No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Biodiesel production from oils and fats with high FFAs
Abstract
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines consisting of the alkyl monoesters of fatty acids from vegetable oils or animal fats. Most of the biodiesel that is currently made uses soybean oil, methanol, and an alkaline catalyst. The high value of soybean oil as a food product makes production of a cost-effective fuel very challenging. However, there are large amounts of low-cost oils and fats such as restaurant waste and animal fats that could be converted to biodiesel. The problem with processing these low cost oils and fats is that they often contain large amounts of free fatty acids (FFA) that cannot be converted to biodiesel using an alkaline catalyst. In this study, a technique is described to reduce the free fatty acids content of these feedstocks using an acid-catalyzed pretreatment to esterify the free fatty acids before transesterifying the triglycerides with an alkaline catalyst to complete the reaction. Initial process development was performed with synthetic mixtures containing 20% and 40% free fatty acids, prepared using palmitic acid. Process parameters such as the molar ratio of alcohol, type of alcohol, acid catalyst amount, reaction time, and free fatty acids level were investigated to determine the best strategy for converting the free fatty acids to usable esters. The work showed that the acid level of the high free fatty acids feedstocks could be reduced to less than 1% with a 2-step pretreatment reaction. The reaction mixture was allowed to settle between steps so that the water-containing alcohol phase could be removed. The 2-step pretreatment reaction was demonstrated with actual feedstocks, including yellow grease with 12% free fatty acids and brown grease with 33% free fatty acids. After reducing the acid levels of these feedstocks to less than 1%, the transesterification reaction was completed with an alkaline catalyst to produce fuel-grade biodiesel.
... A similar experiment on mahua (Madhuca indica) biodiesel for performance analysis on a compression ignition engine was carried out by Raheman and Ghadge [4]. Many experimental works were carried out for Performance of IC engine by using Karanja oil, fish oil, fats, sunflower oil, canola oil, olive oil, waste oil, Soyabean oil, Thumba oil, Cotton seed oil, and Algae oil [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. India is ready for biodiesel revolution. ...
... Journal of Mechanical and Construction Engineering (JMCE) A2Z Journals (7) The Brake mean effective pressure may be evaluated by- (8) Where, L is the stroke length (Swept length in the cylinder), A is the cross-section area of piston/cylinder and N is R.P.M. The performance characteristic curves for CI engine fueled with blended Benola biodiesel plotted for BP, Load, fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency as shown in figure 4. The engine performance is tested for various Benola biodiesel blends such as B0 to B30 and observed that the fuel consumption and brake power increases with increasing the load on dynamometer. ...
In this communication, methyl ester of Benola oil was prepared by transesterification using solid potassium hydro-oxide as a catalyst and used in a 5 hp single cylinder four stroke diesel engine. Tests were performed at different load conditions and the performance was analyzed for B5 to B30 blends of Benola biodiesel and pure mineral diesel. It was concluded that the lower blends of biodiesel enhance the brake thermal efficiency and reduce fuel consumption. It was also noticed that it reduces carbon pollution but slightly increases the NOx. Density of the fuel used (gm/cc) Vol Volumetric efficiency (%) bth Brake thermal efficiency (%) mech Mechanical efficiency (%) 1
... In the whole world the research on biodiesel comes in revolutionary action [7]. So many experimental works were carried out by different researchers on various biodiesels like fish oil, fats, sunflower oil, canola oil, olive oil, waste oil, Karanja oil, Soyabean oil, Thumba oil, Cotton seed oil, and Algae oil [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
... The Brake mean effective pressure may be evaluated by-= ( × 60 × 1000)/LAN [8] Where, L is the stroke length (Swept length in the cylinder), A is the cross-section area of piston/cylinder and N is R.P.M. ...
In this investigation, methyl ester of Mustard oil was prepared by trans esterification using solid potassium hydro-oxide as catalyst and used in a 3.5kW single cylinder four stroke diesel engine. Tests were performed at different load conditions and the performance was analyzed for B5 to B30 blends of Mustard biodiesel and pure mineral diesel. It was concluded that the lower blends of biodiesel enhance the break thermal efficiency and reduce the fuel consumption. It is proved that the use of biodiesel (pro-duced from Mustard oil) in compression ignition engine is a viable substitute to diesel. Keywords Mustard oil, Trans esterification, Engine performance Nomenclature: A Cross sectional area of the Orifice (m2) BP Brake Power (kW) C.V Calorific Value (kJ/Kg) Cd Coefficient of discharge of Orifice d1 Diameter of rope (m) d Bore diameter (mm) FP Friction Power (kW) g Acceleration due to gravity (m/sec2) H Water head (mm of water) h Manometric air difference (mm) IP Indicated Power (kW) L Stroke length (mm) mf Mass of fuel consumption (Kg/hr) N Engine Speed (rpm) Nr Rated speed (rpm) sfc Specific fuel consumption (Kg/kW-hr) T Torque V Swept volume (m3/hr) W Load on engine (kg) Density of the fuel used (gm/cc) bth Brake thermal efficiency (%) mech Mechanical efficiency (%)
... In the whole world the research on biodiesel comes in revolutionary action [7]. So many experimental works were carried out by different researchers on various biodiesels like fish oil, fats, sunflower oil, canola oil, olive oil, waste oil, Karanja oil, Soyabean oil, Thumba oil, Cotton seed oil, and Algae oil [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
... The Brake mean effective pressure may be evaluated by-= ( × 60 × 1000)/LAN [8] Where, L is the stroke length (Swept length in the cylinder), A is the cross-section area of piston/cylinder and N is R.P.M. ...
