Soreghan et al. 2012).
Lithofacies in the Midcontinent Permian range from red
beds interbedded with marine limestone low in the section,
to entirely continental red beds and evaporites high in the
section (McKee and Oriel 1967). This transition reflects a
well-documented eustatic and climatic shift driven by (1)
the evolution from the Permo-Carboniferous icehouse cli-
mate to full greenhouse conditions in the Permo-Triassic
(Frakes 1979), with attendant high-frequency glacioeustasy
detectable predominately low in the section (e.g., Heckel
2008) and (2) the gradual emergence of the Pangaean
supercontinent, as relative sea level reached its Phanero-
zoic minimum near the end of the Permian (Ross and Ross
1988, 1994, 1995). The latter trend resulted in the predomi-
nance of continental over marine deposition through most
of the Permian in the Midcontinent and indeed globally
(e.g., Golonka and Ford 2000).
The Midcontinent USA was situated in the western
equatorial region (~5–15°N; e.g., Golonka et al. 1994; Sco-
tese 1999; Kent and Muttoni 2003; Loope et al. 2003) of
Pangaea throughout Permian time, yet the climate was gen-
erally arid, and inferred to have become increasingly arid
from Pennsylvanian through Permian time (e.g., Parrish
1993), although the forcing for this trend remains debated
(Tabor and Poulsen 2008, and references therein). Both
models and data indicate the onset of monsoonal circula-
tion across Pangaea by early Permian time (e.g., Robinson
1973; Parrish and Peterson 1988; Kutzbach and Gallimore
1989; Parrish 1993; Soreghan et al. 2002; Tabor and Mon-
tanez 2002).
Within the greater study region of Kansas and Okla-
homa, the Permian interval includes, from base to top, the
Council Grove, Chase, Sumner, and Nippewalla, groups
(and three post-Nippewalla Formations in Kansas that are
likely equivalent to the Quartermaster Group in Oklahoma;
Fig. 2). Zambito et al. (2012) presented the detailed stra-
tigraphy of the studied interval and difficulties regarding
correlation in the region. Regionally, the Council Grove
and Chase groups consist generally of lithologically mixed
(marine) carbonate and (continental) siliciclastic “cyclo-
thems”, whereas the overlying groups consist predomi-
nantly of red siliciclastic strata and bedded and displacive
evaporite strata. The loss of a marine signal up section in
this stratigraphy, together with laterally discontinuous out-
crops that are poorly preserved owing to late-stage meteoric
dissolution has long stymied efforts of stratigraphic dating
and correlation. Compounding this, few complete (and well
preserved) cores exist, owing to the limited economic inter-
est in this shallow section. Hence, detailed study of envi-
ronments and paleoclimate of the Midcontinent Permian,
and—by extension—the record of greater western equato-
rial Pangaea—remains severely hampered.
Background and methods
The Rebecca K. Bounds No. 1 (RKB) core was drilled
by Amoco Production Company in 1988, in westernmost
N500 km
Permian red beds Permian red beds
and evaporites
A
B
Permian
Lopingian
Changhsingian
Wuchiapingian
Capitanian
Wordian
Roadian Nippewalla
Sumner
Chase
Council Grove
Big Basin
Day Creek &
Stage Kansas
Lithostratigraphy
Age (Ma)SeriesPeriod
Kungurian
Artinskian
Sakmarian
Asselian
Guadalupian
Cisuralian
295.0
290.1
283.5
272.3
268.8
265.1
259.8
254.1
Whitehorse Fms
Group
Group
Group
Group
(part)
Core locality
252.2
298.9
Fig. 2 a Simplified map showing areal extent of Permian red beds
of the Midcontinent US (modified from Benison and Goldstein 2001;
originally from Walker 1967) and b chronostratigraphy for the RKB
core. Age designations for the Sumner and older groups are from
Sawin et al. (2008) and West et al. (2010; originally Norton 1939),
converted to international timescale designations using the most
recent Permian timescale (Gradstein et al. 2012 for the conversion
of stages; and Shen et al. 2013 for the latest dates). Chronostratig-
raphy for the Sumner Group and above reflect new magnetostrati-
graphic age assignments (Foster et al. 2014) discussed in the text, and
detailed in Figs. 4 and 5
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
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Kansas, USA (Figs. 2, 3). The core was drilled as an experi-
mental project, primarily to test the capabilities of Amoco’s
(then) newly developed “SHADS” (Slim-Hole Advanced
Drilling System) rig (Walker and Millhein 1989), and sec-
ondarily to buttress biostratigraphic work on composite
standards for the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. The SHADS
technology included not only the capability of drilling and
coring rapidly and continuously, but significant on-site core
