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High Heels Increase Women’s Attractiveness
Abstract
Research has found that the appearance of women's apparel helps increase their attractiveness as rated by men and that men care more about physical features in potential opposite-sex mates. However, the effect of sartorial appearance has received little interest from scientists. In a series of studies, the length of women's shoe heels was examined. A woman confederate wearing black shoes with 0, 5, or 9 cm heels asked men for help in various circumstances. In Study 1, she asked men to respond to a short survey on gender equality. In Study 2, the confederate asked men and women to participate in a survey on local food habit consumption. In Study 3, men and women in the street were observed while walking in back of the female confederate who dropped a glove apparently unaware of her loss. It was found that men's helping behavior increased as soon as heel length increased. However, heel length had no effect on women's helping behavior. It was also found that men spontaneously approached women more quickly when they wore high-heeled shoes (Study 4). Change in gait, foot-size judgment, and misattribution of sexiness and sexual intent were used as possible explanations.
... In the United States alone, over $8,000,000,000 is spent annually on high-fashion footwear (Rossi, 1993). Several scholars (e.g., Roth, 1929;Smith, 1999; Morris et al., 2013;Guéguen, 2015) have advanced hypotheses about the function of high-heeled shoes for women. These ideas have ranged from the proposal of media-created associations between high heels and sexuality (e.g., Smith, 1999) to influences on specific biomechanical properties on women's gait (e.g., Morris et al., 2013). ...
... These ideas have ranged from the proposal of media-created associations between high heels and sexuality (e.g., Smith, 1999) to influences on specific biomechanical properties on women's gait (e.g., Morris et al., 2013). However, these scholars have either not empirically tested their ideas or have found results suggesting that the reasons women wear high heels do not include the one they hypothesized (e.g., see Morris et al., 2013;Guéguen, 2015). In short, despite the widespread prevalence of high heels, the reasons why women wear high heels are not well understood. ...
... However, they found "no consistent pattern of correlations between the biomechanical measures and the judgements of attractiveness of the individual walkers." Guéguen (2015) subsequently purported to test Morris and colleagues' hypothesis. Guéguen conducted multiple studies documenting a link between (1) women wearing high heels and (2) men engaging in behaviors thought to be indicators of increased attraction. ...
Despite the widespread use of high-heeled footwear in both developing and modernized societies, we lack an understanding of this behavioral phenomenon at both proximate and distal levels of explanation. The current manuscript advances and tests a novel, evolutionarily anchored hypothesis for why women wear high heels, and provides convergent support for this hypothesis across multiple methods. Using a recently discovered evolved mate preference, we hypothesized that high heels influence women’s attractiveness via effects on their lumbar curvature. Independent studies that employed distinct methods, eliminated multiple confounds, and ruled out alternative explanations showed that when women wear high heels, their lumbar curvature increased and they were perceived as more attractive. Closer analysis revealed an even more precise pattern aligning with human evolved psychology: high-heeled footwear increased women’s attractiveness only when wearing heels altered their lumbar curvature to be closer to an evolutionarily optimal angle. These findings illustrate how human evolved psychology can contribute to and intersect with aspects of cultural evolution, highlighting that the two are not independent or autonomous processes but rather are deeply intertwined.
... The popular view that wearing high heels increases women's attractiveness to men is supported by scientific evidence [19,20]. Although this is not a health outcome, it is socially relevant and may be of interest to the public health community since it is the tension between psychosexual benefits and negative musculoskeletal (MSK) health effects that makes high heels a topic of substantial public health interest and also of interest with regard to the study of the social determinants of health outcomes. ...
... Eight publications [29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36] were case reports of second-party injury reporting a total of 10 cases from three countries (UK, Denmark and Ireland). Five publications [19,20,[37][38][39] reported psychosexual studies from three countries (France, UK and Egypt). There were no further non-case report studies on second-party injury. ...
... Part B. Results for primary studies on psychosexual benefits associated with wearing high heels Guéguen, 2015 [20] Male participants were more likely to answer a survey on gender equality when the female confederate was wearing high heels than flat shoes (83% vs 47%). The difference between high and medium (63%) heels approached significance, but the difference between medium and flat was not significant. ...
Background
High-heeled shoes (high heels) are frequently worn by many women and form an important part of female gender identity. Issues of explicit and implicit compulsion to wear high heels have been noted. Previous studies and reviews have provided evidence that high heels are detrimental to health. However, the evidence base remains fragmented and no review has covered both the epidemiological and biomechanical literature. In addition, no review has considered the psychosexual benefits that offer essential context in understanding the public health challenge of high heels.
Methods
We searched seven major bibliographic databases up to November 2016, in addition to supplementary searches. We initially identified all review articles of any design that assessed either the psychosexual benefits or negative musculoskeletal health effects of high heels, the latter looking at both the epidemiological and biomechanical perspectives. We additionally considered additional primary studies on areas that had not been reviewed before or in which a marked lack of evidence had been noted. Data were extracted onto standardised forms. Proportionate second review was conducted.
Results
A total of 506 unique records were identified, 27 full-text publications were screened and 20 publications (7 reviews and 13 additional studies) were included in our evidence synthesis. The most up-to-date epidemiological review provides clear evidence of an association between high heel wear and hallux valgus, musculoskeletal pain and first-party injury. The body of biomechanical reviews provides clear evidence of changes indicative of increased risk of these outcomes, as well as osteoarthritis, which is not yet evidenced by epidemiological studies. There were no reviews on psychosexual benefits, but all five identified original studies provided evidence of increased attractiveness and/or an impact on men’s behaviour associated with high heel wear. With regard to second-party injury, evidence is limited to one descriptive study and eight case reports.
Conclusions
Our evidence synthesis clearly shows that high heels bring psychosexual benefits to women but are detrimental to their health. In light of this dilemma, it is important that women’s freedom of choice is respected and that any remaining issues of explicit or implicit compulsion are addressed.
... Morris et al. (2013) and Smith and Helms (1999) stated that women probably use high heels to artificially increase their femininity and to become more attractive to men. Field studies recently conducted confirmed that men approach women wearing high heels more readily (Guéguen 2015;Guéguen and Stefan 2015). In a series of studies conducted by these authors, women confederates wearing shoes with 0-, 5-, or 9-cm heels asked men for help in various circumstances (asking men to participate in a survey, dropping a glove and apparently unaware of the loss, etc.). ...
... Such results are in line with the findings reported by Guéguen (2015) and Guéguen and Stefan (2015) who observed in several studies that men approached a woman wearing high heels more readily. Our results were also congruent with the findings of Morris et al. (2013) who reported that women wearing high heels were perceived as more feminine. ...
... Thus, overall, these new findings expand those reported by Morris et al. (2013), Guéguen (2015), and Guéguen & Stefan (2015). We also found that the legs and the buttocks of the woman were perceived more positively when she was wearing high heels. ...
Research reported that men interact with women wearing high heels more readily than with the same women wearing flat heels. However, the effect of heels on the judgment of women by both men and women has received little attention. Male and female participants viewed two photographs of the same woman’s body profile; the woman wore high heels in the one and flat heels in the other, although her shoes and feet were not visible. Participants were asked to select one photograph of the woman on several dimensions of body attractiveness. A significant greater number of male and female participants selected the target with high heels as the sexier, the prettier, and the more elegant, with the more attractive legs and buttocks. The same target was also perceived as the younger person and the photograph that would be preferred by others and the more appropriate for a photo album. The findings support the assumption that high heels could act as secondary sexual characteristics that increase the attractiveness of women to men.
... The high-heeled shoes have become accessories carrying a high aesthetic power in the mindset of the people who are using and buying them (Broega, Righetto, and Ribeiro 2017). A sense of attractiveness towards the opposite gender is seen to be a possible explanation for the change in behavior of men toward high heel-wearing women (Guéguen 2014). Men's attention towards women changes with the addition of high heels in their look. ...
... Men's attention towards women changes with the addition of high heels in their look. it is discovered that men tend to help more spontaneously to those women who wear high heels as there is no difference seen in the helping behavior of women with a change in the length of their heels (Guéguen 2014). The high heels add sexiness to the legs and make it perfect for photography, particularly in the fashion industry (Guéguen, Stefan, and Renault 2016). ...
... For example, mass media exert societal pressures toward underweight body appearance as a beauty icon or an embodiment of gender role norms for girls [16][17][18][19][20]. Along with this, women with a lower BMI [21] and fat mass [22] than the physiologically healthy range have been reported to be considered relatively more attractive. In addition, although wearing high heels is risky for orthopedic health [23], many women wear them to enhance their attractiveness [24,25]. Thus, various and partially contradictory factors in uence our perception of attractiveness. ...
... The human gait's kinematic characteristics affect evaluation of interpersonal attractiveness [24,26,27] and of personal impressions, character, and emotion [28][29][30]. In our previous study, we examined gait dynamics from the perspective of expressed, rather than perceived, attractiveness to nd that women's biomechanical strategy for their individual gait's attractiveness involved showcasing femininity, fertility, and youth and that such an "attractive-conscious" gait was perceived as attractive [31]. ...
In our social lives, movement’s attractiveness greatly affects interpersonal cognition, and gait kinematics mediates walkers’ attractiveness. However, no model using gait kinematics has so far predicted gait attractiveness. Thus, this study constructed models of female gait attractiveness with gait kinematics and physique factors as explanatory variables for both barefoot and high-heel walking. First, using motion capture data from 17 women walking, including seven professional runway models, we created gait animations. We also calculated the following gait kinematics as candidate variables to explain walking’s attractiveness: four body-silhouette-related variables and six health-related variables. Then, 60 observers evaluated each gait animation’s attractiveness and femininity. We performed correlation analysis between these variables and evaluation scores to obtain explanatory variables. Structural equation modeling suggested two models for gait attractiveness, one composed of trunk and head silhouette factors and the other of physique, trunk silhouette, and health-related gait factors. The study’s results deepened our understanding of mechanisms behind nonverbal interpersonal cognition through physical movement and brought us closer to realization of artificial generation of attractive gait motions.
... Consistent with this proposal, biological motion research demonstrates that high heels, compared to flat shoes, enhance the attractiveness of a woman's walk by accentuating attractive and feminine bodily features related to gait such as smaller and more frequent steps, greater pelvic rotation, and pelvic tilt (Morris, White, Morrison, & Fischer, 2013). Moreover, men may be able to detect these changes to women's attractiveness, as they appear to display more prosocial behavior toward women in heeled shoes (Guéguen, 2015). In sum, limited experimental work to date suggests that high heels may be a cultural aid for successful mate choice and mating-related competition, by enhancing female attractiveness to observers. ...