In this investigation, methyl ester of Mustard oil was prepared by transesterification using solid potassium hydro-oxide as a catalyst and used in a 3.5kW single cylinder four stroke diesel engine. Tests were performed at different load conditions and the performance was analyzed for B5 to B30 blends of Mustard biodiesel and pure mineral diesel. It was concluded that the lower blends of biodiesel enhance the break thermal efficiency and reduce the fuel consumption. It is proved that the use of biodiesel (produced from Mustard oil) in compression ignition engine is a viable substitute to diesel.
... The lipid profile of Chlorella vulgaris contains saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, specifically palmitic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid, and stearic and linolenic acids. Generally, the acids present range from C16 to C18, with a higher percentage of palmitic acid [27][28][29][30]. ...
... 40 [12] Chlorella sp. 28-32 [13] Scenedesmus dimorphus 31 [14] 10.23 [15] Chlorella minutissima 31 [16] Scenedesmus obliquus 12-14 [18] Nannochloropsis salina 50-55 [17] vegetable oil with alcohol, obtaining biodiesel and the value-added residue glycerol [27,32,34,35]. Among the different alternatives for the production of biodiesel from microalgae as raw material, there is the conventional transesterification of oils, transesterification under supercritical operating conditions, direct transesterification of wet biomass, and in situ transesterification of dried microalgae, in addition to the effect of different types of catalysis. ...
The production of biodiesel from microalgae faces several problems to be solved, among them is the necessity of increasing their lipid content, optimizing the harvesting, and improving the conversion of lipids to bioenergy, therefore reducing the energy cost of the production process prior to its commercial launch. Research focused on optimizing the biodiesel production process known as transesterification has various objectives such as eliminating the biomass drying stage, unifying the extraction and transesterification stages, improving the reaction yield using supercritical conditions, providing heating with microwave and ultrasonic radiation, reusing enzymatic and heterogeneous catalysts, among others. This chapter aims to summarize the advances that have been achieved with the various operating conditions for the in situ, direct, and supercritical oil transesterification process of microalgae from the genera Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Spirulina, and Nannochloropsis.
... This debate poses ethical and social questions about the allocation of resources. Recent literature has explored the ethical implications of biofuel production [15]. ...
... Biodiesel can suffer from cold-weather issues, including gelling and cloud point problems, which can lead to engine and fuel system difficulties in colder climates. Recent studies have focused on the formulation of winter-grade biodiesel and its performance in cold temperatures [15]. 6. Technical Compatibility Volume 10; Issue: 11; November 2023 While biodiesel can be used in existing diesel engines, it may require modifications in certain cases. ...
Biodiesel, a renewable and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional diesel fuel, has garnered significant attention due to its potential to address pressing energy and environmental challenges. Biodiesel is a biofuel derived from organic materials, typically vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled cooking oils, through a process known as transesterification. During this process, these feedstocks are chemically converted into biodiesel and glycerol using alcohol and a catalyst. The resulting biodiesel can be used as a drop-in replacement for conventional diesel fuel, either in pure form (B100) or blended with petroleum diesel (e.g., B5, B20). Biodiesel is also known for its compatibility with existing diesel engines and infrastructure, which facilitates its adoption without significant modifications. However, challenges such as feedstock competition with food crops, energy balance concerns, and land-use change associated with biodiesel feedstock cultivation must be considered. Additionally, ongoing research focuses on improving the production process, exploring alternative feedstocks, and optimizing engine performance. Biodiesel represents a promising solution to reduce the environmental impact of the transportation sector and enhance energy security. Its advantages in emissions reduction, compatibility, and renewability make it a crucial player in the transition to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources. Addressing challenges while continuing to advance the state of the art in biodiesel production and application is essential for its successful integration into our energy landscape. Keywords: Biodiesel, Renewable Energy, Biofuel, Transesterification, Green House Gas Emissions
... Biodiesel is a desirable alternative source of renewable energy since it has similar fuel qualities. It is a biodegradable fuel that is suitable for use in the majority of diesel engines and is ecologically friendly [22], reducing global warming by emitting fewer greenhouse gases, having a sulfur content that is close to zero [23], being a non-toxic alternative fuel [7], and typically having a higher and comparable "cetane number" [23]. The economics of biofuels will expand fast in the twenty-first century. ...
... Biodiesel is a desirable alternative source of renewable energy since it has similar fuel qualities. It is a biodegradable fuel that is suitable for use in the majority of diesel engines and is ecologically friendly [22], reducing global warming by emitting fewer greenhouse gases, having a sulfur content that is close to zero [23], being a non-toxic alternative fuel [7], and typically having a higher and comparable "cetane number" [23]. The economics of biofuels will expand fast in the twenty-first century. ...
... The higher free fatty acid (FFA) content in crude NSO, approximately 6-9 wt %, forms the main difficulty in producing biodiesel via base-catalyzed transesterification [23]. Traditional alkaline catalysts form soap in addition to ester in the event of bio-oil with high FFAs and make difficulties in product separation [24]. It is reported that a pretreatment step of esterification via acid catalysis can lower the FFA level below 1 wt %, enabling the applicability of alkaline catalysts for the transformation of TG to biodiesel [25]. ...