analysis using a modular, portable facility. The drilling
of the RKB core required 38 days and US$ 591,000, and
resulted in recovery of 1,656 m of continuous core extend-
ing from the Cretaceous nearly through the Mississippian,
with >90 % recovery overall (Dean and Arthur 1998; Dean
et al. 1995; Wahlman pers. commun. 2014). Amoco sub-
sequently analyzed the core primarily for Mississippian-
Pennsylvanian foraminiferal and fusulinid biostratigraphy
(Wahlman and Groves pers. commun. 2014). According
to Amoco internal reports on the RKB core, the young-
est biostratigraphically significant marine fossils from the
Paleozoic interval were latest Pennsylvanian (Gzhelian)
fusulinids (Wahlman pers. commun. 2014). The typically
cyclic upper Pennsylvanian section exhibits a gradual loss
of normal marine deposition, with much of the upper-
most Pennsylvanian composed of dolomitic to anhydritic
restricted-marine facies. Buijs and Goldstein (2012) and
Dubois et al. (2012) conducted petrographic observations
Fig. 3 Location and summa-
rized stratigraphic column for
the Amoco Rebecca K. Bounds
No. 1 core, Greeley County,
Kansas. Red star on inset map
in upper left shows approximate
core location. See Zambito
et al. (2012) for a more detailed
lithological log
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
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and well log analyses on the Carboniferous-Lower Permian
section. Several publications have focused on the Mesozoic
strata of the RKB core (e.g., Arthur 1993; Dean et al. 1995;
Dean and Arthur 1998). As oil prices continued to fall
through the late 1980s and 1990s, the SHADS technology
was ultimately abandoned (Wahlman pers. commun. 2014).
Splits of the core are now housed at the Kansas Geological
Survey core repository in Lawrence, Kansas, as well as the
US Geological Survey in Denver, Colorado.
The Permian section of the core consists predominantly
of fine-grained red beds with varying amounts of intergran-
ular and displacive halite cement, as well as bedded evapo-
rite strata (Fig. 3). Core recovery in this interval (~488 to
~1,034 m subsurface) is 99.1 %, reflecting the effective
use of a drilling fluid engineered for water-sensitive facies
(Zambito et al. 2012; Benison et al. 2013). Despite the
excellent recovery, this interval remained virtually unstud-
ied until very recently (Benison et al. 2013; Zambito et al.
2012; Foster 2013; Kane 2013, Zambito and Benison 2013;
Foster et al. 2014), as the facies are barren of marine fossils
typically used for biostratigraphic zonation in this inter-
val, and the fine-grained red bed and evaporite facies were
ignored for other detailed analyses.
Beginning in 2011, the section of the core from ~1,034
to 488 m (Middle Permian) was measured, logged, and
sampled to establish lithostratigraphy through the tar-
geted intervals (~Lower Permian–Middle Permian; see
Zambito et al. 2012 for detailed stratigraphy). In addition,
description and sampling were conducted at cm-scale res-
olution through several intervals chosen to focus on (1)
fine-grained red beds of selected units and (2) pristine
evaporite strata. For magnetostratigraphic analysis, sam-
ples marked with their stratigraphic “up” direction were
collected at ~75 cm intervals (avoiding apparent bio- or
pedoturbated samples) through the upper 105 m of the
Permian interval and subjected to thermal demagnetiza-
tion. Inclination data were used to track changes in incli-
nation to assess magnetic reversals (see Foster 2013 for
details of the magnetostratigraphic analysis). Two hun-
dred and thirty thin sections were made using vacuum
impregnation of epoxy. Care was taken not to heat sam-
ples or use water during thin section preparation. Thin
sections were examined with transmitted, reflected, polar-
ized, and UV–Vis light at magnification up to 2000x. Hal-
ite was prepared for fluid inclusion analyses by cleaving
to mm-scale chips with a razor blade. Fluid inclusion
heating runs were conducted on a USGS-modified gas-
flow fluid inclusion stage (Benison and Goldstein 1999)
and a Linkam THMSG600 fluid inclusion stage (Zambito
and Benison 2013). Twenty-six additional samples rep-
resentative of facies throughout the study interval were
analyzed by X-ray diffraction for general mineral iden-
tification. Continuous core scans (e.g., XRF) were not
performed as no facilities nor funding were available for
such work.
Data acquisition enabled by coring
Data collected as part of the research on the Permian of
the RKB core include, to date, petrography, sediment geo-
chemistry, detrital zircon geochronology, magnetostratigra-
phy, isotope geochemistry, fluid inclusion microthermom-
etry, and preliminary clay mineralogy (e.g., Benison et al.
