An introduction to the bofedales of the Peruvian High Andes

Abstract

In Peru, the term “bofedales” is used to describe areas of wetland vegetation that may have underlying peat
layers. These areas are a key resource for traditional land management at high altitude. Because they retain
water in the upper basins of the cordillera, they are important sources of water and forage for domesticated
livestock as well as biodiversity hotspots. This article is based on more than six years’ work on bofedales in
several regions of Peru. The concept of bofedal is introduced, the typical plant communities are identified
and the associated wild mammals, birds and amphibians are described. Also, the most recent studies of peat and carbon storage in bofedales are reviewed. Traditional land use since prehispanic times has involved the management of water and livestock, both of which are essential for maintenance of these ecosystems. The status of bofedales in Peruvian legislation and their representation in natural protected areas and Ramsar sites is outlined. Finally, the main threats to their conservation (overgrazing, peat extraction, mining and development of infrastructure) are identified.

Full text

Mires and Peat, Volume 15 (2014/15), Article 05, 1–13. http://www.mires-and-peat.net/, ISSN 1819-754X
© 2014 International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society 1
An introduction to the bofedales of the Peruvian High Andes
M.S. Maldonado Fonkén
International Mire Conservation Group, Lima, Peru
_______________________________________________________________________________________
SUMMARY
In Peru, the term “bofedales” is used to describe areas of wetland vegetation that may have underlying peat
layers. These areas are a key resource for traditional land management at high altitude. Because they retain
water in the upper basins of the cordillera, they are important sources of water and forage for domesticated
livestock as well as biodiversity hotspots. This article is based on more than six years’ work on bofedales in
several regions of Peru. The concept of bofedal is introduced, the typical plant communities are identified
and the associated wild mammals, birds and amphibians are described. Also, the most recent studies of peat
and carbon storage in bofedales are reviewed. Traditional land use since prehispanic times has involved the
management of water and livestock, both of which are essential for maintenance of these ecosystems. The
status of bofedales in Peruvian legislation and their representation in natural protected areas and Ramsar sites
is outlined. Finally, the main threats to their conservation (overgrazing, peat extraction, mining and
development of infrastructure) are identified.
KEY WORDS: cushion bog, high-altitude peat; land management; Peru; tropical peatland; wetland
_______________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
The Tropical Andes Cordillera has a complex
geography and varied climatic conditions, which
support an enormous heterogeneity of ecosystems
and high biodiversity (Sagástegui et al. 1999, Josse
et al. 2009). In Peru, moisture is one of the main
features that differentiate the Andean biomes
páramo, jalca and puna. The páramo has the highest
humidity and is located towards the north, close to
Ecuador, above 3000 m a.s.l. The jalca, from
3100 m a.s.l. in the north-east, is the transition
between páramo and puna. Of the three biomes, the
puna occupies the largest area within the country, at
altitudes between 3200 and 6000 m a.s.l. It has
lower annual precipitation than the páramo and the
jalca and, therefore, greater differentiation between
dry and wet seasons. This is more pronounced in the
south, where we can find the xerophytic puna,
which is much drier than the wet puna in the rest of
the country (Josse et al. 2009, Maldonado Fonkén &
Maldonado 2010, Anderson et al. 2011).
Bofedal (plural “bofedales”) is the local name
that is used to describe various types of wetland
plant communities in the Peruvian Andes. One of
the main characteristics of bofedales is constant
edaphic humidity throughout the year. They usually
develop in flat areas around small ponds and along
small streams and springs. Bofedales can be
seasonal or permanent, as well as natural or artificial
(made by man). Other features are the presence of
organic soil or peat and a year-round green
appearance which contrasts with the yellow of the
drier land that surrounds them. This contrast is
especially striking in the xerophytic puna. Bofedales
are also called “oconales” in several parts of the
Peruvian highlands; a name derived from the word
“ocko” (meaning “wet”) in the Quechua language.
Cerrate (1979) reports this type of wetland from
3100 m a.s.l., although most authors consider that it
occurs only above 3800 m a.s.l. (Rivas-Martínez &
Tovar 1982, Flórez Martínez 1992, Maldonado
Fonkén 2010). The 1999 Ramsar Convention
classification of wetland types categorises bofedales
as peatlands without forest (Blanco & de la Balze
2004).
The extent of bofedales in Peru is now estimated
at 549,360 hectares (about 0.4 % of the country)
(MINAM 2012), but previous references (e.g.
INRENA 2002) report only 91,700 ha of bofedales.
In view of the threats that can affect bofedales,
periodic updating of their extent is recommended.
According to Lumbreras (2006), proximity to
bofedales was one of the factors that determined the
location of villages and hamlets in the puna during
the settlement process over 5,000 years ago. Most
Andean habitats in Peru have been strongly
influenced by human activities. In some cases they
have become "cultural landscapes", i.e., ecosystems
that are maintained by the ceaseless activity of man
and whose biota consists of strong, adaptable
species. Consequently, sensitive and specialised