... Our studies suggest that individual differences in women's responses to heeled shoes can be examined using sexual selection theories. Consistent with our prediction that a high heel is a costly signal (e.g., Saad, 2013) used to augment female attractiveness (Guéguen, 2015;Morris et al., 2013; see also Lewis et al., 2017 for recent evidence) among effective competitors for mates (Vaillancourt, 2013), attractive women were more likely to choose higher-heeled shoes under time limit than their less attractive peers were. By contrast, women's own attractiveness did not predict the proportion of lower-heeled shoes they chose under time limit, even though the two image sets were equivalent in attractiveness. ...
High heels are symbols of female sexuality and are “costly signals” if the risks of wearing them are offset by improving women’s attractiveness to men. From a functionalist perspective, the costs versus benefits of wearing heels may vary according to personal and contextual factors, such as her effectiveness at competing for mates, or at times when such motives are stronger. Here, we examined potential differences between women (self-rated attractiveness, dyadic versus solitary sexual desire, women’s age, competitive attitudes toward other women) and contextual variation (priming mating and competitive motives) in their responses to high heels. Study 1 (N = 79) and Study 2 (N = 273) revealed that self-rated attractiveness was positively related to orientation toward heeled shoes. When examining responses to two very attractive shoes (one higher heel, one lower heel) in Study 2, dyadic sexual desire, but not solitary sexual desire or intrasexual competitiveness, predicted their inclination to buy the higher-heeled shoe. In Study 3 (N = 142), young women chose high heels when primed with free choice of a designer shoe (95% CI [53.02 mm, 67.37 mm]) and preferred a heel 22 mm (0.87”) higher than older women (Study 4, N = 247). Contrary to predictions, priming mating or competitive motives did not alter women’s preference toward a higher heel (Studies 3 and 4). Our studies suggest that attractive women augment their physical appeal via heels. High heels may be a subtle indicator of dyadic sexual desire, and preferences for heels are stronger at times in the lifespan when mating competition is relatively intense.
... Wearing shoes with high heels by females has become extremely popular in modern society (Graff, Murnen, & Krause, 2013) despite it bringing physical harm to the bearer (reviewed by Barnish, Morgan, & Barnish, 2018). Females with high heels are considered more sexually attractive to males (Guéguen, 2015;Guéguen & Stefan, 2015;Guéguen, Stefan, & Renault, 2016), as it improves the lumbal curvature (Lewis et al., 2017), and alters the female's gait, reduces stride length and increases rotation and tilt of the hips (Morris, White, Morrison, & Fisher, 2013). ...
... The use of high heels in everyday life was restricted to about 62% of Slovak females, but their use was infrequent. This finding might be surprising at first look, considering that high heels enhance female attractiveness (Guéguen, 2015;Guéguen et al., 2016;Guéguen & Stefan, 2015;Lewis et al., 2017;Morris et al., 2013). One prominent explanation for the infrequent use of high heels is their harmful effects on human health; there are associations between wearing high heels and hallux valgus, musculoskeletal pain, first-party injury and osteoarthritis (reviewed by Barnish et al., 2018). ...
Females use various behavioural tactics in order to attract the attention of a desirable mate. Wearing high heels enhances female physical attractiveness for the opposite sex, thus their use seems to be a powerful sexual signal. We investigated female preferences for high heels both in everyday life as well as in a hypothetical mating scenario. Slovak females reported a low frequency of wearing high heels (45% once per month, 38% never) in everyday life. Females with a lower body height and high self-perceived attractiveness reported more frequent use of high heels than others. Sociosexuality and involvement in a romantic relationship did not predict the wearing of high heels. When females imagined an interaction with an attractive male, preferences for high heels steeply increased compared with a scenario with an unattractive male. Females with a low body height use high heels in all probability to visually elongate their leg length in order to increase their physical attractiveness. High heels seem to be a form of sexual signalling by females in intersexual interactions.
... Clothing can therefore function as a malleable non-bodily ornament that signals its displayer's mating motives (Elliot et al. 2013). Clothing can also augment evolved phenotypic features in humans, such as the use of high-heeled footwear which modifies women's lumbar curvature and gait to be more appealing to men (Lewis et al. 2017b;Morris et al. 2013), while also exerting an effect on men's prosocial behaviors towards women (Guéguen 2015). ...
... Nor is it always unproblematic to extrapolate (Dunn and Searle 2010;Sundie et al. 2011) and apartments (Dunn and Hill 2014). Guéguen (2015) and Lewis et al. (2017b) found that high-heeled footwear enhances women's attractiveness, but since a comparative study between sexes has not been done, more research is needed on the sex-specific effects of clothing on attractiveness (cf. Kramer and Mulgrew 2018). ...
[Target Article.] Objectives: Sexual selection typically centers on bodily and psychological traits. Non-bodily traits ranging from housing and vehicles through art to social media can, however, influence sexual selection even in absence of the phenotype proper. The theoretical framework of human sexual selection is updated in this article by unifying four theoretical approaches and conceptualizing non-bodily traits as extended phenotypic traits.
Methods:
Existing research is synthesized with extended phenotype theory, life history theory, and behavioral ecology. To test population-level hypotheses arising from the review, ecological and demographic data on 122 countries are analyzed with multiple linear regression modelling.
Results:
A four-factor model of intelligence, adolescent fertility, population density, and atmospheric cold demands predicts 64% of global variation in economic complexity in 1995 and 72% of the variation in 2016.
Conclusions:
The evolutionary pathways of extended phenotypes frequently undergo a categorical broadening from providing functional benefits to carrying signalling value. Extended phenotypes require investments in skills and bioenergetic resources, but they can improve survival in high latitudes, facilitate the extraction of resources from the environment, and substantially influence sexual selection outcomes. Bioenergetic investments in extended phenotypes create individual- and population-level tradeoffs with competing life history processes, exemplified here as a global tradeoff between adolescent fertility and economic complexity. The merits of the present model include a more systematic classification of sexual traits, a clearer articulation of their evolutionary-developmental hierarchy, and an analysis of ecological, genetic, and psychological mechanisms that modulate the flow of energy into extended phenotypes and cultural innovations.
... The dynamicity of female body postures on the perceived attractiveness to men was investigated in the previous research. For example, in an ecological study, Guéguen (2015) recruited a female confederate who wore three types of high-heeled shoes (flat heels, 5-cm heels, and 9-cm heels). The results showed that the same woman wearing high-heeled shoes received more interest from surrounding males who approached more often, suggesting increased perception of the attractiveness. ...
... The perceived attractiveness of women's gaits and dance appears to be related to greater hip swing and thigh movement (McCarty et al. 2017) or in the frequency of appearance of contrapposto posture (Pazhoohi et al. 2017). Moreover, arching the back while wearing high-heel shoes and thrusting the hips during lap dances have been found to be attractive to some men (Guéguen 2015;Miller et al. 2007). ...
It is common in studies of human mate preference to have participants judge the attractiveness of photographs in which models adopt a neutral facial expression or a neutral body posture. However, it is unlikely that humans adopt neutral expressions and postures in normal social circumstances. One way in which posture can vary is in the curvature of the lower spine. In some non-human animals, a “lordotic” posture (in which the lower spine is curved towards the belly) is associated in females with readiness to mate. In humans, this posture may serve a similar function, attracting heterosexual men. In this study, participants were presented with computer-generated images of female bodies in which the back curvature was systematically manipulated. The result showed that small changes in lumbar curvature are associated with changes in the perception of attractiveness. Specifically, the result showed that there is a relationship between the range of the back curvatures used in this study and attractiveness, such that increasing the curvature increased the perception of attractiveness. Additionally, as the curvature increased, participants looked longer and fixated more on the hip region of the female bodies. This paper argues that the attractiveness of women in lordotic posture is due to a conserved mechanism across the taxa which signals proceptivity to men.
... . 또 여성이 플 랫 슈즈를 신고 있을 때 보다 하이힐을 신고 있을 때 남성들이 그 여성에 더 적극적이고 긍정적인 반응을 보였으며 섹시하다고 생각한다 (Guéguen, 2015). 즉, 여성의 하이힐은 남성의 반응행동에 영향을 미치며, 하이힐이 여성의 매력과 여성성에 관련이 있다 (Guéguen, 2015;Morris, et al., 2013). ...
... . 또 여성이 플 랫 슈즈를 신고 있을 때 보다 하이힐을 신고 있을 때 남성들이 그 여성에 더 적극적이고 긍정적인 반응을 보였으며 섹시하다고 생각한다 (Guéguen, 2015). 즉, 여성의 하이힐은 남성의 반응행동에 영향을 미치며, 하이힐이 여성의 매력과 여성성에 관련이 있다 (Guéguen, 2015;Morris, et al., 2013). 따라서 불경 기로 인하여 실업률이 늘고, 이런 외부적 환경의 변 화로 말미암아 여성들은 배우자 찾기 전략을 모색한 다. 여성들이 불경기 때 경제적으로 안정적인 남성을 찾기 위한 수단으로 의상을 사용하듯 (Barber, 1999;Hill, et al., 2005) (Ahn, 2015-b;Cholachatpinyo, Fletcher, Padgett, & Crocker, 2002;Kaiser, Nagasawa, & Hutton, 1995), 시기적인 차이가 커서 본 연구결과의 해석과 일반화에 한계성이 있다. ...
This study is to investigate the relationships between heel height and macro-economic factors - recession and unemployment; and to analyze the time lags reflecting economic factors on heel height index using U.S. data. The life-history evolution theory was applied to propose the relationships studied. The data for the heel height measurements of women's shoes - pump style only - were obtained from US Vogue fashion editorial sections on spring and fall editions from 1950 to 2014. I divided the heel height by the length of the shoes in order to standardize the data. Total of 1581 samples were used, and heel height data were aggregated to create a yearly average. To explore the relationships between macro-economic factors and heel height, this study used OLS of Stata 13 program. The main findings show that unemployment rates influenced heel height for three years in a positive direction. Furthermore, the effects of unemployment rate from two years ago on the current heel height were very close to being on a significant level.
... Wearing high heels increases the attractiveness of women in the eyes of men. High heels also confer a psychosexual reward, strengthening women's self-acceptance [29,30]. Wearing such shoes is influenced by advertising, media, and the celebrity lifestyle [31,32]. ...