2013; Zambito and Benison 2013; Foster 2013; Kane 2013;
Foster et al. 2014). Our goal here is to highlight selected
data collections enabled uniquely by drill core acquisition,
together with their chronologic or paleoclimatic utility, and
data acquisitions key to paleoclimatic reconstructions in
paleo-loess successions that could be done in the future on
this or analogous systems in optimally located sites. From
the RKB core specifically, we highlight results from mag-
netostratigraphy and fluid inclusion microthermometry.
Critically, none of the results could have been put into an
unambiguous stratigraphic succession without the aid of
such a high-recovery, well-preserved drill core.
Magnetostratigraphy
Magnetostratigraphy of the Permian part of the RKB core
reveals a robust reversal stratigraphy (Fig. 4a). The Zijder-
veld diagrams (Fig. 4b) show the presence of two magnetic
components: a low-temperature component (0–250 °C) rep-
resenting a modern viscous remanent magnetization (VRM),
and a higher-temperature (typically ~550–675 °C, or ~450–
550 °C) component. Based on abundant unblocking tem-
peratures above 580 °C, we infer the DRM/CRM (detrital
remanent magnetization, chemical remanent magnetization)
resides in hematite. Analysis of these data reveals a robust
reversal stratigraphy; the presence of this sequence of rever-
sals suggests the magnetization is either a DRM or an early
CRM. That is, in either case, the magnetization had to be
early in order to record the reversal stratigraphy. Addition-
ally, the magnetic inclination data are consistently low (Fos-
ter 2013; Foster et al. 2014), and thus most consistent with
early acquisition of the magnetization. The oldest reversal
occurs near the contact between the Dog Creek Shale and
the Whitehorse Formation at a depth of ~560 m, where the
inclination changes from reversed to normal (Fig. 4). Alto-
gether, three reversed polarity events (from bottom to top;
event 1: avg. inclination = −15.8°, SD = 9.3°; event 2:
avg. inclination = −24.4°, SD = 17.8°; and event 3: avg.
inclination = −7.9°, SD = 9.3°) and two normal polarity
events (event 1: avg. inclination = 16.5°, SD = 8.9°; and
event 2: avg. inclination = 12.3°, SD = 7.6°) occur through
the ~105 m of core leading up to the end Permian, clearly
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
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placing the Whitehorse and Big Basin Formation in post-
Kiaman time (Figs. 4, 5). In addition, an average inclination
of 16.3° throughout the sampled interval is consistent with
inclination values for the middle to late Permian seen in the
variation of inclination with time for the study site (Fig. 6),
providing further support for a post-Kiaman age. Combin-
ing these data with previous work on chronostratigraphy of
the section (Denison et al. 1998; Foster et al. 2014) substan-
tially refines the previously proposed chronostratigraphic
placements for the midcontinent region (Fig. 5). In addition
to revising the timing and duration of deposition, paleo-
magnetic data were used to identify paleolatitude estimates.
Consistently, low inclination values throughout the sampled
interval indicate an average paleolatitude of 6–10°N (Fig. 6;
van der Voo (1993), confirming the lower end of previously
cited ranges.
Evaporite paleothermometry
Cores of Permian red beds and evaporites throughout the
US Midcontinent from a depth window of ~300–2,100 m
are well preserved. In contrast, outcrops and deposits
within ~300 m of the surface have undergone late-stage
dissolution and alteration from recent groundwaters (Beni-
son and Zambito 2013) such that detailed petrography can
only be accomplished well with the aid of drill core. The
recognition of unaltered bedded halite, displacive halite,
and halite cements in red beds (Fig. 7) yields complete and
well-preserved core necessary for assessing high-resolution
depositional and early diagenetic conditions. For example,
the displacive halite lithology (aka “chaotic halite” in some
older literature), composed of red mudstone with randomly
oriented large halite crystals, forms syndepositionally in
groundwater-saturated saline mudflats adjacent to ephem-
eral saline lakes in arid climates (Benison and Goldstein
2001; Benison et al. 2007; Lowenstein and Hardie 1985).
This lithology is the most abundant lithology in the Flow-
erpot Shale in the RKB core (Benison et al. 2013). How-
ever, in outcrop, the displacive halite crystals have been
dissolved during late-stage, near-surface diagenesis by low-
salinity groundwaters. Therefore, this saline mudflat litho-
facies appears as massive mudstone, with only rare halite
hopper crystal casts, molds, and pseudomorphs as evidence
of the original depositional environment.
Primary fluid inclusions in bedded halite and displacive
halite from the RKB core are well-preserved remnants of
Permian surface waters and groundwaters. They can be
tested with microthermometric methods and various geo-
chemical analyses to yield temperatures, water salinities,
and even water pH (Benison 2013). Homogenization of
artificially nucleated vapor bubbles in primary fluid inclu-
sions in chevron halite measure the temperature of Permian
shallow (less than ~0.5 m) saline water at the time that the
halite was growing. Because shallow surface waters have
approximately the same temperature as local air tempera-
ture, these homogenization temperatures can be considered
proxies for ancient air temperatures. Primary fluid inclu-
sions in chevron halite define daily growth bands (Roberts
and Spencer 1995; Benison and Goldstein 1999). Careful
petrography enables high-resolution stratigraphic control of
air temperature proxies at daily scales. This yields diurnal
temperature ranges over days to weeks.