... Canakci and Gerpen [24] studied the synthesis of biodiesel from synthetic soybean oil having an FFA of 20% through base-catalyzed transesterification. The study revealed that a single-step acid pretreatment is not sufficient to reduce the FFA content below 1 wt % needed for base-catalyzed transesterification and thus requires a two-step pretreatment. ...
The scarcity of fossil fuels, adverse climate effects due to fossil fuel consumption, and environmental concerns raised increased attention for renewable energy. Biodiesel has high potential as a renewable energy source and can substitute petroleum-derived fuel without any modification of the conventional diesel engine. In this contribution , biodiesel is obtained from Mesua ferrea L. (Nahor oil) by a three-step process consisting of saponification, acidification, and esterification as a renewable fuel. Nahor seed kernel gives maximum oil content of 58.6% (v/w) through the soxhlet extraction method by using n-hexane as solvent. An enhanced saponification reaction (~two-fold increase of initial reaction rate) was evident in the presence of CaO rather than NaOH and NaCl. A faster and more complete acidification reaction to free fatty acid (FFA) was evidenced for a 1 : 1.5 molar ratio of soap to acid (HCl) at 70°C temperature and ambient pressure. Biodiesel formation was found optimal for a 1 : 6 molar ratio of FFA to methanol at 60°C and atmospheric pressure, in presence of HCl as a catalyst. 1 H NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy of produced biodiesel confirms the full up-gradation of triglyceride (Nahor oil) to biodiesel. Detailed characterization of the derived biodiesel shows most of the properties are compatible with petrodiesel standards to a certain extent despite high pour and cloud points. Moreover, biodiesel derived from Nahor seed oil shows better compatibility with petrodiesel than sunflower or Koroch seed oil.
... However, alkaline catalysts cannot be used in feedstock with a high content of free fatty acids (FFAs) because they cause saponification of the FFAs. According to previous studies, lipids with FFA levels exceeding 0.5% [13,14], 1.0% [15][16][17], or 2.0% [18] undergo distinct saponification in the presence of alkaline ions. Another study reported that alkaline catalysts could be used when the FFA content was < 3.0% [19,20]. ...
... Isopropanol is costlier than methanol, and transesterification is necessary to make it worthwhile. To produce fuel-quality biodiesel, Canakci et al. [6] studied low-cost, high-FFA feedstock. High FFA feedstock could not be processed using conventional alkali catalysed transesterification methods. ...
Biodiesel has attracted a lot of attention as a possible replacement for traditional fuels due to the limited supply of fossil fuels and the growing concern about emissions of greenhouse gases. It is renewable and produces less hazardous emissions when burned. Enhancing biodiesel production is imperative to meet the escalating demand for eco-friendly fuels, serving as a remedy for the rising costs and dwindling accessibility of petroleum. This study aims in boosting neem biodiesel production specially in dry and unproductive soil regions and improving engine power using neem oil biodiesel, especially using lower blends. This study is in line with the initiatives that promote sustainable energy growth by gradually increase biodiesel blending from 15% to 30% in the near future. This research delves into the manufacturing of biodiesel from neem seeds and impact of its blends on the efficiency and emissions of compression ignition engines when combined with regular fuel. The biodiesel was produced using the transesterification method.Three distinct blends, B10, B15, and B20, were prepared by blending neem biodiesel with regular diesel. When testing engine performance, these mixtures were compared against pure diesel fuel. The specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency of all blend combinations improved with increasing load. In comparison to pure diesel, there were also decreased percentages of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and smoke opacity. There was an increase in nitrogen oxides with increasing load for all mixes as compared to pure diesel. The research results highlight neem biodiesel as a practical and efficient alternative to conventional diesel fuel due to its ability to enhance engine efficiency and lowering emissions.
... Chemically, the fundamental dogma of biodiesel synthesis and its composition (transesterification step) is shown in Figure 3. But today, before a continuous base-catalyzed transesterification reaction, two-step acid pretreatment is the best common technique of processing crude oil into biofuel [58][59][60] used a two-step esterification reaction of sulfonic acid-catalyzed to lessen the acid gratified of a high free fatty acid feedstock supply of less than 1wtp/ci. The twostep catalytic process has recently proven to be a cost-effective and efficient way to produce Biodiesel from waste edible oils by an acid content of 75.9mg ...
Uncritical withdrawal and usage of mineral oil has reduced fossil fuel assets, causing fuel shortages and
ecological deprivation. Due to fossil fuels’ environmental impact, biodiesel manufacturing has garnered
interest as an alternative to Petro diesel. Biodiesel is a renewable diesel fuel made from vegetable oils
and animal fats. Renewable energy seems like a good option for world energy needs, including Pakistan.