Footwear fashion is an instance of a socially formed attitude affecting somatic population health. High-heeled, particularly pointy-toed shoes are posed to structurally distort and overload feet leading to musculoskeletal sequelae. Here we compiled multilanguage website images presenting female footwear produced by the top manufacturers to assess the advertising effects on the prevailing height of heels worn by women. The method was based on the analysis of websites using the command “woman shoes” in scores of languages of the Internet Google browser. We then compared the results of the internet search with those of a live street surveillance of the footwear worn by 100 adult women in the downtown Warsaw metropolis in Poland. We found that stiletto heels with pointed shoe tips significantly predominated in images representing the countries belonging to the Western cultural sphere compared to less affluent world areas where low or flat heels prevailed. However, we noted a gradual departure from the fashion of high heels over the last decade, confirmed by live street surveillance, liable to reflect changes in the website presentations of top shoe manufacturers consistent with increasing awareness of potential harm by high heels. Yet the female aptitude for wearing more physiologic shoe models appears to exceed that resulting from marketing campaigns. Doing away with high-heeled pointy-toed shoes requires intensification of pro-health preventive measures in the field of public health.
... This communication process is often associated with motion attractiveness, or how a moving person (actor) and his/her observers exchange information related to the actor's attractiveness by using the static and dynamic components of the former's motion. Previous studies have suggested that gait kinematics is a cue for female attractiveness (1,2), while several researchers have focused on the biomechanical factors of female attractiveness from the observers' viewpoint, and found that the lumbar curvature is an essential static factor for female attractiveness to men (3,4). Similarly, Morris et al. (5) reported that a shortened stride length and greater hip rotation were key factors for the attractiveness of high-heel walking. ...
Physical attractiveness is a key factor in social communication, and through this communication process, we attractively brand and express ourselves. Thus, this study investigated the biomechanical strategies used by women to express gait attractiveness. Our aim was to extend the current literature by examining this aspect of dynamic motion from the perspective of expressed , rather than perceived attractiveness. In this regard, we obtained motion capture data from 17 women, including seven professional fashion models. The participants walked on a treadmill under two conditions: 1) a normal condition in which they were instructed to walk as casually as possible; and 2) an attractive-conscious condition where they were asked to walk as attractively as possible. Then, we used whole-body kinematic data to represent motion energy at each joint, flexibility of the upper body, and the up-down/forward-backward silhouettes of the limbs, and compared these parameters between the two conditions by using statistical parametric mapping. During the attractive-conscious condition, the non-model women increased the energy of the hip and thoracolumbar joints, which emphasized the motions of their bosoms and buttocks. They also increased their upper body flexibility (possibly reflecting fertility) and continued to face front and downward. Conversely, although the fashion models partially shared the same strategy with the non-models (e.g., hip energy, upper body flexibility, and head bending downward), the strategy of the former was prominent in the stretching of the knee during the push-off phase and pulling the upper arm back, allowing them to showcase their youth and emphasize their chests. In addition, the fashion models used a wider variety of strategies to express their gait attractiveness. The findings indicate that the biomechanical strategy used to express gait attractiveness in women involves showcasing femininity, fertility, and youth. Our results not only deepen the understanding of human movement for self-expression through gait attractiveness, but they also help us comprehend self-branding behavior in human social life.
... It is commonly known that high-heeled shoes not only make women taller, but also more slender and sexy. What is more, women in high heels increase their attractiveness to men [2]. In addition, high heels are essential part of women's business dress code and according to statistics, 60% of women office workers wear them [3]. ...
The human foot is a strong, complex structure and comes into contact with the ground when walking. Its major function is to absorb the energy generated at initial contact with the ground, as well as to give it away and use it for effective movement. For hundreds of years shoes have been worn to protect feet against any injuries resulting from walking on rough terrain. High-heeled shoes have a history dating back to the 16th century and since then they have become the significant element of every wardrobe. Nowadays, high heels are inseparable element of a business dress code for women. The aim of this study was to examine high-heeled shoes and their impact on the pressure in human sole together with related effects. The authors, based on the literature review, presented consequences and changes in sole pressure resulting from heels height. The human heel, placed in upper position leads to restricted range of ankle motion, slower walking and its poor performance what is more, it also leads to numerous foot deformities such as osteoarticular deformities, hallux valgus, Morton’s neuroma, other pain including lower back pain. High heels are also a direct cause of popular conditions characterized by heel pain, i.e. plantar fasciitis and heel spurs.
Ludzka stopa to silna i złożona struktura. Jest stworzona do absorbowania energii kontaktu z podłożem, a także do jej oddawania i wykorzystywania do efektywnego ruchu. Niezmiennie od setek lat chroni ją obuwie, które zabezpiecza ją przed ostrym podłożem. Buty na obcasach swą historią sięgają XVI wieku i od tamtej pory na stałe zagościły w garderobach zarówno kobiet, jak i mężczyzn. W dzisiejszych czasach wysokie obcasy są nieodłącznym elementem biznesowego ubioru kobiet. Celem pracy było przedstawienie wpływu chodzenia w butach na obcasie na ciśnienie wywierane na podeszwę stopy oraz związane z tym skutki. Autorzy na podstawie przeglądu literatury wykazali znaczące zmiany ciśnienia w obrębie podeszwy stopy uzależnione od wysokości obcasa. Podniesienie pozycji pięty niesie za sobą, między innymi, zmniejszenie zakresu ruchu stawu skokowego, zmniejszenie szybkości chodu, a co za tym idzie także jego wydajności. Prowadzi to również do powstawania licznych deformacji i sytuacji bólowych, takich jak deformacje kostno--stawowe, koślawość palucha, nerwiak Mortona, czy problemów powiązanych – na przykład bólu dolnej części pleców. Wysokie obcasy są również bezpośrednią przyczyną popularnych schorzeń charakteryzujących się bólem pięty – zapalenia rozcięgna podeszwowego oraz ostrogi piętowej.
... The Editor-in-Chief has retracted this article (Guéguen, 2015) at the request of the Université de Bretagne-Sud. Following an institutional investigation, it was concluded that the article has serious methodological weaknesses and statistical errors. ...
Retraction Note to Arch Sex Behav
... There are many instances of the effects of body movement on the perceived attractiveness of bodies. For example, women's gaits are perceived as more attractive when wearing high-heel shoes (Guéguen, 2015;Morris et al., 2013) which enhance the lengths of their silhouette shapes and side-to-side movements (Doyle, 2009a). Also, women's dance movements are more attractive around ovulation (Fink, Hugill, & Lange, 2012;Miller, Tybur, & Jordan, 2007) and attractive dancers move differently than unattractive dancers and capture more attention (Röder et al., 2016). ...
In women, the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is an indicator of attractiveness, health, youthfulness, and reproductive potential. In the current study, we hypothesized that viewing angle and body postures influence the attractiveness of these forms based on the view dependency of WHR stimuli (vdWHR). Using eye tracking, we quantified the number of fixations and dwell time on 3D images of a female avatar in two different poses (standing and contrapposto) from eight viewing angles incrementing in 45 degrees of rotation. A total of 68 heterosexual individuals (25 men and 43 women) participated in the study. Results showed that the contrapposto pose was perceived as more attractive than the standing pose and that lower vdWHR sides of the stimuli attracted more first fixation, total fixations, and dwell time. Overall, the results supported that WHR is view-dependent and vdWHRs lower than optimal WHRs are supernormal stimuli that may generate peak shifts in responding. Results are discussed in terms of the attractiveness of women’s movements (gaits and dance) and augmented artistic presentations.
... Parallel to other marketing strategies, since slimming centres target women who are medium to high income earners, the slimming centre should be located in a place where parking is readily available. As many women who wish to look attractive wear high heels as part of their usual attire (Guéguen, 2015), the distance between the parking space and the slimming centre should not be too far since the display of their highly sophisticated behaviour and preference for wearing high heels will discourage the majority of career women from walking long distances. The population with the highest rate of overweight and obesity in Malaysia is Putrajaya where 37 per cent of the people are overweight and another 43 per cent fall under the category of obese (Cheng, 2016). ...
Purpose
Slimming centres have become a hot spot for people to reduce their size and reshape their body figure through the sophisticated and modern treatments that are provided by the therapists. The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of price, place and promotion on the behavioural intention to consume the slimming treatments.
Design/methodology/approach
This research is a cross-sectional study in which 308 primary data were collected for descriptive analysis, confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling. The data were collected through a survey questionnaire that was distributed to respondents who have experience in consuming slimming treatment at a slimming centre.
Findings
The majority of slimming centre consumers are working women aged 25 and above from urban areas. As an attraction, the pricing strategy is a very important influence on consumers to consume the slimming treatment at slimming centres. Although the main target market for slimming centres is career women who are earning an above average income, an excessively high price might weaken the behavioural intention of the consumer to consume the service since Malaysian women are very price conscious. The findings also indicate that there is a significant correlation relationship between price and promotion as well as place and promotion.
Originality/value
This research is expected to contribute in terms of providing more knowledge about this industry, since there are still limited findings pertaining to slimming centres, especially in the Malaysian market.
... Walking in high-heeled shoes (HHS) is a very common trend among women, as it is believed that HHS makes women more attractive [1,2]. Over the past several years, researchers have shown that walking on HHS may affect body posture and lower extremities of women [3][4][5] and that wearing them for longer duration may affect neuromechanics and kinematics of the lower limbs [6,7]. ...
The goal of this research was to investigate the effect of wearing high-heeled shoes (HHS) on lower limb muscle synchronisation during walking, using beta band (15–30 Hz) coherence analysis. Fifteen females with no previous neuromuscular disorders volunteered in this study. Surface electromyography in frequency domain was studied from rectus femoris (RF), vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM) and semitendinosus (ST) muscles during walking by subjects wearing HHS of three different heel heights (low – 4 cm, medium – 6 cm and high – 10 cm). Average coherence values were calculated for RF-VL, RF-VM and RF-ST muscles in beta band to analyse muscle pair synchronisation. In this study, significant increase in beta band coherence was found in all three muscle pairs during walking on HHS of different heel heights (p<0.05). Increased beta band coherence obtained from this study suggested that walking on HHS demands higher muscle pair synchronisation, to maintain stability around the knee joint. © 2018 Institution of Engineering and Technology.All right reserved.
... The increasing popularity of HHS include present day fashion, 5 part of the professional attire, 6 social events, 3 personal expression, 7 source of authority, 8 sexual independence, 9 mark of flaunted femininity, 10 psychological empowerment and joy. 11 However, there are consequent negative side ef- ...