Zambito and Benison (2013) measured homogeniza-
tion temperatures from primary fluid inclusions from 15
beds of chevron halite from the undifferentiated Salt Plan
Formation/Harper Sandstone, the Cedar Hills Sandstone,
and the Blaine Formation in the RKB core. Temperatures
ranged from 7 to 73 °C. The maximum diurnal temperature
range was 32° C. Trends in homogenization temperatures
from base to near the top of the Nippewalla Group showed
Stratigraphy
(RKB core)
Whitehorse Formation
Dog Creek
Shale
Big Basin
Formation
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
Depth (m)
Inclination ( )
o
0-50 50
Polarity
< 267 Ma
N, Up
W
N, Up
E
#1734
#1836
VRM
NRM NRM
VRM
A
B
650 C
o
0 C
o
550 C
o
650 C
o
0 C
o
200 C
o
Fig. 4 a Stratigraphy of middle Permian red bed strata of the RKB
core sampled for magnetostratigraphy, showing resultant magnetic
inclination data, and magnetic polarity data of middle Permian red
beds from western Kansas. Black represents normal polarity and
white represents reversed polarity. b Typical Zijderveld demagnetiza-
tion plots of normal (left) and reversed (right) polarity. Present-field
magnetization, VRM viscous remanent magnetization, NRM natural
remanent magnetization
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warming and then cooling. This is quantitative, high-res-
olution paleoweather and paleoclimate data that strongly
suggests extremely warm temperatures in western Pangea
during the mid Permian.
Discussion: Why core continental red beds
and evaporites?
The problem of time
Midcontinent Permian red beds are predominantly fine-
grained, and poorly lithified, owing to generally shallow
burial (Carter et al. 1998; Hemmerich and Kelley 2000;
Foster et al. 2014). Moreover, the low relief of the region
in combination with the commonly low stratigraphic dips
(~0.5°) has stymied outcrop-based studies of these units.
Widely dispersed outcrops throughout the region expose
only a few meters to a few tens of meters of section, and
tend to be highly weathered and unstable owing to the fri-
able, fractured, fine-grained, and evaporitic character of the
facies (Fig. 8). Moreover, a fundamental obstacle that has
prevented detailed study of the red bed-dominated section
of the RKB core, and indeed outcrop systems throughout
the North American midcontinent, is lack of a reasonable
age model, owing to the paucity of biostratigraphically sig-
nificant fauna. The resulting dearth of temporal resolution
has impeded progress in regional and global correlations,
and thus integration of the vast amounts of data preserved
in these strata.
Magnetostratigraphy, although of limited use for the
Early Permian, provides a potentially powerful dating
PERMIAN
Cisuralian Guadalupian
Kungurian Roadian Wordian Capitanian
System
Series
Stage
Geomagnetic
Polarity Primary
Kiaman Reversed-polarity Superchron
South Central
Kansas
North - Central
Oklahoma
Group Formation
Nippewalla
Sumner
Harper SS.
Salt Plain
Cedar Hills SS.
Flowerpot Sh.
Blaine
Whitehorse
Day Creek Dol.
Big Basin
Hennessey
El Reno Whitehorse
Duncan SS.
Flowerpot
Blaine
Marlow
Rush Springs
SS.
Cloud Chief
Norton (1939) Johnson et al. (1989)
Group Formation
Dog Creek
Dog Creek Sh.
Group Formation
Nippewalla
Harper SS.
Salt Plain
Cedar Hills SS.
Flowerpot Sh.
Blaine
Whitehorse
Day Creek Dol.
Big Basin
Dog Creek
Proposed
Chronostratigraphy
(this study)
Fig. 5 a Chronostratigraphy and (new) magnetostratigraphy of mid-
dle Permian red beds from western Kansas. Black represents normal
polarity and white represents reversed polarity. South Central Kan-
sas column is from Norton (1939; see also West et al. 2010), Swin-
eford (1955), Ham (1960), and Baars (1990). For comparison, we
also show north central Oklahoma stratigraphy (Johnson 1989a, b).
Shaded area represents ~105 m of red beds sampled for palaeomag-
netic data. Note that the Kansas Geological Survey places this inter-
val entirely within the Kiaman Superchron (i.e., >267 Ma). Shaded
bars displays the positions of normal polarity events found in the
RKB core
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and correlation tool for the Middle-Late Permian, as the
first reversal after the Kiaman Superchron occurred in the
Wordian (~267 Ma; Steiner 2006; stratigraphy.org; Fig. 5).