M.S. Maldonado Fonkén BOFEDALES OF THE PERUVIAN HIGH ANDES
Mires and Peat, Volume 15 (2014/15), Article 05, 1–13. http://www.mires-and-peat.net/, ISSN 1819-754X
© 2014 International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society 2
species are now restricted to the remaining
fragments of undisturbed natural landscape. In this
context, bofedales have become biodiversity
hotspots and an important resource for people.
This article arises from more than six years’
work on Peruvian bofedales in Cajamarca, Cuzco,
Ayacucho, Huancavelica, Apurimac and Moquegua
regions (Figure 1, Table 1). It gives a comprehensive
review of available information on biological (flora
and fauna), physical (water, peat, carbon) and
sociocultural (importance to people, traditional
management) aspects, describes the legislative
provision for their conservation, and identifies the
main threats to these ecosystems.
Figure 1. Map of Peru showing administrative regions. The regions mentioned in this article are identified by
red spots ( ).

M.S. Maldonado Fonkén BOFEDALES OF THE PERUVIAN HIGH ANDES
Mires and Peat, Volume 15 (2014/15), Article 05, 1–13. http://www.mires-and-peat.net/, ISSN 1819-754X
© 2014 International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society 3
Table 1. Background information about the locations and characteristics of the bofedales that were studied during this work.
Region Province District
Number of
study sites Altitude range
(m a.s.l.) Main plant communities recorded Livestock Peat
extraction
Apurimac Cotabambas Coyllurqui 1 4027–4081 Distichia peatland; stream grassland cattle, horses, sheep no
Tambobamba 1 4104–4366 Distichia peatland; stream grassland horses, llamas, sheep no
Ayacucho
Cangallo Paras 1 4460–4473 Distichia peatland alpacas, horses,
llamas, sheep no
Huamanga
Chiara 1 4071–4113 stream grassland sheep no
Vinchos 4 4305–4709 Distichia peatland;
peatland of Distichia and Plantago rigida alpacas, horses,
llamas, sheep yes1
La Mar Anco 1 3910–3913 stream grassland cattle, sheep no
Cajamarca Cajamarca La Encañada 4 3719–3890 peatland with mosses and shrubs;
stream grassland, peaty meadow cattle, horses, sheep no
Celendin Sucre 1 3790
–
3799 peatland with mosses and shrubs cattle, horses, sheep no
Cuzco
Chumbivilcas
Chamaca 2 4566–4678 Distichia peatland; stream grassland cattle, horses, sheep no
Velille 1 4308–4319 Distichia peatland; stream grassland alpacas, cattle, horses,
llamas, sheep no
Espinar Espinar 12 4054–4713 Distichia peatland,
stream grassland; peaty meadow alpacas, cattle,
llamas, sheep no
Huancavelica Huaytará Pilpichaca 3 4090–4770 Distichia peatland,
stream grassland; peaty meadow alpacas, cattle2, horses,
llamas, sheep no
Moquegua Mariscal
Nieto Carumas 6 4329–4424 Distichia peatland; stream grassland alpacas, cattle,
llamas, sheep no
1at only one site; 2in a lower altitudinal range, between 4200 and 4300 m a.s.l.