Many women have worn high-heel shoes (HHS) at some point in their lives and many wear them on a daily basis, with higher prevalence between 39% and 78% observed in institutional and clinical settings. The purpose of this study was to describe and compare the scores obtained with regard to foot health and health in general in a sample of women that use HHS as opposed to a sample of women without HHS with normalized reference values. A sample of 120 participants with a mean age of 41.94 ± 13.912 came to a health center where self-reported data were registered. The subjects with and without HHS were determined and the scores obtained were compared in the Foot Health Status Questionnaire (FHSQ). This questionnaire is made of 13 questions that assess 4 health domains of the feet, namely pain, function, general health and footwear. The women in the HHS group showed a worse quality of life related to health in general and to foot health specifically. Differences between the two groups were evaluated by means of a t-test for independent samples, showing statistical significance (P<0.01). Women with HHS present a negative impact on the quality of life related to foot health.
... Presently it is mostly women who wear high heels and claim their purpose is for aesthetic reasons only. On top of that Guéguen [7] studied the effect of men's behavior on women wearing HH shoes. He found that men's helping behavior increases as heel height increases. ...
Background:
Walking in high heels (HH) may alter gait in various ways, which may be of importance to designers and physicians.
Research question:
How does walking in high heels alter gait and how can this be explained from a biomechanical and control point of view.
Methods:
Relevant literature has been collected in which high heeled walking was studied, after which the results were bundled and interpreted in a framework of biomechanics and control.
Results:
Major changes were found in the rollover function of the feet, the ankle and knee joints and the lower back, while step length and balance were compromised. An increase in heel height forces the foot in an increased plantar flexion, which in its turn increases knee flexion and lordosis of the lower back. All changes can be related with each other in a plausible pattern of movement and control.
... They transform a woman's appearance and are truly "sex on legs" (Foreman, 2014). This sex appeal is supported by scientific evidence (Barnish, Morgan, & Barnish, 2017;Guéguen, 2015). Of course, high heels are bad for our health (Barnish et al., 2017;Barnish & Barnish, 2016;Cronin, 2014), but surely that is a choice we can make as adults. ...
... However, in modern society, material resources could be another important arena where women compete. It is because contemporary women need resources to acquire products (dress, makeup, accessories, etc.) or services (hairdressing, skin caring, etc.) to enhance their attractiveness, whereby they could outrival their samesex competitors and gain attention of mates (e.g., Guéguen, 2015). For example, a pretty dress or coat in a shopping mall could cost hundreds of Yuan (¥; the base unit of Chinese currencies, 1¥ ¼ US$0.16), and the designer clothes cost even more. ...
Past studies suggested that sex ratio influences individuals’ economic behaviors; however, the underlying mechanism of this effect remains unclear. In the current work, we examined how sex ratio influenced women’s preference for relative gain over greater absolute gain in the context of games involving resource allocation between oneself and another woman; the role of intrasexual competition in this process was also explored. By experimentally manipulating women’s perceptions of local sex ratio, the present study found that women primed with a female-biased sex ratio (i.e., an excess of women) showed higher levels of intrasexual competition. Exposure to the cue of a scarcity of men also led women to care more about their relative gain compared with absolute gain. The effect of sex ratio on shifts of women’s preference between relative gain and absolute gain was mediated by the strength of women’s competitive attitude toward same-sex others. These findings suggest that, by altering the intensity of female–female competition, sex ratio may have a pronounced effect on women’ economic-related decisions.
... The elementary approach is also adopted by researchers who attempt to define the significance of certain qualities of physical attractiveness that are related to self-care, such as clothing (e.g., Creekmore, 1980;Guéguen, 2014;Lennon, 1990;Nielsen & Kernaleguen, 1976;Townsend & Levy, 1990), make-up (e.g., Korichi, Pelle-de-Queral, Gazano, & Aubert, 2011;Egan & Cordan, 2009;Mulhern, Fieldman, Hussey, Le, & Pineau, 2003;Stephen, 2010), and hairstyle (e.g., Mesko & Bereczkei, 2004). ...
The article raises the issue of physical attractiveness both in terms of its definition and as a theoretical construct, which forms the basis for planning empirical research. Based on a review of existing definitions and a predictive analysis of the meaning of terms, a definition of physical attractiveness as one of the types of human attractiveness is proposed. The criteria differentiating physical attractiveness from the related concept of sexual attractiveness are presented. Physical attractiveness is discussed as an object of operationalization in the process of designing research on the assessment or self-assessment of the appearance and characteristics of the human body, including a distinction between its two approaches: holistic (a set of a characteristics whose evaluations are interrelated) and elementary (one characteristic whose evaluations impact the assessment of overall physical attractiveness).
... Men are more likely to offer help to women they find attractive, and differences in clothing are sufficient to drive this effect. Men rate women who wear high-heeled shoes more attractive (Morris, White, Morrison, and Fisher 2013), and Guéguen (2015) has found that men are more likely to grant a woman's request for assistance, and to offer unsolicited assistance, when that woman wears high-heeled shoes rather than flats. This may be because certain styles of female dress, including high heels or revealing clothing, are perceived as cues to a woman's sexual interest or behavior. ...
In the West, the style of a woman’s dress is perceived as a cue to her sexual behavior and influences the likelihood that a man will initiate conversation with the woman or offer her assistance. Hijab, or Islamic veiling, varies in the extent to which it reveals skin and body shape; the style a woman adopts affects her attractiveness to men. To test whether women who wear more liberal or conservative forms of hijab are more likely to be offered help by men, we observed Iranian motorists in a “hitchhiking” situation. Here, we show that a young female confederate, standing beside a road and in view of motorists but not actively soliciting assistance, was more likely to be offered a ride when she wore a headscarf and close-fitting garments (liberal dress) rather than a full body veil (chador, conservative dress). When the woman wore liberal dress, 21.4 % of motorists offered a ride; only 3.9 % of motorists offered a ride to the woman when she wore conservative dress—a significant difference. All drivers were men. This small to medium effect is substantially larger than those reported in similar studies in Europe and extends previous research on male helping behavior and female attractiveness to Iran, a nation where courtship behavior and dress are constrained by stricter social mores and laws than apply in the West.
In our social lives, movement’s attractiveness greatly affects interpersonal cognition, and gait kinematics mediates walkers’ attractiveness. However, no model using gait kinematics has so far predicted gait attractiveness. Thus, this study constructed models of female gait attractiveness with gait kinematics and physique factors as explanatory variables for both barefoot and high-heel walking. First, using motion capture data from 17 women walking, including seven professional runway models, we created gait animations. We also calculated the following gait kinematics as candidate variables to explain walking’s attractiveness: four body-silhouette-related variables and six health-related variables. Then, 60 observers evaluated each gait animation’s attractiveness and femininity. We performed correlation analysis between these variables and evaluation scores to obtain explanatory variables. Structural equation modeling suggested two models for gait attractiveness, one composed of trunk and head silhouette factors and the other of physique, trunk silhouette, and health-related gait factors. The study’s results deepened our understanding of mechanisms behind nonverbal interpersonal cognition through physical movement and brought us closer to realization of artificial generation of attractive gait motions.
The performing art of Reog Ponorogo is a cultural heritage of the people of East Java which continues to experience development and several changes and progress. This study aims to identify the practice of commodifying high heels to complement the clothing of female dancer Jathil Obyog in the Reog Ponorogo art show. This study uses a qualitative method with a phenomenological approach. The results of this study explain that the high heels of Jathil Obyog dancers have value in supporting the appearance so that the legs look level, as well as forming a sturdy and proportional body posture in protecting the feet of female dancers in outdoor performances. The high heel exchange rate on Jathil Obyog's dancer's clothing is to raise the social status to an economic aesthetic value, while the symbolic value of high heels is a marker of sexuality for the female dancer Jathil Obyog to convey aggressiveness and eroticism to the audience, especially men. The conclusion of this study shows that high-heeled shoes can increase the sexual attractiveness (female body) of Jathil Obyog dancers by using a combination of semi-transparent or see-through tops, as well as the use of short pants that will make the thighs and buttocks look slimmer.
Objective: This study aims to explore how shoes with different height heels affect female gait characteristics and motor function of lower limb joints. Methods: Video analysis and myoelectricity tester were applied to the walking test of 12 female models wearing shoes with 0, 3, 6, 10, and 18[Formula: see text]cm heels. Results: (1) When being barefoot and wearing the flat shoes, the models took a longest step, and the step length decreased with the increase of the shoe heel. (2) When walking in the flat shoes, the models kept the center of gravity highly stable. With the increase of the shoe heel, the center of gravity went ups and downs obviously in the direction of Z and Y when models were walking. (3) When models walked in the flat shoes, the smallest changes occurred in the hip joint angle. With the increase of the shoe heel, the stretching ranges of knee joint angle and ankle joint angle decreased. (4) When models walked in the flat shoes, electromyographic mean power frequency (MPF) indicated that active frequency of gastrocnemius and soleus were the highest and time-domain parameter suggested that active scope of biceps femoris and soleus increased most. There was difference in active frequency between the dominated leg and the nondominated leg. Conclusion: Flat shoes or 3–6[Formula: see text]cm heel shoes were the best for walking. It is recommended to choose shoes with a heel height higher than 10[Formula: see text]cm when walking,and try to control wear more than 10[Formula: see text]cm heel walking time, otherwise, there will be a risk of falls. When choosing a heel with a height higher than 10[Formula: see text]cm, the walking speed and walking length must be reduced. At the same time, try to control the walking time of wearing high heels with the heel height over 10[Formula: see text]cm, otherwise it will cause the risk of fall.
This chapter analyzes the novel Tacos Altos by the Argentine author Federico Jeanmarie (1957), published in 2016. Focusing on the main protagonist, this analysis highlights the politics and subjectivities of her migrant and “Chinese” identity. Jeanmarie started publishing his books in the mid-1980s; Tacos Altos (2016) forms part of a group of Latin American novels published after 2007 which engage explicitly with Chinese communities in the region. Focusing on the transnational voyages between China and Latin America of the novel’s main character and her coming-of-age process, this chapter builds on Kaplan’s view on displacement and Sara Ahmed’s notion of “strangerness” (2000) to explore how Tacos Altos questions fixed conceptualizations of identity and nation in a global context, ultimately revealing a preference for a Nancean understanding of community as ‘being with” (Nancy 2000). Through the diary, the novel also emphasizes literature, and the written word, as a mode of ordering and representing experience (Rimmon-Kenan 2002, 132), as seen through the eyes of a young girl.