Building a magnetostratigraphic framework, however,
requires acquiring samples that are (1) sufficiently indu-
rated and free of surface weathering to enable effective
sampling and thermal demagnetization and (2) collected
in a long, continuous section with unambiguous superposi-
tion to enable construction of a robust reversal stratigraphy.
This cannot be done in the Midcontinent Permian without
core, owing to the limits of the surface exposures.
Detrital zircons of volcanic origin, however, can be
used to constrain the depositional ages of sedimentary
units that are otherwise poorly dated (e.g., Dickinson and
Gehrels 2009; Soreghan et al. 2008, 2014) driven in part
by advances in geochronologic methodology. For exam-
ple, the ability to screen the U–Pb ages of a large number
of grains through laser-ablation methods, followed by ID-
TIMS (Isotope-Dilution Thermal Ionization Mass Spec-
trometry) analysis of the youngest grains in the sampled
population can provide high-precision ages of grains that
may correspond to the depositional age of the deposit. The
derived age of the grain represents a maximum age of dep-
osition; i.e., the grain must be as old as the sampled hori-
zon, although the sampled horizon could be younger. This
has been done on outcrop studies, but this method can be
used with additional benefit in studies of continuous core as
it allows the determination of maximum age of deposition
at various horizons, eliminating the need to sample forma-
tions from spatially disparate outcrops where relative age
information is not known a priori. The only potential draw-
back to this method is that the volume of sample needed
from the core can be substantial; however, in our work
(Kane 2013), a core split (half of 8.5 cm diameter core) of
~50 cm length of sandstone, siltstone, or mudstone yielded
a sufficient number of zircons, and still enabled preserva-
tion of the archival half, as well as discrete sampling for
auxiliary (e.g., thin section) analyses.
Red is not dead: the paleoclimatic value of red beds—
especially paleo-loess
Lake systems have long been considered an ideal envi-
ronment to tap for paleoclimatic reconstructions, as (per-
manent) lakes archive a continuous or near-continuous
record that enables analysis at high temporal resolution of
multiple metrics of paleoclimate, including proxies recon-
structed from lithology, magnetism, geochemical and iso-
topic signals (e.g., Brigham-Grette et al. 2007; Cohen
2011). In recognition of this, research drilling for conti-
nental paleoclimatic reconstructions has focused in many
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
050100150200250300350400450500
Inclination ( °)
Age (Ma)
Perm
Carb
Dev
Si
Ord Tr Ju Cret P
Fig. 6 Plot of the expected inclination through time for the north-
ern study site. The gray lines represent error. Data from van der Voo
(1993)
Fig. 7 The three main types of halite in the Rebecca K. Bounds core.
a Bedded halite with abundant red mud, (714.4 m; 2,344′; thick sec-
tion, transmitted light), b Displacive halite (773.3 m; 2,537′; thin sec-
tion, transmitted light). c Intergranular halite cement in sandstone
(738.2 m; 2,422.25′; thin section, transmitted light)
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
1 3
cases on coring of modern, long-lived lake systems (e.g.,
Lake Malawi, Lake El’gygytgyn, Lake Titicaca, Lake Peten
Itza) with records extending in some cases to the Pliocene
and even late Miocene (Cohen 2011). The time continuum
of the deposits is particularly useful, but lake sediments
also offer the potential to utilize several different types of
organic carbon-based proxy analyses, such as compound-
specific carbon isotopic ratios, and tetraether-based proxies
(e.g., TEX-86 and isoprenoid glycerol dialkyl tetra ether;
e.g., Tierney 2010).
Red beds occur in both marine and continental set-
tings, but are far more common in the continental record.
The red color primarily reflects (oxidized) hematite con-
tent, meaning little to no organic carbon may remain, and
thus minimal potential for measurement of climate proxies
based on such material. Some studies on red beds associ-
ated their presence with particular paleoclimatic conditions
(review in Dubiel and Smoot 1995; Hu et al. 2014), such
as warm arid settings, but other work has demonstrated
that red beds form in a variety of climatic settings, from
tropical to desert, suggesting caution in paleoclimatic inter-
pretations of a red color (Dubiel and Smoot 1995; Sheldon
2005). Dubiel and Smoot (1995) noted that red bed for-
mation reflects several conditions, including the presence
of (1) small amounts of precursor organic matter (Myrow
1990), (2) abundant labile material such as mafic minerals
and lithic fragments (e.g., Walker 1967, 1976), and (3) oxi-
dizing conditions (Walker 1967; Turner 1980) Although the
red color is not necessarily indicative of paleoclimate, vari-
ous types of sedimentologic, geochemical, magnetic, and
paleontologic criteria support detailed paleoclimatic recon-
struction from red beds (details below).