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© 2014 International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society 4
FLORA AND VEGETATION
The botanical composition and diversity of
bofedales exhibits considerable variation with
location, altitude, topography, moisture, exposure,
latitude, livestock influence, etc., and most
bofedales are complexes of different plant
communities (Ruthsatz 2012). Weberbauer (1945)
describes four hydrophytic plant communities that
can be associated with wetland systems that
Peruvians typically call bofedales in different parts
of the country (Figure 2), namely: Distichia
peatland, peatland with mosses and shrubs, peaty
meadow, and stream grassland.
Distichia peatland (turberas de Distichia)
This plant community of the puna is characterised
by the hard cushions typically formed by species of
the genus Distichia (Figures 2a, 3a), the absence of
shrubs, a low frequency of mosses and grasses and,
usually, the absence of Sphagnum. It occurs mainly
in central and southern Peru (Weberbauer 1945).
Most local authors (Tovar 1973, Canales & Tapia
1987, Flórez Martínez 1992, Salvador 2002,
Salvador & Cano 2002, Flores et al. 2005, Flórez
Martínez 2005) identify this community as bofedal,
particularly in the altitude range 4000–4200 m a.s.l.
(Maldonado Fonkén & Maldonado 2010). Distichia
is similarly prominent in the highest cushion bogs of
the páramo in Ecuador and Colombia; the term
‘bofedales’ is not used in Colombia.
In Peru, the dominant species is usually Distichia
muscoides Nees & Meyen (Juncaceae, Figure 3a)
(common throughout Peru) or Distichia acicularis
Balslev & Lægaard (most usually recorded in the
north of the country). It is worth mentioning that,
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2. (a) Distichia peatland in Huancavelica (4756 m a.s.l.), April 2012; (b) peatland with mosses and
shrubs in Cajamarca; (c) peaty meadow in Cuzco (4000 m a.s.l.), January 2010; (d) stream grassland in Cuzco,
(4200 m a.s.l.), Januar
y
2010.

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(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Distichia muscoides Nees & Meyen and (b) Plantago tubulosa Decne.
according to Ramirez (2011), it is possible to find a
third species, namely Distichia filamentosa
Buchenau, in Peruvian bofedales (Ancash).
D. filamentosa has been recorded in Bolivian and
Chilean bofedales (Ruthsatz 2012), which means it
is very likely also to be present in southern Peru.
Field experience confirms that mosses are
present in much smaller quantities than Distichia
species, and that the other accompanying plants are
usually common to more than one of the
communities that are referred to as bofedales.
Distichia muscoides is a desirable food species for
alpacas, sheep and llamas (Maldonado Fonkén
2010), and is also highly palatable to horses.
Therefore, Distichia peatland is often subject to
heavy grazing pressure.
Peatland with mosses and shrubs (turberas con
musgos y arbustos)
This type of bofedal is characterised by an
abundance of mosses, especially Sphagnum species,
and scattered ericaceous shrubs. It is uncommon in
Peru, occurring in the east and north of the country
(Weberbauer 1945) associated with areas of páramo
and jalca. It is very similar to plant communities that
can be found in Ecuador and Colombia and
resembles the páramo Sphagnum bogs described by,
for example, Cleef (1981), Cuello & Cleef (2009)
and Cooper et al. (2010).
The typical shrubs of this plant community
include Vaccinium floribundum Kunth (Ericaceae)
and Loricaria ferruginea (Ruiz & Pav.) Wedd.
(Asteraceae). Some species of the genus Puya
(Bromeliaceae) can also be found. Although grazing
pressure depends upon the site-specific composition
of vegetation, these bofedales are generally
dangerous for livestock because the ground is so
soft that animals can easily sink into it.
Peaty meadow (prados turbosos)
Peaty meadow communities are characterised by the
presence of many species of the Poaceae family and
the absence of Sphagnum. They occur in inter-
Andean landscapes and on western Andean slopes
throughout Peru (Weberbauer 1945). The dominant
vascular plants are typically Cyperaceae (Carex,
Eleocharis, Phylloscirpus and Scirpus species),
Juncaceae (Juncus and Luzula species) or tall
grasses, usually Festuca and Calamagrostis species.
In the latter case, this plant community may be
referred to as flooded grassland. The abundance of
Cyperaceae and Juncaceae usually offers good
grazing, although fodder quality varies with the
specific vegetation composition at each site.
Stream grassland (césped de arroyo)
Stream grassland is characterised by the presence of
very low-growing plants that form a carpet. It is
usually located on riverbanks (Weberbauer 1945)
and around other sources of water, or in areas with
high humidity. Like peaty meadow, stream grassland
has no Sphagnum and occurs in inter-Andean
landscapes and on western Andean slopes
throughout the country (Weberbauer 1945).
Plantago tubulosa Decne. (Figure 3b) and We r ne ri a
pygmaea Gillies ex Hook. & Arn. are characteristic,
along with several other species of Asteraceae,
Cyperaceae and Juncaceae. Plantago tubulosa is an
undesirable species for alpacas, llamas and sheep
(Maldonado Fonkén 2010), so when P. tubulosa is
dominant the grazing value of this plant community
is lower than that of other bofedal types.