Getting Dressed teaches sociology through the everyday decision of what to wear. Itis about the rules that shape how we dress and how and why we conform. It is about how and why we imitate others. We may think about clothing as our personal style and identity. But our personal style is not so personal; it is social, shaped and limited by countless social influences. We use clothes to rank and treat each other as better and worse. Yet we need each other to become who we are when getting dressed. This book is about what we wear, why we wear it, and why it matters.
Bullwhip effect is one of the critical problems resulting in supply chain inefficiency. To alleviate the negative impacts brought by the bullwhip effect, it is important for the supply chain partners to develop collaboration to reduce lead time, facilitate information sharing, or execute vendor managed inventory strategy. This study focuses on a targeted designer footwear brand and statistically examines the existence and the causes of the bullwhip effect in the designer fashion supply chain. We collected 825 data including the real order quantity of each supply chain member, MOQ requirement, lead time, and heel heights, and conducted the empirical tests. Our findings show that the degree of bullwhip effect in our targeted brand is significantly correlated with the lead time and the shoe height only but not the minimum order quantity requested by the manufacturers. Managerial insights are also discussed.
Recent developments of additive manufacturing (AM) have extended its application to the direct fabrication of functional parts. Owing to design flexibility and complexity, design for AM (DFAM) has received increasing attention as a new design method that can overcome traditional manufacturing constraints, and has been applied to multi-components integration, multi-material parts, and lightweight structures. In this study, an automatic design methodology for conformal lightweight structures was developed based on a three-dimensional (3D) tetrahedral mesh. A numerical algorithm was developed to generate lightweight cellular structures via the following steps: (i) definition of a target solid; (ii) discretization of the target volume using a tetrahedral mesh; (iii) construction of a number of struts along the edges of every tetrahedral element; (iv) Boolean operation to unify the generated struts; and (v) preparation of output files for 3D printing and finite element analysis (FEA). This algorithm was then applied to generate conformal cellular structures with various shapes. Effects of lattice design parameters on the relevant density change were discussed. The designed cellular structures were then fabricated by AM, and their mechanical properties were evaluated by compression tests. The fabricated lightweight structures showed high specific stiffness and strength, and could support 10000 times heavier load than their own weight.
De mogelijkheid om zonder compensaties te kunnen gaan en staan op hoge hakken blijkt af te hangen van de aangeboren lenigheid in de richting van plantairflexie van de enkel. Hoeveel plantairflexie er nodig is, hangt samen met de schoenmaat. Hoe kleiner de voet, des te meer plantairflexie in de enkel moet worden uitgevoerd bij een bepaalde hakhoogte en vice versa. Een hakhoogte groter dan de lenigheid van de enkel toestaat, moet gecompenseerd worden. In tegenstelling tot wat meestal gedacht wordt, gebeurt dit niet door verdieping van de lendenlordose, maar door flexie in de knieën en heupen. Bij een advies over de maximale hakhoogte die een cliënt kan dragen, is het nodig om zowel de maximaal mogelijke lenigheid van de plantairflexie van de enkel als de schoenmaat te bepalen. In een grafiek kan dan de maximale hakhoogte worden afgelezen.
BACKGROUND: There continues to be ongoing debates among researchers as to the positive or negative effects of short-term wearing of high heeled shoes (HH) on ankle muscles. OBJECTIVE: To investigate ankle functions among people wearing low-, mid-, and high-heel shoes as well as the effects different heel measurement heights have among the groups. METHODS: Seventy-eight female college students who habitually wore heeled shoes at various heights from 2.71 to 10.15 cm for approximately one academic year (40.10 ± 10.13 weeks) took part in this study. Participants were grouped according to their heel heights: low-, mid- and high-heels. Body composition was measured as well as the isokinetic strength of ankle muscles at three different heights: 0 cm, 5 cm and 10 cm, relating to the distance between the standard foot attachment and the foot supporting plate. The isokinetic strength (in Nm) of the ankle dorsiflexor (DF), plantarflexor (PF), evertor (EV), and invertor (IV) muscle groups was recorded for the dominant and non-dominant sides. The total strength of ankle muscles (TSAM), which is the sum of the peak moment of all 4 muscle groups was calculated for both sides for all groups. RESULTS: The wearing of HH shoes significantly enhanced the isokinetic strength of all ankle muscles when measured at a height of 0 cm, and some ankle muscles (PF and EV) when measured at a height of 5 cm. However, these effects decreased as the measurement height increased for DF, PF, EV and IV (P <0.05) for both sides. Moreover, there were no significant differences between high- and low-heels groups at the measurement height of 10 cm. The TSAM for both sides also showed no significant differences between groups when measuring at 10 cm. CONCLUSIONS:Wearing of HH shoes for one year may contribute to enhancing the isokinetic strength of ankle muscles when wearing flat or mid-heeled shoes. However, the positive effects that were measured in lower height conditions (0 cm and 5 cm) disappeared when measured using higher heights, indicating that wearing HH shoes yields no benefits for building ankle muscle strength.
In the present study we investigated the effects of different durations of using high-heeled shoes on plantar pressure and gait. A questionnaire survey and dynamic plantar pressure measurements were performed in 20 control females and 117 females who had worn high-heeled shoes for a long time. According to the duration of using high-heeled shoes (as specified in the questionnaire), subjects were divided into a control group and five groups with different durations of use (i.e. <2years, 2-5years, 6-10years, 11-20years and >20years). Parameters, including peak pressure, impulse and pressure duration, in different plantar regions were measured with the Footscan pressure plate. The 2-5years group had smaller midfoot contact areas for both feet and higher subtalar joint mobility, while the 6-10years group had larger midfoot contact areas for both feet and prolonged foot flat phase during gait. The peak pressure and impulse under the second and fourth metatarsus were increased with the prolonged wearing of high-heeled shoes, and the pressure and impulse under the midfoot were substantially reduced in the 2-5years group. The findings suggest that long-term use of high-heeled shoes can induce changes in arch morphology: the longitudinal arch tends to be elevated within 2-5years; the longitudinal arch tends to be flattened within 6-10years; and the forefoot latitudinal arch tends to collapse in more than 20years.
Objectives To conduct the first systematic review from an epidemiological perspective regarding the association between high-heeled shoe wear and hallux valgus, musculoskeletal pain, osteoarthritis (OA) and both first-party and second-party injury in human participants without prior musculoskeletal conditions.
Setting A systematic review of international peer-reviewed scientific literature across seven major languages.
Data sources Searches were conducted on seven major bibliographic databases in July 2015 to initially identify all scholarly articles on high-heeled shoes. Supplementary manual searches were conducted. Titles, abstracts and full-text articles were sequentially screened to identify all articles assessing epidemiological evidence regarding the association between high-heeled shoe wear and hallux valgus, musculoskeletal pain, OA and both first-party and second-party injury in human participants without prior musculoskeletal conditions. Standardised data extraction and quality assessment (Threats to Validity tool) were conducted.
Primary and secondary outcome measures Musculoskeletal pain or OA as assessed by clinical diagnosis or clinical assessment tool. First-party or second-party injury.
Results 644 unique records were identified, 56 full-text articles were screened and 18 studies included in the review. Four studies assessed the relationship with hallux valgus and three found a significant association. Two studies assessed the association with OA and neither found a significant association. Five studies assessed the association with musculoskeletal pain and three found a significant association. Eight studies assessed first-party injury and seven found evidence of a significant injury toll associated with high-heeled shoes. One study provided data on second-party injury and the injury toll was low.
Conclusions High-heeled shoes were shown to be associated with hallux valgus, musculoskeletal pain and first-party injury. No conclusive evidence regarding OA and second-party injury was found. Societal and clinical relevance of these findings is discussed. Concern is expressed about the expectation to wear high-heeled shoes in some work and social situations and access by children.
The current study evaluated whether the sexual relevance of the social environment potentiated men's judgments of women's sexual interest, particularly among men reporting more frequent misperception of a potential partner's sexual interest. Twenty-eight scenes were constructed depicting social environments that were either lower or higher in sexual relevance (e.g., office vs. bar). A full-body photograph of one of 14 college-aged women was inserted into each scene; the women all expressed neutral-to-positive affect and varied in provocativeness of dress and attractiveness. A total of 237 undergraduate males viewed each scene and judged how sexually interested and friendly each woman felt. Sexually relevant social environments potentiated men's judgments of women's sexual interest far more than their friendliness. This effect was stronger among more conservatively dressed women and among men reporting more frequent experiences of misperceiving a woman's sexual interest. The findings highlight the contextualized nature of emotional perception, whereby perception of emotion is potentiated in congruent, relative to incongruent, contexts.
Social exchange and evolutionary models of mate selection incorporate economic assumptions but have not considered a key distinction between necessities and luxuries. This distinction can clarify an apparent paradox: Status and attractiveness, though emphasized by many researchers, are not typically rated highly by research participants. Three studies supported the hypothesis that women and men first ensure sufficient levels of necessities in potential mates before considering many other characteristics rated as more important in prior surveys. In Studies 1 and 2, participants designed ideal long-term mates, purchasing various characteristics with 3 different budgets. Study 3 used a mate-screening paradigm and showed that people inquire 1st about hypothesized necessities. Physical attractiveness was a necessity to men, status and resources were necessities to women, and kindness and intelligence were necessities to both.
Evidence is presented showing that body fat distribution as measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is correlated with youthfulness, reproductive endocrinologic status, and long-term health risk in women. Three studies show that men judge women with low WHR as attractive. Study 1 documents that minor changes in WHRs of Miss America winners and Playboy playmates have occurred over the past 30-60 years. Study 2 shows that college-age men find female figures with low WHR more attractive, healthier, and of greater reproductive value than figures with a higher WHR. In Study 3, 25- to 85-year-old men were found to prefer female figures with lower WHR and assign them higher ratings of attractiveness and reproductive potential. It is suggested that WHR represents an important bodily feature associated with physical attractiveness as well as with health and reproductive potential. A hypothesis is proposed to explain how WHR influences female attractiveness and its role in mate selection.
There is a class of nonverbal facial expressions and gestures, exhibited by human females, that are commonly labeled “flirting behaviors.” I observed more than 200 randomly selected adult female subjects in order to construct a catalog of these nonverbal solicitation behaviors. Pertinent behaviors were operationally defined through the use of consequential data; these behaviors elicited male attention. Fifty-two behaviors were described using this method. Validation of the catalog was provided through the use of contextual data. Observations were conducted on 40 randomly selected female subjects in one of four contexts: a singles' bar, a university snack bar, a university library, and at university Women's Center meetings. The results indicated that women in “mate relevant” contexts exhibited higher average frequencies of nonverbal displays directed at males. Additionally, women who signaled often were also those who were most often approached by a man: and this relationship was not context specific.I suggest that the observation of women in field situations may provide clues to criteria used by females in the initial selection of male partners. As much of the work surrounding human attraction has involved laboratory studies or data collected from couples in established relationships, the observation of nonverbal behavior in field settings may provide a fruitful avenue for the exploration of human female choice in the preliminary stages of male-female interaction.