Particularly critical for paleoclimatic reconstruction is
preservation of a continuous record of surface paleoenvi-
ronments. Although challenging for some types of con-
tinental red beds (e.g., fluvial), paleo-loess systems are
particularly well suited in this regard. The Chinese Loess
Plateau (CLP) is considered an excellent archive of conti-
nental paleoclimate—directly comparable in resolution to
ice-core and deep-marine archives (e.g., Liu 1985; Kukla
and An 1989; Bloemendal et al. 1995; Liu et al. 1999;
Ding et al. 2002). In many settings, loess accumulates very
quickly, producing high temporal resolution (e.g., 1 m/ky
in Rhine Valley) (Hatte et al. 2001; Lang et al. 2003) that
rivals or exceeds any other continental depositional system,
and responds directly to atmospheric conditions.
Study of loess as a high-resolution paleoclimate archive
has long been conducted for the Quaternary record, but
loess remains an under-utilized archive for Earth’s deep-
time record, despite increasing recognition of deep-time
loess deposits (e.g., Johnson 1989a, b; Soreghan 1992;
Evans and Reed 2007; Soreghan et al. 2008). The Late Car-
boniferous-Permian record appears to be particularly rich
in occurrence and preservation of thick and widespread
loess deposits (Soreghan et al. 2008), and many of the fine-
grained red beds of this age in the North America midcon-
tinent and elsewhere have been recently reinterpreted as
paleo-loess deposits (e.g., Sweet et al. 2013; Dubois et al.
Fig. 8 Photographs of the studied Permian section in surface expo-
sures, illustrating the character of outcrop. a Permian Dog Creek
Shale exposed in central Oklahoma. b Permian Flowerpot Shale
exposed in central Oklahoma. c Permian Flowerpot Shale exhibiting
outcrop dissolution of evaporites
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
1 3
2012; Giles et al. 2013), including units of the RKB core
(Foster 2013; Foster et al. 2014). In addition to loess (and
associated paleosol) deposits, these facies include lake
deposits as well—but shallow and ephemeral saline lakes,
rather than deep, oxygen-poor systems.
Recognition of the widespread occurrence of loess and
(saline) lake deposits over a broad region of the midconti-
nent promises the potential of very high-resolution climatic
reconstruction, given the possibility of continuous sampling
enabled by coring. Loess and associated deposits (e.g.,
paleosols, saline lake deposits) house enormous poten-
tial for paleoclimatic reconstruction. Analogizing again to
the CLP, various attributes of loess (e.g., grain size, mag-
netic susceptibility, and geochemistry) have been mined to
reconstruct climatic parameters that include atmospheric
circulation (wind velocity and direction), seasonality, and
precipitation (e.g., Zhou et al. 1990; An et al. 1991; Bloe-
mendal et al. 1995; Liu et al. 1995; Ding et al. 2002; Sun
2002; Balsam et al. 2004; Vandenberghe et al. 2004; Hao
and Guo 2005; Chen et al. 2006), at resolutions extending
to millennial. Many of these same metrics are preservable
and measurable in deep-time loess deposits and have ena-
bled climate reconstructions ranging to sub-precessional
scales (Soreghan et al. 2014).
As an example, the Maroon Formation, a Permian
loessite-paleosol succession in central Colorado is well
exposed along road cuts and has been extensively sam-
pled (Johnson 1989a, b; Soreghan et al. 1997; Tramp et al.
2004; Soreghan et al. 2014). Tramp et al. (2004) noted that
the alternating loessite-paleosol couplets exhibit similari-
ties to the CLP both in lithologic character and in appar-
ent temporal patterns of magnetic susceptibility. Sub-meter
sampling of the 700 m section showed that magnetic sus-
ceptibility values are higher in deeply red-colored, finer-
grained beds, whereas values are lower in orange, silty
units. These changes are interpreted to reflect alternat-
ing wet-dry phases linked to climate swings within the
late Paleozoic icehouse. To further explore these patterns,
Soreghan et al. (2014) sampled a 12 m interval of this same
section of the Maroon Formation on a 10-cm scale for geo-
chemical, grain size, and magnetic susceptibility trends.