Thus, a state-available feedstock-based alternative fuel must be found. Although vegetable oil can be used
in diesel locomotives, using it for biodiesel production has become a major concern because it competes
with food nutrition, making it difficult to defend. Thus, the search for inedible oil-yielding plant sources
for biofuels has been fascinating and beneficial to the environment and food safety. Trans esterifying
non-edible oil with methanol and base or strong acid catalysts make Biodiesel. Several parameters affect
transesterification reaction. An optimum transesterification reaction depends on oil fatty acid composition
and free fatty acid concentration. Other factors include reaction temperature, alcohol-to-vegetable oil
ratio, catalyst, mixing intensity and reactant purity. The kinematic viscosity, acid value, density, water
content, flash point, pour point, cloud point and cold filter plugging point of biodiesel will be determined
using ASTM standards (D-6751) and EN (14214) with acceptable agreement. To determine biodiesel
composition and structure, FT-IR, NMR (1H & 13C), and GC-MS will be used. ICP-OES will calculate Na,
K, Ca and Mg compositions. Elemental Analyzer (EA) investigations would analyze C, H, O and N ratios.
Future feedstock research should reveal production costs, technological transformation opportunities for
farmers, and worldwide industrial applications. Biodiesel fuel characteristics, transesterification and the
most essential variables affecting the reaction are covered in this article.
... Overall, because this procedure is very mild, quick, and high-yielding, the "traditional" conditions are still essentially in place. Before performing the base-catalysed transesterification reaction, an acid pre-treatment may be necessary if a feedstock with a high acid value, such as discarded frying oil, is employed (Canakci & Van Gerpen, 2001). ...
The search for alternate energy sources has intensified due to
growing concerns. These worries include the availability of feed�stock in relation to supply security and the utilisation of domes�tic energy sources, volatility of cost, the ongoing depletion of
non-renewable petroleum reserves, and greenhouse gas emis�sions. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to list all of the legal,
regulatory, and incentive measures implemented to address these
concerns. The importance of fuels generated from biological
sources, including lipid substances like fats and oils, has grown.
Fuels produced through various production methods employing
fats and oils as feedstocks have varying compositions and physi�cal characteristics. Biodiesel is the most well-known of these
fuels
... An alkaline catalyst has many advantages over acid catalysts, such as a high reaction rate and reduced requirement for methanol [9,24], however, it cannot be applied to lipids with a high FFA content due to the saponification of the FFAs with alkaline ions. Previous studies prescribe an FFA-content limit of 0.5% [25,26], 1.0% [27][28][29], 2.0% [30], 3.0% [31,32], or 4.0% [33] to avoid saponification during biodiesel production. Since the threshold of FFA content for the possible use of an alkaline catalyst for biodiesel production seems to differ depending on the feedstock, catalyst, and reaction conditions, it should be experimentally determined in each case. ...
... The alkaline transesterification of high FFA-containing JO is considered complicated due to higher soap formation, loss of catalyst, and loss in product yield. The higher FFA content causes saponification of oil and requires the extra addition of an alkali catalyst for transesterification (Canakci and Van Gerpen, 2001). So in order to decrease the FFA before alkaline transesterification, acid pretreatment was used to reduce the FFA acids present in JO. ...
With the growing demand for vegetable oils, alternative non-edible feedstocks like Jatropha curcas seed oil have gained interest for biodiesel production. The study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the physicochemical properties and biodiesel production potential of locally produced J. curcas seeds in Pakistan. Two different approaches were applied: a chemical synthesis approach involving acidic pretreatment and alkaline transesterification, and a biosynthetic approach using a lipase-producing strain of the Bacillus subtilis Q5 strain. The microbial biosynthesized biodiesel was further optimized using the Plackett–Burman design. The physicochemical properties of the J. curcas methyl esters were analyzed to assess their suitability as biodiesel fuel. Initially, the raw oil had a high free fatty acid content of 13.11%, which was significantly reduced to 1.2% using sulfuric acid pretreatment, keeping the oil to methanol molar ratio to be 1:12. Afterward, alkaline transesterification of purified acid-pretreated seed oil resulted in 96% biodiesel yield at an oil to methanol molar ratio of 1:6, agitation of 600 revolutions per minute (RPM), temperature 60°C, and time 2 h. Moreover, alkaline transesterification yielded ∼98% biodiesel at the following optimized conditions: oil to methanol molar ratio 1:6, KOH 1%, time 90 min, and temperature 60°C. Similarly, the Bacillus subtilis Q5 strain yielded ∼98% biodiesel at the following optimized conditions: oil: methanol ratio of 1:9, agitation 150 RPM, inoculum size 10%, temperature 37°C, and n-hexane 10%. The fuel properties of J. curcas seed biodiesel are closely related to standard values specified by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D6751–20a), indicating its potential as a viable biodiesel fuel source.
... The increasing focus on the environmental impacts of fossil fuel Biodiesel is typically produced through the reaction of vegetable oil or animal fat with methanol in presence of a catalyst to yield glycerin and methyl esters [2,3,4,5]. The methyl esters produced in this process are called biodiesel . ...
Petroleum based fuels are obtained from limited reserves. These are finite reserves which are highly concentrated in certain regions of the world. Currently Jatropha biodiesel is receiving attention as an alternative fuel for diesel engine. The subject of the research presented in this thesis was the development new control strategies for automotive three way catalytic converters in order to fulfill future ultra-low exhaust emission standards. Three way catalytic converter is an effective technique to reduce NOx emissions from diesel engines because of Rh being used as catalyst helps to release the oxygen atoms stored in NOx in the reduction reaction. After these studies succeeded in reducing the NOx emissions from biodiesel by three way catalytic converter without a significant change of BTE, BSFC and smoke opacity. The main focus of this dissertation is on finding out the best or the most suitable blend of biodiesel which when used gives out least automotive exhaust emissions using a 3 way catalytic converter. A single cylinder water cooled IDI diesel engine was used for investigation. Smoke , NOx ,CO, CO 2 emissions were recorded and various engine performance parameters were also evaluated. The results and discussion based on the effect of 3 way catalytic converter on engine performance and emission characteristics of JB20, JB40, JB60, JB80, JB100 and diesel fuel without 3 way catalytic converter. The engine was tested at high load condition(100% maximum load) and fixed speed 1000 rpm. The performance parameters are measured and recorded for diesel fuel and JB and their blends.