The present investigation examined the degree to which various characteristics are desired in five types of relational partners. Men and women (N = 700) indicated their prefer- ences for several attributes in either a casual sex partner, dating partner, marriage partner, same-sex friend, or opposite-sex friend (randomly assigned). Participants also indicated how important it was to obtain a partner with the desired level of each attribute. Although participants most preferred warmth and kindness, expressivity and openness, and a good sense of humor across relationship types, they clearly distinguished between romantic/sexual relationships and friendships. Specifically, participants preferred (and felt that it was more important to obtain) higher levels of many desirable characteristics - including physical attractiveness, social status attributes, and disposition or personality traits (e.g., warmth, expressiveness, humor, intelligence) - in a romantic/sexual partner than in a friend. Participants also differentiated between same-sex and opposite-sex friend- ships. In general, they preferred higher levels of and/or believed it was more important to obtain physical attractive- ness, social status, and dispositional/personality attributes from opposite-sex friends than from same-sex friends. To at least some degree, men's preferences were associated with the number of others they believed were available for a particular type of relationship; women's preferences generally were associated with perceptions of their own desirability as a partner.
Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.
The effects of clothing revealingness and dyad-sex composition on perceptions of male- and female-stimulus persons' sexuality were examined. Based on Abbey's (1982) findings, we hypothesized that men would attribute more sexuality to both male and female targets than women would. Furthermore, we predicted that the difference between men's and women's sexuality ratings would be most divergent when a male-female dyad was presented and when the female stimulus person wore revealing clothing. A laboratory study was conducted in which subjects viewed a photograph of two students in a classroom. As predicted, male subjects rated female targets as more sexy and seductive than did female subjects. Also as predicted, female targets who wore revealing clothing were rated as more sexy and seductive than those wearing nonrevealing clothing. Female targets were rated higher on sexual traits regardless of the gender of their partner. Men did not consistently perceive male stimulus persons more sexually than women did. Finally, both female and male targets were perceived as more kind and warm when they wore nonrevealing clothing. The implications of these findings for person perception and date rape research are described.
To identify the universal dimensions of long-term mate preferences, we used an archival database of preference ratings provided by several thousand participants from three dozen cultures [Buss, D. M. (1989)]. Participants from each culture responded to the same 18-item measure. Statistical procedures ensured that ratings provided by men and women were weighted equally, and that ratings provided by participants from each culture were weighted equally. We identified four universal dimensions: Love vs. Status/Resources; Dependable/Stable vs. Good Looks/Health; Education/Intelligence vs. Desire for Home/Children; and Sociability vs. Similar Religion. Several standard sex differences replicated across cultures, including women’s greater valuation of social status and men’s greater valuation of physical attractiveness. We present culture-specific ratings on the universal dimensions across-sex and between-sex to facilitate future cross-cultural work on human mating psychology.
Two studies examined which traits males and females desire in partners at various levels of relationship development in an attempt to integrate evolutionary models (which emphasize sex differences) and social exchange models (which emphasize self-appraisals). In Study 1, male and female students specified their minimum criteria on 24 traits for a date, sexual partner, exclusive dating partner, marriage partner, and 1-night sexual liaison. They also rated themselves on the same dimensions. Sex differences were greatest for casual sexual liaisons, with men's criteria being consistently lower than women's. Men's self-ratings were generally less correlated with their criteria for a 1-night stand, as well. Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1, adding several modifications, including a measure of Ss' sex typing. Sex typing had few effects. The advantages of combining social psychological and evolutionary perspectives are discussed.
Swami, V. & Barrett, S. (2011). British men’s hair color preferences: An assessment of courtship solicitation and stimulus ratings. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 52 , 595–600.
Two studies examined the influence of women’s hair color on approach behavior by British men and on ratings of physical attractiveness and personality. In Study 1, a female confederate whose hair color was dyed blonde, brunette, or red was instructed to sit in several nightclubs. It was found that she was approached significantly more frequently by men in the blonde condition. In Study 2, images of the same confederate were rated by 126 men. Results showed that the brunette stimulus was rated as more physically attractive, intelligent, approachable, competent, and arrogant, whereas the blonde stimulus was rated as more needy. These results are discussed in relation to the literature on hair color and attractiveness, but also in terms of women’s own perceptions of their hair color.
To test the effect of women's hair color on the frequency of offering help, male (n = 1,508) and female (n = 892) French motorists were tested in a hitchhiking situation. Five 20- to 22- yr.-old female confederates wore a wig with blonde, brown, or black hair. Each confederate was instructed to stand by the side of a road frequented by hitchhikers and hold out her thumb to catch a ride. Blonde hair, compared with brown hair or black hair, was associated with a small but significantly larger number of male drivers who stopped to offer a ride (18 vs 14%). No difference was found for those with brown and black hair (14 and 13%, respectively). No effect of hair color was found for female drivers who stopped. The greater attractiveness associated with blonde hair for women appears to explain these data.
Evidence is presented showing that body fat distribution as measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is correlated with youthfulness, reproductive endocrinologic status, and long-term health risk in women. Three studies show that men judge women with low WHR as attractive. Study 1 documents that minor changes in WHRs of Miss America winners and Playboy playmates have occurred over the past 30-60 years. Study 2 shows that college-age men find female figures with low WHR more attractive, healthier, and of greater reproductive value than figures with a higher WHR. In Study 3, 25- to 85-year-old men were found to prefer female figures with lower WHR and assign them higher ratings of attractiveness and reproductive potential. It is suggested that WHR represents an important bodily feature associated with physical attractiveness as well as with health and reproductive potential. A hypothesis is proposed to explain how WHR influences female attractiveness and its role in mate selection.
Social exchange and evolutionary models of mate selection incorporate economic assumptions but have not considered a key distinction between necessities and luxuries. This distinction can clarify an apparent paradox: Status and attractiveness, though emphasized by many researchers, are not typically rated highly by research participants. Three studies supported the hypothesis that women and men first ensure sufficient levels of necessities in potential mates before considering many other characteristics rated as more important in prior surveys. In Studies 1 and 2, participants designed ideal long-term mates, purchasing various characteristics with 3 different budgets. Study 3 used a mate-screening paradigm and showed that people inquire 1st about hypothesized necessities. Physical attractiveness was a necessity to men, status and resources were necessities to women, and kindness and intelligence were necessities to both.
There is a strong contemporary association between high heels and female sexuality. We investigated the hypothesis that one motivation for women wearing high heels is that it artificially increases the femininity of gait. We isolated the effects of heels on gait using point-light methodology. Females were recorded walking in flat shoes and high heels. Participants viewed point-light videos of the women wearing the two types of shoe. Participants judged the females in the heels condition as significantly more attractive (with a large effect size) than the females in the flat shoe condition. Biomechanical analyses revealed that wearing high heels led to increased femininity of gait including reduced stride length and increased rotation and tilt of the hips. We conclude that high heels exaggerate sex specific aspects of female gait and women walking in high heels could be regarded as a supernormal stimulus. (c) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Research has shown that with some nonhuman primates, red is associated with greater sexual attractiveness of females. Five female confederates in their early 20s posed as hitchhikers wearing T-shirts of different colors (black, white, red, blue, green, or yellow). It was found that the women wearing red solicited a higher response in the number of male drivers who stopped to offer a ride. No color effect was found when considering the behavior of female drivers. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2012
Thirty-eight American female college students completed several body-image measures and were photographed while wearing their typical facial cosmetics and following the removal of their makeup, in a counterbalanced within-subject experimental design. Results indicated more positive body-image cognitions and affect in the cosmetics-present than the cosmetics-absent condition. The more makeup typically worn by the subject, the greater the body-image differences between the two cosmetics conditions. Sixteen peer judges rated the attractiveness of the women in either the cosmetics-present or the cosmetics-absent photograph. Male judges were less favorable when the women were cosmetics free; female judges were not differentially affected. Findings are discussed in the context of a dynamic state-trait perspective that physical appearance is not simply a fixed, immutable attribute, but rather is altered by individuals to manage and control their self- and social images.
Research indicates that males perceive people to be more interested in sex than do women and are less able than women to differentiate among liking, love, and sexual involment. Does this mean, as Abbey (1982) hypothesized, that males cannot differentiate between friendly and sexually interested behavior? Videotapes were prepared of five couples, each showing a male and a female behaving in either a friendly or a sexually interrested fashion. The design was 2 (sex of subject) X 2 (male intent) X 2 (female intent) X 2 (sex of actor), with sex of actor as a within-subject factor. The data were analyzed by means of a MANOVA. Results of subjects' ratings of videotapes indicate that 1) males perceive both males and females as having more sexual interest than do females, and 2) both males and females differentiate between friendly and interested behavior. We concluded that 1) males and females have different thresholds for the perception of sexual intent, and 2) members of either sex can make errors, depending upon their perceptual threshold and the emotivity of the actors. The gender difference in the perception of sexual intent is thought to result from the male's greater sexual appetite, which the male uses as a model for the attribution of the appetites of others.
The western consensus is that obese women are considered attractive by Afro-Americans and by many societies from nonwestern developing countries. This belief rests mainly on results of nonstandardized surveys dealing only with body weight and size, ignoring body fat distribution. The anatomical distribution of female body fat as measured by the ratio of waist to hip circumference (WHR) is related to reproductive age, fertility, and risk for various major diseases and thus might play a role in judgment of attractiveness. Previous research (Singh 1993a, 1993b) has shown that in the United States Caucasian men and women judge female figures with feminine WHRs as attractive and healthy. To investigate whether young Indonesian and Afro-American men and women rate such figures similarly, female figures representing three body sizes (underweight, normal weight, and overweight) and four WHRs (two feminine and two masculine) were used. Results show that neither Indonesian nor Afro-American subjects judge overweight figures as attractive and healthy regardless of the size of WHR. They judged normal weight figures with feminine WHRs as most attractive, healthy, and youthful. The consensus on women's attractiveness among Indonesian, Afro-American, and U.S. Caucasian male and female subjects suggests that various cultural groups have similar criteria for judging the ideal woman's shape.