They documented a robust negative correlation (r2 = 0.9)
between grain size (inferred from image analysis of quartz
grains; Soreghan and Francus 2004), and magnetic sus-
ceptibility values (Fig. 9). The variations in quartz grain
size are interpreted to record changes in wind intensity
(and/or source proximity) with finer, more iron-rich sedi-
ment deposited during times of reduced winds (or from
further distances) and coarser, more quartzose (less iron-
rich) sediment deposited during times of stronger, seasonal
winds (Soreghan et al. 2014). The finer-grained beds show
evidence of pedogenesis and are interpreted to represent
wetter conditions that grade downward into the coarser,
orange units inferred to be loessite deposited during more
arid times. However, the nature of the transitions and the
internal stacking of these loessite-paleosol couplets suggest
that they represent high-frequency fluctuations in wind pat-
terns and wind intensity. The thicker loessite units, capped
by thicker, well-developed paleosols show an abrupt fining
in grain size with the coarsest sediment at the transition;
thinner loessite-paleosol couplets show a more gradual fin-
ing and less variation overall. These alternations, and their
nested variability, typical of the entire exposed 700 m of
the Maroon Formation may reflect sub-Milankovitch vari-
ability. However, attempting to create a continuous record
using surface exposures is untenable at the resolution nec-
essary to delineate this variability. A continuous core, bol-
stered by further refinement of the grain size to magnetic
susceptibility correlation, would facilitate reconstruction
of a very high-resolution record of wind regimes and thus
atmospheric circulation from deep time.
Furthermore, continuous acquisition of metrics such as
magnetic susceptibility, XRF-based geochemistry, spectral
reflectance, and other data readily acquired from core using
rapid core scanning and/or high-resolution point sampling
are ideal for quantitative assessments of cyclostratigraphy,
which further improves age models and potentially enables
resolution of climatic evolution down to the 10 ky scale
(e.g., Olsen et al. 1996; Sur et al. 2010).
Paleoclimatic information can also be determined from
rocks lacking typical easily interpretable sedimentological
features based on changes in clay mineralogy. Such pale-
oclimatic interpretations from clay mineralogical signa-
tures must first be assessed for influence of non-climatic
influences such as extreme water chemistry, as well as
changes in source area, tectonic forcing, and sedimentolog-
ical sorting processes on detrital clays, and diagenetic pro-
cesses. The climatic signal can potentially be interpreted
from very subtle changes in the ratios of clays represent-
ing physical weathering (illite/chlorite), seasonal chemical
weathering (smectite), and persistent wet conditions (kao-
linite) (Arostegi et al. 2011). Clay mineralogy from drill
core ensures that surface weathering has not degraded the
signal.
Climate and weather revealed in evaporites
Well-preserved ancient evaporites, accessible only in cores,
provide paleoclimate data in two distinct ways. Petro-
graphic documentation of halite and gypsum crystal types
and sedimentary features lead to informed interpretations
of depositional environments. Because most evaporite
depositional environments are sensitive to climate, pet-
rographic observations provide qualitative information
about paleoclimate, such as relative aridity (i.e., Benison
et al. 2007; Lowenstein and Hardie 1985). Secondly, fluid
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
1 3
inclusion data from bedded halite yield high-resolution,
quantitative records of paleoclimate. Homogenization of
artificially nucleated primary fluid inclusions are prox-
ies for past air temperatures (Roberts and Spencer 1995).
Homogenization temperatures measured from base to
top of individual growth bands in chevron halite allows
for interpretation of minimum daily temperature ranges,
whereas homogenization temperatures from successive
chevron growth bands suggest diurnal temperature ranges
(Benison and Goldstein 1999). Longer-scale trends in air
temperatures can be resolved by comparison of homog-
enization temperatures among individual beds of hal-
ite. In addition, chemical compositions of primary fluid
inclusions in ancient halite can document past surface
Fig. 9 a Detailed measured
section of a 12 m interval of
the Permian Maroon Forma-
tion near Basalt, Colorado
(see Soreghan et al. 2014
for location). Bulk magnetic
susceptibility values consist-
ently increase at the deeper red
(rb= “red-brown”) horizons
bearing lithologic indicators
of pedogenesis (blocky peds,
root traces) and decrease within
the orange-colored (org=
“orange”) non-pedogenically
altered loessite horizons. b
Apparent grain area based on
image analysis of ~800 quartz
grains per sample normalized
to their stratigraphic position
relative to inferred paleosol tops
within four loessite-paleosol
couplets targeted within the
measured section. The samples
from the thickest couplets
exhibit a marked increase in
apparent grain size just below
the paleosol top, then fine
abruptly at the paleosol horizon
(dashed line with arrow),
whereas samples from thinner
couplets exhibit a more gradual
decrease from loessite to
paleosol (solid line with arrow).
These appear to reflect changes
in the variability of monsoon
circulation on sub-Milankovitch
scales (see Soreghan et al.