... When using feedstocks that contain a high level of FFAs, a two-step approach is typically employed. 12,13 Pre-esterification of FFAs with alcohol is the first step, in which the FFAs are catalyzed using liquid acids (liquid acid catalysis, which reduces the FFAs content in oil by more than 99%). In the second step, the products from the first step are converted into biodiesel and glycerol by base-catalyzed transesterification. ...
Waste cooking oil (WCO) is a readily available and cheap feedstock for biodiesel production. However, WCO contains high levels of free fatty acids (FFAs), which negatively impact the biodiesel yield if homogeneous catalysts are used. Heterogeneous solid acid catalysts are preferred for low-cost feedstocks because the catalysts are highly insensitive to high levels of FFA in the feedstock. Therefore, in the present study, we synthesized and evaluated different solid catalysts, pure β-zeolite, ZnO-β-zeolite, and SO42-/ZnO-β-zeolite for the production of biodiesel using WCO as feedstock. The synthesized catalysts were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), pyridine-FTIR, N2 adsorption-desorption, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, and scanning electron microscopy, while the biodiesel product was analyzed using nuclear magnetic resonance (1H and 13C NMR) and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. The results revealed that the SO42-/ZnO-β-zeolite catalyst showed excellent catalytic performance for simultaneous transesterification and esterification of WCO, with a higher percentage conversion than the ZnO-β-zeolite and pure β-zeolite catalyst, due to the large pore size and high acidity. The SO42-/ZnO-β-zeolite catalyst exhibits 6.5 nm pore size, a total pore volume of 0.17 cm3/g, and high surface area of 250.26 m2/g. Experimental parameters such as catalyst loading, methanol:oil molar ratio, temperature, and reaction time were varied in order to establish the optimal parameters. The highest WCO conversion of 96.9% was obtained using the SO42-/ZnO-β-zeolite catalyst under an optimum reaction condition of 3.0 wt % catalyst loading, 200 °C reaction temperature, and 15:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil in 8 h reaction time. The WCO-derived biodiesel properties conform to the ASTM6751 standard specification. Our investigation of its kinetics revealed that the reaction follows a pseudo first-order kinetic model, with an activation energy (Ea) of 38.58 kJ/mol. Moreover, the stability and reusability of the catalysts were evaluated, and it was found that the SO42-/ZnO-β-zeolite catalyst exhibited good stability, giving a biodiesel conversion of over 80% after three synthesis cycles.
... Biodiesel is a fuel replacement because it is environmentally safe and benign, and it can be blended or used directly with conventional gasoline in uncontaminated diesel engines. It contains no sulfur, no aromatics and possesses a higher cetane number (> 47), with 10%-11% oxygen by weight, as in contrast with petrol [3], thereby minimizing the emission of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particle pollution in the exhaust gas. Biodiesel is usually synthesized by transesterification of pure vegetable oils with short-chain alcohols using alkaline catalysts. ...
Bacillus vallismortis BR2 and Escherichia coli Khodavandi-Alizadeh-2 lipases (E.C.3.1.1.3) were used to produce fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), a sustainable source of fuel. The lipase activity was measured using the titrimetric method after it was extracted from a solid fermented substrate in phosphate buffer. The use of Central Composite Design to optimize condition parameters was examined, while qualitative and quantitative assessments of FAME samples were performed using GC-MS with MSD in scan mode and selective ion monitoring. Lipase activity peaked at 24 h and then declined as the incubation time went on. The independent variables, such as pH, temperature, agitation, incubation time and enzyme quantity, all had an effect on biodiesel yield since they were all significant in the rate of biodiesel yield. FAME yield increased significantly after adding 1 to 2 mL of enzyme and a pH range of 4.57143 to 7.42857, but thereafter declined. The chromatograms indicated a peak of cis-10-Heptadecanoic acid methyl ester with concentrations of 39.95 mg/L and 58.95 mg/L in the FAME molecules. The viscosity (3.67 m3/s), specific gravity (0.813 g/cm3), flash point (102.70 °C), cetane number (55.52), and pour point (-24 °C) of the fuel were also measured. The synthesized biodiesel from the spent oil through the synergic enzymes were found to be a simple, effective, and sustainable fuel production process, as well as a potential means of eliminating pollution caused by haphazard waste cooking oil disposal.
... The raw material should therefore present low values of these two parameters. 27,28 The acid value for OSCSox6 was 0.156 mg KOH/g oil and the water content was 100 mg/kg. These were lower values than the values required by EN14214, which are 0.50 mg KOH/g oil and 500 mg/kg. ...