Previous research on the effect of hair color on people’s evaluation and behavior has revealed discrepant results and the real effect of both male and female hair color on their mating attractiveness has never been tested. In Study 1, female confederates wearing blond, brown, black or red colored wigs were observed while sitting in a nightclub. In Study 2, male confederates wearing different colored wigs asked women in a nightclub for a dance. It was found that blond women were more frequently approached by men whereas blond males did not receive more acceptances to their requests. However, in both conditions, red hair was associated with less attractiveness. Evolutionary theory and differences in mating preferences are used to explain the blond hair effect. Scarcity of red-haired individuals in the population and negative stereotypes associated with red hair are used to explain the negative effect of red hair.
The number of responses to personal advertisements can be a good source of information about preferences within the human mate market. From an analysis of responses to 551 advertisements placed by males in a local Lower Silesian (Poland) newspaper and 617 placed by females, we assessed which particular traits influenced the “hit rate” (the number of responses), using the Generalized Linear Model (GLM) with the number of responses as the dependent variable and traits offered by advertisers such as age, education level, place of residence, marital status, height, weight, offered resources, and attractiveness as the independent variables. The traits that appeared to influence the hit rate for advertisements placed by males were, in order of importance, education level, age, height, and resources offered, all of which were positively correlated with the hit rate. In contrast, certain traits advertised by females such as weight, height, education, and stated age were all negatively correlated with the hit rate. Resources offered by men had only a small positive effect and the advertising of general attractiveness by women had no effect at all on the hit rate, suggesting that respondents to personal advertisements rely much more on relatively objective traits, such as achieved education, male height, and female weight, than on those traits which are more open to subjective error or manipulation.
In many non-human primate species, female red displays are a signal of sexual receptivity and this signal attracts male conspecifics. In the present research, we proposed and tested a human analog whereby perceived sexual receptivity mediates the relation between red and sexual attraction in men viewing women. Two experiments were conducted, each of which provided support for the hypothesized mediational model. Experiment 1 documented the mediational role of perceived sexual receptivity using the experimental–causal-chain approach, and Experiment 2 did so using the measurement-of-mediation approach. Alternative mediator variable candidates were ruled out, and participants showed no evidence of awareness of the red effect. These findings document red as a subtle, but surprisingly powerful environmental stimulus that can serve parallel functions in the mating game for human and non-human primates.
The studies described in this article examine retrospective reports of naturally occurring misperceptions of friendliness as sexual interest. Previous research has demonstrated that men perceive other people and situations more sexually than women do. The purpose of this research was to examine how this gender difference in perceptions of sexuality is exhibited in actual interactions between women and men. Two surveys of undergraduates were conducted. The results indicated that a large percentage of both women and men had experienced such misperceptions, although more women had than men. Most of these incidents were quickly resolved without problems; however, others involved some degree of forced sexual activity and left the individual feeling angry, humiliated, and depressed. Gender differences in the characteristics of these incidents and reactions to them are described. The implications of these findings for future research on gender differences in perceptions of sexual intent are discussed.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of cosmetics use on impression formation. The study was a single factor experiment with three levels of cosmetics (heavy, moderate, none). Eighty-five undergraduate females viewed one of three colored photographs of a professional model wearing either heavy, moderate, or no cosmetics and indicated impressions of her attractiveness, femininity, personal temperament, personality, and morality by checking 7-point Likert-type scales. Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference on impressions of personal temperament or personality traits based on cosmetics use. Cosmetics use did significantly affect impressions of attractiveness, femininity, and morality.
Previous studies have indicated negative evaluations of women with tattoos. However, a study by Swami and Furnham (2007) showed that tattooed women were rated as less physically attractive but more sexually promiscuous. Given that men interpret women's sexual intent according to their physical appearance, we predicted that women with tattoos would be more favorably approached by men. A temporary tattoo was placed on confederates' lower back, or not, and all confederates were instructed to read a book while lying flat on their stomach on a well-known beach. Two experiments were conducted. The first experiment showed that more men (N = 220) approached the tattooed confederates and that the mean latency of their approach was quicker. A second experiment showed that men (N = 440) estimated to have more chances to have a date and to have sex on the first date with tattooed confederates. However, the level of physical attractiveness attributed to the confederate was not influenced by the tattoo condition. These results were discussed with respect to men's possible misinterpretation of women wearing tattoos and the risks associated with this misinterpretation.
Previous research has indicated that a light tactile contact is associated with a positive response towards the person who is touching. The effect of touch on courtship was investigated in this experiment, which was conducted in a field setting. A female confederate either slightly touched or did not touch a man in a bar when asking him for some help. It was found that men who were touched showed more interest toward the female confederate than when no touch occurred. It was also found that touch was associated with stronger courtship intentions by men. The importance of women's nonverbal patterns in the courtship context and the trend of men to misinterpret women's intent are proposed to explain these results.
According to cultural stereotypes, men are more eager for sex than are women; women are more likely to set limits on such activity. In this paper, we review the work of theorists who have argued in favor of this proposition and review the interview and correlational data which support this contention. Finally, we report two experimental tests of ihis hypothesis. In these experiments, conducted in 1978 and 1982, male and female confederates of average attractiveness approached potential partners with one of three requests: "Would you go out tonight?" "Will you come over to my apartment?" or "Would you go to bed with me?" The great majority of men were willing to have a sexual liaison with the women who approached them. Women were not. Not one woman agreed to a sexual liaison. Many possible reasons for this marked gender difference were discussed. These studies were run in 1978 and 1982. It has since become important to track how the threat of AIDS is affecting men and women's willingness to date, come to an apartment, or to engage in casual sexual relations.
Examined the effect of female encouragement on male initiation of interaction in a social environment. In 4 conditions, a female confederate established eye contact with a male in a drinking establishment. Eye contact was established once or multiple times within a 5-min period. After eye contact was established, the confederate smiled or did not smile. In a 5th condition, the female smiled and looked down in the general direction of the designated S. The dependent variable was whether the S approached and talked to the confederate within a 10-min period. Two attractive female confederates were each assigned 10 Ss in each of the 5 conditions. The highest approach behavior (60%) was observed in the condition in which there was repeated eye contact plus smiling. In each of the remaining 4 conditions, the confederate was approached less than 20% of the time. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Obtained 115 female undergraduates' somatic preferences in judging the male and female body and related them to Ss' own personality and background characteristics. Ss made paired comparison preference ratings of a set of 15 male and a set of 15 female profile silhouettes which varied in chest/breast, buttocks, and leg size. The group as a whole selected a male silhouette of moderate size (thickness) with small buttocks as the most attractive male physique. A moderate-sized male silhouette with a somewhat larger chest was also favored. This finding gives only partial support to the cultural belief that women prefer large chests in men, since the large-chested or "Atlas"-type physique received only slight endorsement. A moderate-sized female silhouette with small buttocks was chosen as the preferred female figure. In addition, an evenly proportioned and moderately built female silhouette was also highly valued. Larger buttocked male and female silhouettes were clearly disliked, but less definite preference patterns were obtained with regard to leg size. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This . . . book is the first to present a unified theory of human mating behavior. [It] is based on the most massive study of human mating ever undertaken, encompassing more than 10,000 people of all ages from thirty-seven cultures worldwide.
If we all want love, why is there so much conflict in our most cherished relationships? To answer this question, we must look into our evolutionary past, according to David M. Buss.
The book discusses casual sex and long-term relationships, sexual conflict, the elusive quest for harmony between the sexes, and much more.
Buss's research leads to a radical shift from the standard view of men's and women's sexual psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book is woven around two themes—biology and love. It is also about how people see love: how the lovers see each other, and how scientists, scholars, and laypeople have seen intimacy and its relationship to our cultural, social, and biological lives.
My purpose is to describe how love, intimacy, and courtship grow from a biological core to affect our entire lives. And the warp and weft of this purpose are two themes: the courtship sequence and biosocial functionality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of facial attractiveness and waist to hip ratio (WHR) on five judgements of attractiveness (attractiveness, sexiness, healthiness, fertility and pregnancy). It was hypothesised that facial attractiveness would be more important than WHR for all measures except for pregnancy. Four levels of WHR were matched with two levels of facial attractiveness to produce eight individual stimuli based on the same figure. These were rated on a seven point bi-polar scale for each measure by 100 male subjects. A correlation matrix revealed that attractiveness was most highly correlated with sexiness; healthiness was most highly correlated with fertility, and pregnancy was independent of all other measures. Results revealed that both facial attractiveness and WHR were highly significant in influencing the five judgement measures. Facial attractiveness seems more important than WHR for all measures except pregnancy. Following overall linear trend analysis for all measures it was suggested that WHR is the best predictor of perceived pregnancy. The results are discussed in the context of evolutionary theory. Limitations of the study, particularly reliance on limited stimuli, are acknowledged.
The AIDS epidemic has had little impact on the gender differences in willingness to engage in casual sex encountered by dark and Hatfield (1989) 10 years ago. Whereas both men and women were willing to data a stranger, it was only the males who were willing to go to a female's apartment or to bed with her. These results from two experiments are consistent with the sociobiological framework. In addition, the results of Experiment 2 indicated that females were not saying no due to a concern for personal safety.
The present study investigated mate preferences for five different levels of relationship involvement—marriage, serious relationship, falling in love, casual sex, and sexual fantasies–among individuals of 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 years of age. Consistent with an evolutionary perspective, men preferred mates who were higher in physical attractiveness than themselves, whereas women preferred mates who were higher in income, education, self–confidence, intelligence, dominance, and social position than themselves. The lower the level of relationship involvement, the lower were the preferred levels of education, physical attractiveness, and, particularly for males, preferred intelligence in comparison to oneself. For sexual fantasies, men and women preferred mates who were higher in physical attractiveness than those they preferred for real partners. There were few age differences in mate preferences, although older individuals set higher standards for a potential mate’s education.
In many non-human primate species, a display of red by a female increases attraction behavior in male conspecifics. In two experiments, we investigate an analogous effect in humans, specifically, whether red on a woman's shirt increases attraction behavior in men. In Experiment 1, men who viewed an ostensible conversation partner in a red versus a green shirt chose to ask her more intimate questions. In Experiment 2, men who viewed an ostensible interaction partner in a red versus a blue shirt chose to sit closer to her. These effects were observed across participants' perceptions of their own attractiveness (Experiment 1) and general activation and mood (Experiment 2). Our findings suggest that red acts as a basic, non-lexical prime, influencing reproduction-relevant behavior in like manner across species. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Physical appearance is an integral component of self-presentation in all social situations, including that of applying for a job. This project investigated the relationship between employment evaluations of women and one aspect of their appearance under the individual's control—the use of varying degrees of cosmetics. Cosmetics use was found to be positively correlated with perceived attractiveness, femininity, and sexiness. Based on resume evaluations, however, cosmetics use had a negative effect on the expected performance of female applicants for a gender-typed (secretary) position, but no effect on the expected performance of female applicants for a nongender-typed (accountant) position. Makeup thus appears to strengthen sex role stereotypes associated with traditionally feminine jobs.