2014). Modified from Soreghan,
et al. 2014
0400 800 1200 1600
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
Mean apparent grain
area (sq. microm.)
normalized stratigraphic position
top of paleosol
org
rb
dk
rb
dk
rb
rb
dk
rb
rb
dk
rb
rb
dk
rb
org
rb
dk
rb
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
rb
org
rb
dk
rb
Color
Thickness (m)
org
dk
rb
org
org
org
org
rb
org
thin couplets thin couplets
thick couplet thick couplets
root traces
blocky peds
key to symbols
discontinuous
laminations
024681012
Magnetic
Susceptibility
+-8 m3/kg)
BA
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)
1 3
and groundwater chemistry. This chemical data can pro-
vide information about weathering processes that may
be dependent upon climate. Furthermore, sampling from
continuous core confers unambiguous superposition, such
that these valuable paleoclimatic data can be placed into a
proper temporal context.
Caveats and future opportunities
The mere existence of a core like the RKB offers abun-
dant opportunities, but much more could be done given
core scanning. Amoco acquired standard oil industry
(well-bore) logging during drilling, but no additional scans
were ever conducted on the core. For the purposes of high-
resolution environmental reconstruction, multi-sensing
core logging techniques (MST) offers a relatively low-
cost means to rapidly and nondestructively characterize
core samples. Such data include neutral gamma radiation,
gamma density, P-wave velocity, magnetic susceptibil-
ity, electrical resistivity, and imaging. Data acquired from
MST can significantly improve the ability to characterize
changes in lithology that can then direct more detailed and
time-consuming analyses to follow. Density and P-wave
velocity measurements can be used to generate a syn-
thetic seismogram to enable correlation of the core to seis-
mic records. MST also enable continuous digital imaging
(color spectrophotometry) of the core for archival as well
as image analyses.
Finally, although access to core provides unrivaled
opportunities to sample fresh material in unambiguous
superposition, the one-dimensionality of a core is clearly
limiting relative to the multi-dimensionality of expansive
outcrops. Where permitted by the geologic setting, there-
fore, a coring program that combines drilling with outcrop
studies remains the ideal approach. This is particularly
true for characterizing linked environmental and paleobio-
logical change, where outcrop studies may provide more
access to fossil material, and core provides the context
of continual environmental change. The challenge then
remains to correlate these records at high resolution, using
geochronological and magnetostratigraphic approaches.
An excellent example is the current attempt to catalog
the possible environmental drivers to human evolution in
East Africa, where the fossil and artifact record has long
been pursued in isolated outcrops. Tying this record to
an archive of continuous environmental change is now
occurring through a large-scale coring program (Cohen
et al. 2009). Several of the drilling sites for this project
were chosen in direct proximity to well-studied outcrops
to facilitate direct correlation of the (outcrop-based) fossil
and artifact record to the (core-based) paleoenvironmental
record.
Conclusions
The RKB core, drilled with the primary intent of testing a
drilling methodology, serendipitously aided preliminary
chronostratigraphic, and paleoclimatic refinements for the
Permian of the North American Midcontinent. The studied
units consist entirely of red bed and evaporitic strata, com-
monly dismissed as being of little utility for chronostrati-
graphic and paleoclimatic work. Yet fine-grained red beds
are ideal for magnetostratigraphic analysis and house the
potential to yield a wealth of high-resolution data for pale-
oclimatic reconstructions, especially if these strata record
paleo-loess deposition. Furthermore, contained evaporite
strata, pristine in core, can provide quantitative paleocli-
matic and even paleo-weather data. Such paleo-loess and
evaporite deposits characterize much of the Permian record
in many regions globally as well as many regions plagued
by low relief and poor outcrop exposure. In these succes-
sions, drill core is essential for (1) accessing a continuous
vertical section that establishes unambiguous superposi-
tion key to both magnetostratigraphic and paleoclimatic
analyses and (2) providing pristine sample material from
friable, soluble, and/or lithofacies and mineralogical spe-
cies otherwise poorly preserved in surface exposures. Our
work on the RKB core illustrates a fraction of the potential
that coring in such units can offer. The ability to drill in key
regions representing the most continuous sections and con-
duct continuous core scanning and auxiliary types of proxy
analyses would shed abundant light on a critical icehouse–
greenhouse transition in Earth history.
Acknowledgments We owe deep thanks to G. Kullman (Oklahoma
Geological Survey core repository) for originally suggesting the RKB
core for our study, and J. Groves, R. Scott, and especially G. Wahl-
man (all formerly of Amoco Production Company) for sharing find-
ings and history from the RKB core. We thank R. Buchanan, D. Laf-
len, and L. Watney (Kansas Geological Survey) for providing access
to and sampling of the RKB core. Funding for this research was pro-
vided by grants from the National Science Foundation (EAR-1053018
to MJS and GSS, and EAR-1053025 to KCB). We thank reviewer C.
Heil, an anonymous reviewer, and editor C. Dullo for constructive
comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.
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