In the present work, cagaite (Eugenia dysenterica DC.) seed oil was studied as a potential inedible raw material for biodiesel production. The oil was extracted using a Soxhlet extractor and the fatty acids acyl esters that make up biodiesel were obtained by alkaline transesterification using sodium hydroxide. The influence of reaction parameters was also evaluated: molar ratio, time, and amount of catalyst. The conversion of fatty acids into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which make up biodiesel, was calculated using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (¹HNMR) spectra. In a 30 min reaction period, the molar ratio of oil to methanol was 1:4, resulting in a conversion of 63.57%. However, when the molar ratio was increased to 1:8, the conversion reached 81.74% during the same 30 min reaction period. After 60 min of reaction, additional increases in conversion were observed when molar ratios of 1:4, 1:6, and 1:8 were used. Under these conditions, the conversions achieved were 92.08%, 98.24%, and 98.78%, respectively. The physico‐chemical properties were evaluated and the results showed that cagaite seed oil biodiesel was similar to soybean biodiesel, which is the most commonly produced biodiesel in Brazil. It was thus an important substitute for soybean biodiesel.
... Examples of heterogeneous acid catalysts that have been reported for biodiesel production include ferric (III) sulphate, chemical modified carbon catalyst and cation exchange resins (Gan et al., 2009;Ganesan et al., 2020;Jalilnejad Falizi et al., 2019;Prabhavathi Devi et al., 2009). Sulphuric acid is the traditional choice as the homogenous catalyst for the esterification in the pre-treatment process (Canakci and Van Gerpen, 2001). Much effort has also been devoted to the investigation of biodiesel production using ionic liquid (IL) catalysts in both esterification and transesterification steps of the process (Elsheikh et al., 2011;Yue et al., 2011). ...
... Untuk bahan baku dengan kadar asam lemak bebas tinggi maka dilakukan dengan dua tahap proses yaitu esterifikasi berkatalis asam diikuti dengan transesterifikasi berkatalis basa. Proses-proses tersebut dilakukan terhadap minyak yang telah diekstrak dari bahan asalnya dari alam (Canakci & Van Gerpen 2001;Zhang et al. 2003;Wang et al. 2007). ...
Produksi biodiesel dari sisa minyak di spent bleaching earth dengan proses in situ dua langkah diteliti dalam penelitian ini. Metode ini terdiri dari esterifikasi yang dikatalisis asam diikuti oleh transesterifikasi yang dikatalisis basa. Reaksi esterifikasi dilakukan dengan adanya asam sulfat sebagai katalis asam umum untuk mengurangi jumlah asam lemak bebas (FFA) menjadi kurang dari 2%. Bumi pemutihan yang dihabiskan diesterifikasi dengan rasio massa hexsane:metanol 1.5:1 dan 1:1, 48 suhu 0C, asam sulfat 1% (b/b) hingga fase padat dan waktu reaksi 2, 3, 4 jam. FFA level 1,04% dengan yield 75,0% dari produk esterifikasi diperoleh pada rasio hexane:methanol 1:1 dan waktu reaksi 1 jam min. Oleh karena itu, dipilih sebagai sasaran proses transesterifikasi dengan menambahkan kataliyst alkali 1% (NaOH dan KOH) dan dibiarkan bereaksi selama 1, 2, 3 jam. Hasil biodiesel yang dihasilkan dalam proses ini bervariasi antara 10,43 hingga 79,96%. Hasil optimum yang diperoleh adalah 79,967% pada waktu reaksi 1 jam.
... For example, the European Union collects 0.7-1 million tons of yellow grease annually [68]. Canada produces 120 000 tons of yellow grease (FFA < 15 %) per year [69]. Consequently, WCO has been proposed as an inexpensive and abundant feedstock to produce biodiesel [68]. ...
Biodiesel is produced on a large scale as an eco‐friendly substitute and additive to fossil fuels. Catalytic homogeneous processes using strong acids, alkalis, and natural oils have been realized in industry. However, these traditional methods have several disadvantages, such as the generation of large volumes of waste, high water and reagent needs, use of hazardous reagents, high operation costs, and utilization of valuable feedstocks and catalysis, respectively. Different solutions have subsequently been investigated, such as cheap alternative feedstocks, co‐solvents and catalysts, sustainable operational conditions, advanced reactor designs and scales, and advantageous pre‐ and post‐reaction treatments. This review explores and analyzes the main aspects of current biodiesel technologies and opportunities. It also describes some advanced improvement strategies.
... Para que o biodiesel seja produzido, as gorduras animais são submetidas a reação de transesterificação. Nesta reação, óleos e gorduras reagem na presença de um catalisador com um álcool para produzir os alquil ésteres correspondentes(CANAKCI, 2007). Na transesterificação de óleos, a catálise básica homogênea é largamente adotada com maior predominância principalmente com bases fortes como hidróxido de sódio (NaOH) e hidróxido de potássio (KOH), devido aos altos níveis de conversão atingidos nesse processo e aos baixos custos dos catalisadores. ...