The present archival study examined the depiction of women's beauty in our society with respect to hair color, especially blondeness. Raters reliably categorized the hair color of cover models for two women's magazines (Ladies Home Journal and Vogue) and for Playboy magazine centerfolds from the 1950s through the 1980s. These media images from 750 observations were compared among magazines, among decades, and in relation to the proportion of blondes in a normative sample of adult White women. Results revealed that the percentage of blondes in each magazine exceeded the base rate of blondes in the norm group. Blondes were more prevalent in Playboy centerfolds than in the women's magazines. Although temporal patterns varied from magazine to magazine, the average proportion of blondes was lowest in the 1960s and highest in the 1970s. The study's findings have numerous implications for social issues and research regarding the psychology of physical appearance.
The present study examined preferences for absolute height and the male-taller norm in a community sample of 901 British individuals. Initial results replicated previous studies, showing that both women and men preferred relationships in which the woman was shorter than the man. Specifically, the ideal male partner for women was significantly taller than the average man in our sample, and there was no significant difference between the ideal female partner for men and the average woman in the sample. In addition, there were weak associations between height preferences and endorsement of several aspects of the traditional male gender role (rs = .04–.23). Height preferences were also correlated with self-esteem (rs = .15–.17), conformity (rs = − .14–.15), and the Big Five personality facets of neuroticism and extraversion (rs = .07–.25). Limitations of the present study and the association between attractiveness preferences and actual mate choice decisions are discussed in conclusion.
In this work, we provide evidence based on direct observation of behavior in encounters of opposite-sexed strangers, that women initiate and "control" the outcome. In the first minute of these videotaped 10-min interactions, neither female "solicitation" behavior nor "negative" behavior is strongly related to professed interest in the man, while female "affirmative" behavior at this stage modulates male verbal output in later stages (4-10 min). Although the rate of female courtship-like behavior is significantly higher in the first minute, it is only in the fourth to tenth minute that the rate of female courtship-like behavior is correlated with professed female interest. We hypothesize that this serves as a strategic dynamic reflecting sexual asymmetry in parental investment and the potential cost of male deception to women. Ambiguous protean behavioral strategies veil individuals' intentions and make their future actions unpredictable. These behavioral strategies may result in men's overestimation of female sexual interest.
There are a large number of empirical studies supporting the evolutionary psychological prediction that the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is an important attribute of female attractiveness. In contrast to previous research, which is almost exclusively based on line drawings, the present study used color photographs as stimuli. For each of six attractive females there were the original photographs and two digitally manipulated pictures, one depicting a lower and one depicting a higher WHR. In a between subjects design the pictures were rated by 180 males and 180 females. The ratings were done on 108 scales covering a broad range of personality factors. A factor analysis of these scales yielded seven factors. Only one of these factors was significantly affected by the WHR manipulation, namely Attractiveness. In accordance with evolutionary psychological expectations, a lower ratio was more attractive than a higher one. In addition to the empirical findings, some methodological issues are discussed. It is argued that, compared with face research, research on the human figure is in a poor state.
It had been found that cosmetics do improve female facial attractiveness when judgments were made based on photographs. However, these studies were conducted only on laboratory and field studies are scarce in the literature and none of them have tested the effect of customers’ behavior. An experiment was carried out in restaurant in order to verify if waitresses’ makeup is associated with an increase in patrons’ tipping behavior. Female waitresses with and without makeup were instructed to act in the same way than usual with their patrons. Results showed that the makeup condition was associated with a significant increase in tipping behavior of the male customers.
Numerous studies have shown that men overestimate the sexual intent of women based on their clothing style; however, this hypothesis has not been assessed empirically in a natural setting. This small field study measured the time it took for men to approach two female confederates sitting in a tavern, one wearing suggestive clothes and one wearing more conservative clothes. The behavior of 108 men was observed over 54 periods on 16 different nights in two different taverns. The time it took for the men to approach after initial eye contact was significantly shorter in the suggestive clothing condition. The men were also asked by male confederates to rate the likelihood of having a date with the women, and having sex on the first date. The men rated their chances to have a date and to have sex significantly higher in the suggestive clothing condition. Results are discussed with respect to men's possible misinterpretation that women's clothing indicates sexual interest, and the risks associated with the misinterpretation.
Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers have been found in previous studies conducted in the United States. However, this effect has never been replicated in another culture, and the impact of the attractiveness of the solicitor remains in question. An experiment was conducted in France in which male and female confederates of average versus high attractiveness approached potential partners of the opposite sex (120 males and 120 females) and asked them: "Will you come to my apartment to have a drink?" or "Would you go to bed with me?" The great majority of the men were willing to have a sexual liaison with a woman, especially when she was physically attractive. Women were more disinclined to have a drink, and none but one accepted the male's sexual request. Such results confirm that men are apparently more eager for sexual activity than women are.
The study reported here forms part of an investigation of what psychological benefits, if any, exist for the user of cosmetics.
A central theme in the work on physical attractiveness is that if one is physically attractive one is assumed to have a more ideal personality than someone of lesser attractiveness.
If cosmetics really do make people look more physically attractive, then with the use of cosmetics others should perceive people more favourably in terms of personality characteristics.
This study, therefore, attempted to find out whether cosmetics really do improve appearance ratings (by males and females) and in result improve ratings of personality.
Colour photographs of four female stimulus persons of average physical attractiveness in each of four modes (neither make-up nor hair care; make-up but no hair care; no make-up but hair care; both make-up and hair care) were evaluated by a judge panel of sixteen males and sixteen females. The amount, extent and style of use of facial make-up and hair care was no more than would be in everyday use.
Each judge saw one stimulus person in each mode but no stimulus person in more than one mode in a counter-balanced design, using 7-point rating scales of six appearance and fourteen personality dimensions.
Two hypotheses were confirmed:
It is not certain from this study whether persons using cosmetics are rated more favourably than without cosmetics because they are seen as more physically attractive and in result acquire more favourable ratings for attributes which are associated with being physically attractive or whether there is a direct effect on perceived personality, independent of enhancement of physical attractiveness, or both.
Either explanation is possible, though there is some support for the idea that the use of cosmetics (or at least hair care) may have a direct effect on perceived personality.
If this were so, it would suggest the existence of a separate positive cosmetic stereotype which carries its own concept ‘what has been cared for is good’. This stereotype would form an extension of the ‘what is beautiful is good’ stereotype for physical attractiveness. Otherwise, and as a result of the work reported here, the latter might become ‘what has been made beautiful is good’, when cosmetics are used.
In Study 1, 55 young women responded that they preferred men with hairy chests and circumcised penises. The chest was the male body part reported to be most “sexually stimulating” to females. The busts were the female body part most “sexually stimulating” to males ( n = 34). In Study 2, men ( n = 35) preferred larger busts than women typically possess on the average, but the women ( n = 48) tended to overestimate the bust size most preferred by males. The ratings of bust-revealing clothing showed the males were more desirous of actually seeing the naked bust than females appear to realize.
In this work, we provide evidence based on direct observation of behavior in encounters of opposite-sexed strangers, that women initiate and "control" the outcome. In the first minute of these videotaped 10-min interactions, neither female "solicitation" behavior nor "negative" behavior is strongly related to professed interest in the man, while female "affirmative" behavior at this stage modulates male verbal output in later stages (4-10 min). Although the rate of female courtship-like behavior is significantly higher in the first minute, it is only in the fourth to tenth minute that the rate of female courtship-like behavior is correlated with professed female interest. We hypothesize that this serves as a strategic dynamic reflecting sexual asymmetry in parental investment and the potential cost of male deception to women. Ambiguous protean behavioral strategies veil individuals' intentions and make their future actions unpredictable. These behavioral strategies may result in men's overestimation of female sexual interest.
In a sample of 183 men and 186 women, the authors assessed (a) the relative contributions of gender and level of nonverbal social cues to the perception of a female actor's sexual intent during a videotaped social interaction with a man and (b) the association between those variables and personality traits implicated in faulty sexual-information processing. The authors assessed those variables while the participants viewed 1 of 3 film segments depicting a female-male interaction. The authors experimentally manipulated eye contact, touch, physical proximity, and female clothing. At all levels of those nonverbal cues, the men perceived more sexual intent in the female actor than did the women. The perception of the female actor's sexual intent increased as the nonverbal cues in the film segments were magnified: Both actors displayed more eye contact, touch, and physical proximity, and the female actor wore more revealing clothing. Relative to the women, the men demonstrated greater sexual preoccupation and reduced sociosexual effectiveness, variables associated with inferring greater sexual intent in the female actor.
Disparate cultural practices suggest that small foot size may contribute to female attractiveness. Two hypotheses potentially explain such a pattern. Sexual dimorphism in foot size may lead observers to view small feet as feminine and large feet as masculine. Alternately, because small female feet index both youth and nulliparity, evolution may have favored a male preference for this attribute in order to maximize returns on male reproductive investment. Whereas the observational hypothesis predicts symmetrical polarizing preferences, with small feet being preferred in women and large feet being preferred in men, the evolutionary hypothesis predicts asymmetrical preferences, with the average phenotype being preferred in men. Using line drawings that varied only in regard to relative foot size, we examined judgments of attractiveness in nine cultures. Small foot size was generally preferred for females, while average foot size was preferred for males. These results provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that humans possess an evolved preference for small feet in females.
We employed a novel technique to explore how the body's motion and morphology affect judgments of sex and gender. Stimuli depicted animated human walkers that varied in motion (gait patterns varying shoulder swagger and hip sway) and in morphology (waist-to-hip ratio). The potency of morphology in categorical sex judgments was confirmed. Visual scanning of the walkers was concentrated in the waist and hip region of the body (Study 1a). This targeted scanning was attenuated, however, when the sex of the target had been prespecified (Study 1b). Body motion permitted categorical judgments of sex, but these judgments were mediated by perceived gender (Study 2). These studies provide converging evidence for the primacy of the body's shape in categorical judgments of sex.