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It is important to note that the plant communities
quite usually occur in association with one another.
For example, areas covered by the peatland
communities are often surrounded by stream
grassland or peaty meadow. This could be due to a
combination of factors such as variations in water
availability, succession and/or livestock pressure.
Other plant communities do occur in areas that
are considered to be bofedales, but are much less
common than those listed by Weberbauer (1945),
whose classification is still the most useful at
national level. For example, Tovar (1973) and Smith
(1988) describe bofedales of Distichia muscoides
and Plantago rigida Kunth, where the latter species
also forms cushions. Although rare, peatlands of this
type, including some dominated by P. ri gida alone,
have been found in different parts of Ancash and
Ayacucho regions (Maldonado Fonkén &
Maldonado 2010, Maldonado Fonkén 2010). In
other bofedal plant communities that occur in
southern Peru (Moquegua), Oxychloe andina Phil.
(Juncaceae) is the dominant species.
FAUNA
Bofedales are an important resource for wild
animals, providing them with water, food, shelter
and nesting sites (Maldonado Fonkén & Maldonado
2010). In these habitats, “vicuña” Vicugna vicugna
and “guanaco” Lama guanicoe (wild camelids) can
be observed feeding or drinking water. The same is
true for white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus
and Andean deer Hippocamelus antisensis, the latter
being the only deer species whose range extends to
the snowline. Rodents such as "vizcacha" Lagidium
peruanum (Figure 4a) and mice (Akodon boliviensis,
Auliscomys pictus, Calomys lepidus, Necromys
amoenus, Phyllotis osilae, Phyllotis xanthopygus,
etc.) also feed in these habitats. Attracted by the
presence of herbivores, as well as by the water,
carnivores including the puma Puma concolor,
Andean fox Lycalopex culpaeus and pampas cat
Leopardus colocolo may also visit bofedales.
According to Tellería et al. (2006), bofedales
operate as local “hotspots” for birds by maintaining
species that are primarily associated with a variety
of other habitats such as rivers and lakes (e.g. ducks
including Anas flavirostris and Anas specularoides;
Figure 4b), wet meadows (Andean Lapwing
Vanellus resplendens, Andean Goose Chloephaga
melanoptera (Figure 4c), Buff-winged Cinclodes
Cinclodes fuscus, Andean Negrito Lessonia oreas,
etc.) and bunchgrass (Golden-spotted Ground Dove
Metriopelia aymara, Grey-breasted Seedsnipe
Thinocorus orbignyianus, etc.). The richness of the
bird fauna is positively correlated with both bofedal
size and proximity to permanent open water bodies.
Maldonado Fonkén & Maldonado (2010) list several
other birds recorded on bofedales in Ancash region.
A characteristic bird of the southern Peruvian Andes
is the “suri” Rhea pennata, which has been observed
on xerophytic puna in Moquegua region.
Bofedales are also important for animals that live
in wet meadows and ponds, such as amphibians
(Tellería et al. 2006). These include the toad
Rhinella spinulosa (Figure 4c) and the frogs
Gastrotheca marsupiata, Pleurodema marmorata
and Telmatobius jelskii. The first three of these
species breed in slow-flowing streams (Angulo et al.
2004, 2010; Cortez et al. 2010).
WATER, PEAT AND CARBON STORAGE
Bofedales occupy areas that receive water from
melting glaciers, rivers, lakes and underground
aquifers (groundwater) in addition to precipitation,
and store it in the upper basins of the cordillera.
Runoff from bofedales is slow and, in many cases,
water is filtered through the ground before resuming
channelled flow at a lower level. In this way,
bofedal ecosystems regulate the downhill flux of
water and ensure the stability of the soil. Although
they may not replace the water storage function of
glaciers, bofedales also store considerable quantities
of water, which is important in the context of
climate change (Maldonado Fonkén 2010).
In any study of a wetland for conservation or
management purposes, it is very important to
determine the origin of the water supply and
whether there are hydrological connections with
other wetlands or water bodies. The associations of
bofedales with water bodies are variable. Some are
linked to watercourses such as rivers, creeks,
streams, lakes or ponds; and others to “ojos de
agua” (small ponds usually fed by groundwater). In
the case of seasonal bofedales, the water is usually
visible only during the wet season.
As mentioned above, the presence of peat or
organic soil should be a characteristic feature of
bofedales. However, there have been few studies of
the depth or characteristics of peat in Peruvian
bofedales. Cooper et al. (2010) studied four plant
community types (cushion plants, wet grasslands,
bryophytes and lichens, rushes and sedges) in
Cajamarca (northern Peru). The first of these
(cushion plant communities comprising Distichia
spp., Plantago tubulosa and/or Oreobolus
obtusangulus Gaudich) had the highest organic
b