A produção de carne de frango no Brasil aumentou expressivamente nos últimos anos, contribuindo com o crescimento econômico do país, haja vista a destacada participação do agronegócio no PIB nacional. Contudo, esta atividade gera uma quantidade significativa de resíduos sólidos provenientes do processamento das aves como penas, sangue e vísceras, com potenciais impactos ao meio ambiente. No Brasil, o adequado gerenciamento dos resíduos industriais é de responsabilidade dos respectivos geradores, podendo representar riscos ao empreendimento, quer seja na forma de despesas com seu tratamento e/ou sua disposição final, ou ainda sob a forma de passivos ambientais. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a viabilidade econômica do reaproveitamento do óleo de vísceras gerado no abate de frangos para a produção de biodiesel por meio de uma usina de processamento, proposta apoiada nas diretrizes do modelo de Economia Circular. Para isso, foi realizado um diagnóstico da geração de resíduos em uma empresa de processamento de carne de frango no Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil. A metodologia aplicada fez uso dos indicadores de viabilidade econômica. Os valores encontrados a partir dos cálculos dos indicadores, basearam-se em uma taxa pré-determinada de conversão do óleo de vísceras em biodiesel. Os indicadores mostraram que o empreendimento é viável, obtendo um resultado satisfatório como por exemplo o payback de 1,2 anos. Assim foi possível fazer a análise do cenário atual e futuro, mostrando que o cenário proposto por este trabalho pode trazer ganhos para a empresa objeto de estudo.
... Tests studies have gotten that the transference of OTW to biofuel is convenient. For instance, the less pre-remediation requirements of anaerobic co-fermentation may turn out it a better elimination selection than incineration [25]. There are still abundant operational troubles in application anaerobic co-fermentation of OTW waste sludge. ...
Anaerobic fermentation of oil is becoming appealing benefit due to its high biodegradation in outputting biogas. Due to a complex synthesis organic wastes, oil has been inspected as potency the substrate to output biogas when fermented under non-aerobically as compared to {carbohydrate and protein}. However, it is familiar that oil degradation leads to inhibition of biogas creation with delay phase occurrence, sewage floatation, and failure. Co-fermentation of oil wastes has offered a promotion to bio methane creation of reducing decomposition of the bacteria but the test of slow ‘hydrolysis’ due to inhibition still takes place. Long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) generated during hydrolysis is recognized as firstly inhibitor due to its poisoning influences on cell wall adsorption by communities bacteria. This research reviews the scientific previously literature on biogas creation, ways to minimize oil discouraged in promotion biogas creation.
... The procedures employed in this study focused on achieving biodiesel that conformed to ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. These standards have been accepted worldwide, and can be used to certify various aspects of biodiesel quality [25][26][27]. ...
This paper investigates the use of waste vegetable oil (WVO) for production of biodiesel. The goal of this study was to explore the improvement of biodiesel production to achieve high yields. Different oil streams, including virgin canola oil and WVO, were used as the raw material for the transesterification processes. These oils had different fatty acid contents as a result of environmental or previous processing conditions. The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of free fatty acid (FFA) content on the resulting yield. In addition, the yield was influenced by production parameters such as reaction time, reaction temperature, molar/volume ratios of oil to alcohol, catalyst amount, and mechanical mixing. This was accomplished by automating the biodiesel production from WVO, thereby achieving improved processing and requiring minimal direct human involvement. A biodiesel production apparatus was developed with a Raspberry Pi 3 microcomputer to control the process. It was shown that the particular choice of these process parameters depended on the particular oil type. This research used mixtures of virgin and waste vegetable oils at different volume ratios (oil to alcohol) of 4:1, 6:1, and 8:1, which was determined by the FFA content of the oil. In addition to mechanical mixing, ultrasonication rated at 500W, 20kHz was used to enhance mixing by adding 450 kJ to the process, thereby reducing both the processing time and the amount of methoxide needed to perform a base-catalyzed transesterification. The production temperature was held within the range of 50–65°C. This research demonstrated that optimal yield depends on temperature, catalyst concentration, FFA content of the oil, and the energy introduced by sonication. A 96% yield was achieved with the following parameters: an oil to methanol volume ratio of 6:1, 0.6% weight concentration of catalyst (NaOH) at 6.25 g, and FFA values of approximately 5%. It was determined that the proposed system can produce acceptable quality biodiesel.
... Approximately, 90% of the optimum FAME conversion was obtained over 40% of FFAs 1229 content at 5:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio while the maximum FAME conversion (97%) was 1230 achieved over 80% of FFAs content using 4:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio. The best FAME 1231 conversion obtained from the highest FFAs content was correlated with the faster reaction rate 1232 that could be estimated using Ping-Pong Bi-Bi method ( purposed to bring down the FFA content to less 2 wt.% (Canakci and Van Gerpen, 2001), thus 1250 lesser soap formation in the second step-transesterification process is can be reached (Math and1251 Irfan, 2007;Thoai et al., 2019) that will facilitate the separation process (Thoai et al., 2017). 1252 ...
Biodiesel is an alternative to fossil-derived diesel with similar properties and several environmental benefits. Biodiesel production using conventional catalysts such as homogeneous, heterogeneous, or enzymatic catalysts faces a problem regarding catalysts deactivation after repeated reaction cycles. Heterogeneous nanocatalysts and nanobiocatalysts (enzymes) have shown better advantages due to higher activity, recyclability, larger surface area, and improved active sites. Despite a large number of studies on this subject, there are still challenges regarding its stability, recyclability, and scale-up processes for biodiesel production. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to review current modifications and role of nanocatalysts and nanobiocatalysts and also to observe effect of various parameters on biodiesel production. Nanocatalysts and nanobiocatalysts demonstrated long-term stability due to strong Brønsted-Lewis acidity, larger active spots and better accessibility leading to enhance the biodiesel production. Incorporation of metal supporting positively contributes to shorten the reaction time and enhance the longer reusability. Furthermore, proper operating parameters play a vital role to optimize the biodiesel productivity in the commercial scale process due to higher conversion, yield and selectivity with the lower process cost. This article also analyses the relationship between different types of feedstocks towards the quality and quantity of biodiesel production. Crude palm oil is convinced as the most prospective and promising feedstock due to massive production, low cost, and easily available. It also evaluates key factors and technologies for biodiesel production in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brazil, and the USA as the biggest biodiesel production supply.