M.S. Maldonado Fonkén BOFEDALES OF THE PERUVIAN HIGH ANDES
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© 2014 International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society 7
carbon content (30–40 %) and the thickest (> 7 m)
peat layer. In Arequipa and Junín, Salvador et al.
(2014) investigated sites with at least 30 cm of peat
(organic matter content > 30 %). The highest organic
matter content was recorded in peatlands of
Oxychloe (78 %), followed by those of Distichia (69
± 14 %), Plantago tubulosa (63 %) and a mixture of
Distichia and Plantago tubulosa (56 ± 26 %).
Further studies are needed to clarify how the plant
communities of bofedales are related to peat depth
and organic carbon content.
In Puno (southern Peru), Segnini et al (2010)
found that the carbon content of the uppermost
30 cm of soil ranged from 121.7 to 215.6 g C kg-1
across the sample of bofedales sites evaluated. The
highest carbon content of all was found in the
surface (0–2.5 cm) layer of soil from permanent
bofedales, which contained 64 % more carbon than
surface soil from seasonal bofedales, indicating
greater accumulation of organic matter in the wetter
soil systems. In contrast, the total amount of carbon
stored in the 30 cm soil layer was greater in seasonal
wetlands (301.7 t C ha-1) than in permanent
wetlands (228.9 t C ha-1).
TRADITIONAL GRAZING MANAGEMENT
Because the environmental conditions above
3800 m a.s.l. usually make agriculture difficult or
infeasible, the husbandry of grazing animals is a
principal economic activity of people living at this
altitude (Maldonado Fonkén 2010). Bofedales are
important sources of food and water for the
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4: Some of the wild fauna of Peruvian bofedales: (a) "vizcacha" Lagidium peruanum on Distichia
peatland (Moquegua region 2013); (b) ducks on Distichia peatland (Moquegua region 2011); (c) “huallatas”
(Andean Goose Chloephaga melanoptera) on peaty meadow (Cusco region 2012); and (d) the toad Rhinella
spinulosa on peaty meadow (Ayacucho region 2012).

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livestock (Figure 5), especially in drier areas (e.g.
xerophytic puna) with strong seasonality; and they
are key elements of livestock management systems.
The traditional practice of breeding camelids
(alpacas and llamas) originated in prehispanic times,
along with the development of techniques for
utilising bofedales to improve the success of animal
husbandry. One of these was the irrigation of
pastures, which has been recorded from prehispanic
times in Canchis (Cuzco) and Puno. Some authors
believe that this activity actually created many
bofedales in the central and southern puna of Peru.
There are several irrigation techniques, according to
characteristics of each site such as water availability
and plant species. However, the general aim is
always to provide seasonally constant access to
water, considering the alternation of dry and wet
seasons as well as interruptions to the supply during
freezing. The water may be derived from a variety
of sources (rainfall, rivers, springs etc.) by making
channels and wells (Palacios 1977, Canales & Tapia
1987, Moya et al. 1994, Tapia 1997, Maldonado
Fonkén 2010).
In Ancash, there is evidence that raising camelids
in the puna was a primary motivation for the
construction of irrigation systems and catchment
management in Nepeña valley (Herrera & Lane
2004). Lane (2006) describes the creation of a
prehispanic bofedal of 53,125 m2 in the Cordillera
Negra (Pamparomas district, province of Huaylas).
Isolated structures associated with prehispanic
bofedales have also been found at the archaeological
site "Pampa de Chonta Alta" of the Lacabamba
community (district of the same name, province of
Pallasca) (Lovera et al. 2007).
When the Spaniards arrived, cattle and
(especially) sheep were integrated with local grazing
animals in the Andean highlands. Nowadays,
farmers still regard bofedales as core elements of the
irrigation systems that are required to secure a good
supply of food for breeding alpacas. The subsoil
moisture translates into higher-quality forage,
healthier animals and, ultimately, increased
production of meat and fibre by both alpacas and
sheep (Flórez Martínez 1992, 2005; Maldonado
Fonkén 2010). Verzijl & Guerrero (2013) describe
methods for bofedal water management that are
currently employed by the highland community of
Ccarhuanco (Huancavelica) in central Peru. These
include the construction of different types of
channels to supply water to the bofedal and an
irrigation control system. Another technique
identified, although not widely practiced, is the
fertilising of bofedales with cattle manure
transported using rainwater.
Bofedales must be managed as special sites of
food and water supply because they are an important
resource for local livestock (alpacas, llamas, sheep
and eventually cattle and horses) in the dry season
when forage is scarce elsewhere. Therefore, the type
and number of livestock as well as grazing times
must be carefully controlled so as not to harm the
ecosystem, and taking into account the needs (food,
water, refuge, nesting sites, etc.) of wild fauna.
Range management involves techniques such as
fencing to protect the bofedales and rotational
grazing to conserve them (Moya et al. 1994, Pinedo
2000, Maldonado Fonkén 2010).
Andean communities collectively own their
grazing areas on natural grassland (including
(a) (b)
Figure 5. The traditional (camelid) grazing animals of the Peruvian High Andes: (a) alpacas and (b) llamas.

M.S. Maldonado Fonkén BOFEDALES OF THE PERUVIAN HIGH ANDES
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bofedales), but livestock is owned by individual
families (Flórez Martínez 1992). According to many
authors, this situation can limit or favour the
prospect of overgrazing (Pinedo 2000).
Local knowledge about the management of
bofedales is not always used by highland
communities in Peru, perhaps because it has been
lost or because resources such as income or land for
grazing are limited; or due to change in sources of
livelihood for individual farms or farmers, local
disputes over the use of communal areas, etc.
Sometimes water management is carried out but
grazing control is not. For successful bofedal
management, both must be in place.
LEGISLATIVE PROTECTION
Bofedales are identified as "fragile ecosystems" for
the purposes of the Peruvian General Environmental
Law (Law No. 28611, Article 99) (Maldonado
Fonkén 2010), not least because several species of
threatened and/or endemic flora and fauna are
dependent on them (Birdlife International 2003,
León et al. 2006; MINAG 2004, 2006). According
to the Peruvian Ecological-Economic Zoning
Regulations (DS Nº 087-2004-PCM, Article 9)
(PCM 2004), bofedales are areas for conservation or
protection. Furthermore, according to the Peruvian
Environmental Regulations for Mining Exploration
Activities (DS 20-2008-EM, Article 11): "no
exploration activity or roads may cross bofedales or
wetlands, or cause placement of materials, waste or
any other matter or substance on them”. If they are
going to be lost or affected during exploitation,
compensation and management measures must be
implemented to enable the replenishment (or
substitution) of their environmental services (RM
N° 092-2014-MEM/DM) (MEM 2014).
There is no specific information on the extent of
protected bofedales in Peru, probably because none
of the Protected Natural Areas has been created
specifically to conserve them. Some of the
designations take account of Andean wetlands
associated with lakes and ponds such as those in the
National Reserves of Junín (Junín y Pasco), Titicaca
(Puno), and Salinas and Aguada Blanca (Arequipa),
all three of which include bofedales. In other cases,
bofedal plant communities are protected incidentally
alongside Andean grasslands, as in Nor Yauyos
Conchas Landscape Reserve (Junín, Lima),
Huascaran National Park (Ancash) and the Pampa
Galeras National Reserve (Ayacucho). Within each
protected natural area, bofedales are present in areas
that are directly or indirectly used, such as the
Wildlife Area, Tourist and Recreational Area,
Recovery Zone, Direct Utilisation Area and Special
Use Areas (Maldonado Fonkén 2010). Moreover, at
least six of the thirteen Peruvian Wetlands of
International Importance (Ramsar Sites) currently
include bofedales, namely: Bofedales and Lagunas
de Salinas (Arequipa), Laguna del Indio - Dique de
los Españoles (Arequipa), Lago Titicaca (Puno),
Humedal Lucre - Huacarpay (Cusco), Laguna Las
Arreviatadas (Cajamarca) and Junín National
Reserve (Junín y Pasco).
The National Strategy for Wetland Conservation
in Peru (INRENA 1996) makes no specific reference
to bofedales, but instead emphasises the lakes and
ponds of the High Andes. This strategy will be
updated in 2014. At regional level, Peru is
participating in the Regional Initiative for the
Conservation and Wise Use of High Andean
Wetlands (Ramsar 2014), part of which will focus
on the Regional Strategy for Conservation and
Sustainable Use of High Andean Wetlands (2005–
2015).
THREATS
Several authors have referred to the problem of
overgrazing in bofedales (Flórez Martínez 2005,
Maldonado Fonkén 2010, Ramirez 2011, Salvador
et al. 2014). All of the bofedales in Peru are
probably grazed now and/or have been grazed in the
past, and are thus continuously subject to external
pressure. The degree of impact that results will vary
with the type and number of livestock. Cattle and
horses can generate greater impact than alpacas and
sheep because they need more forage intake per
animal and because their heavy bodies can harm the
vegetation.
The cutting of peat (champa) for use as a fuel for
cooking (Salvador et al. 2014) or in the manufacture
of growing media for horticulture (Flores et al.
2005) creates high impact over a short time period.
The natural regeneration of cutover bofedales is
slow and difficult under the prevailing climatic
conditions, especially because their vegetation has
been removed. Peat cutting is practiced in only a
few locations in Peru, and further studies are needed
to establish the extent of its impact.
Mining is also a high-impact activity because it
can both directly destroy several hectares of a
bofedal and indirectly affect the rest of it by
introducing contamination, altering the water
regime, etc. According to Peruvian regulations,
measures to reduce, mitigate or compensate for such
impacts must be implemented. Similar regulations

M.S. Maldonado Fonkén BOFEDALES OF THE PERUVIAN HIGH ANDES
Mires and Peat, Volume 15 (2014/15), Article 05, 1–13. http://www.mires-and-peat.net/, ISSN 1819-754X
© 2014 International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society 10
apply to the activities of other extractive industries.
For example, several rehabilitation and monitoring
programmes have already been established in
relation to the Camisea Gas pipelines that cross the
Andes.
Sometimes, dams constructed to create water
supply reservoirs in the High Andes (e.g. Pasto
Grande in Moquegua) also generate high impacts on
several hectares of bofedales by flooding them
completely. Other types of infrastructure such as
roads can affect bofedales by encroaching onto them
or by affecting their water supplies.
Especially in the current context of climate
change, it is urgently necessary to develop and
formally establish appropriate national-level
measures and/or protocols for the management and
recovery of bofedales, in the context not only of
grazing activities but also in relation to the whole
spectrum of water supply needs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Environmental Resource Management
and, especially, to Knight Piésold Consulting for
making the fieldwork possible. Special thanks to
Hans Joosten, Antoine Cleef, Piet-Louis Grundling,
and all the participants of the IMCG Andes Field
Symposium (2012), who encouraged me to write
this article.
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Submitted 01 Jun 2014, revision 02 Nov 2014
Editor: Olivia Bragg
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Author for correspondence:
Dr Mónica Sofía Maldonado Fonkén, Av. Colombia 793 - Pueblo Libre, Lima, Perú
Tel: +51 949-353-111; Email: monicasofia27@yahoo.es