... Te moisture levels in this study, therefore, indicate that oils from all the provenances and subspecies may have a long shelf life. Oils with a moisture content of up to 0.1% have been reported to decrease biodiesel yield during the transesterifcation process due to the formation of soap [33]. Chikhwawa, Missira, and Ngundu provenances with oil moisture contents of 0.06, 0.07, and 0.09%, respectively, could, therefore, yield more biodiesel than the rest of the provenances. ...
Sclerocarya birrea (Marula) is an indigenous fruit tree that is revered for its numerous socioeconomic contributions to human livelihood. Among others, the species is an important source of seed oil that is utilized in various domestic and industrial applications. This study was carried out to assess the yield and physicochemical properties of seed oils among nine international provenances of Sclerocarya birrea (subspecies caffra and birrea) planted in Malawi. Seed oils were obtained using the Soxhlet extraction method while quality parameters were determined using procedures described by the Malawi Bureau of Standards. Oil yield was highest (52.2%) in subspecies birrea (Missira provenance; Mali). Oil moisture content, free fatty acids, acid value, and peroxide value ranged from 0.06 to 076%, 1.96 to 4.07%, 3.91 to 8.13 mg·KOH/g, and 1.84 to 5.15 meq·KOH/g, respectively. Variations in oil yield and physicochemical properties could be attributed to genetic differences and the origin of genotypes. The selection of Sclerocarya birrea for oil production and use should be based on both provenance and subspecies levels. Further studies should study the heritability of the oil content and its physicochemical properties before conclusive decisions on the use of seed for propagation are carried out.
... Using titration with potassium hydroxide and phenolphthalein as indicators, the acid value of castor oil was calculated. The average acid value is 0.32%, which is lower than the recommendation; if the acid value is greater than 2%, the oil must reduce free fatty acid through an esterification reaction with acid [19]. ...
Thailand is an agriculture-based country with the potential to cultivate a vast array of plant species, including castor. Castor oil is produced by pressing castor seeds. Castor oil was selected as the preferred vegetable oil for biodiesel production. Castor oil is primarily composed of ricinoleic acid, a hydroxyl fatty acid. Response surface methodology was used in this study to optimize the biodiesel production process parameters. This study varies the molar ratio of methanol to oil, the concentration of the catalyst, the reaction temperature, and the reaction time. As a catalyst, potassium hydroxide was used in the transesterification process. In this study, response surface methodology is utilized in conjunction with central composite design (CCD) experiment design. Therefore, the optimal yield of castor oil transesterification is 4.02 methanol to 1 oil, a catalyst concentration of 0.90%, a reaction temperature of 49.87 ∘C, and a reaction time of 59.21 minutes. These optimal conditions resulted in a %fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of castor oil biodiesel of 88.25 %, which is within 5% of the predicted %FAME yield. Transesterification under optimal conditions demonstrates that the physiochemical properties of castor oil biodiesel are enhanced. The viscosity of castor oil is approximately 235 cSt at 40 ∘C. After transesterification, the viscosity of castor oil decreases to 15.2 cSt at 40 ∘C under optimal conditions. The density and flash point of castor oil biodiesel is 0.92 g/cm3 and 196 ∘C, respectively. It discovers that the flash point of castor-oil biodiesel complies with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard, whereas its viscosity and density do not. However, castor oil biodiesel can be blended with diesel petroleum to reduce its viscosity and meet ASTM specifications.
Fossil fuels including coal, natural gas, and oil are frequently used. Because of continuous urbanization and industrialization, there is a rising need for fossil fuels. Overuse of fossil fuels harms the ecosystem, especially as it releases greenhouse gases. Fuels made from biomass, such as bioethanol, biodiesel, and biohydrogen, can be used to replace petroleum-based fuels, while fossil fuels can be produced using renewable energy sources, like wind, water, sunlight, biomass, and geothermal heat. Due to the conflict between food and fuel, it is no longer desirable to produce biodiesel from agricultural crops. Agricultural lignocellulosic waste has several benefits, including cheaper cost, renewability, and quantity. Grass, sawdust, wood chips, and other lignocellulosic waste products are some examples. Rice straw, wheat straw, corn straw, and sugarcane bagasse are among the most prevalent agricultural wastes. To be able to produce biodiesel from these substantial lignocellulose agricultural wastes, it is imperative to have access to technology that is both usable and widely accessible.
The area of biodiesel production has witnessed significant advancements in recent years, propelled by the exploration of nanocatalysts as efficient agents in the process of transesterification. Nanocatalysts, with their high surface area and enhanced catalytic activity, have emerged as key contributors to the optimization of biodiesel production processes. Various reviews have revealed nanocatalysts, including metal nanoparticles, metal oxides, and hybrid materials, assessing their catalytic efficiency and stability in transesterification reactions. Researchers have successfully tailored nanocatalysts to exhibit superior performance in converting triglycerides to biodiesel, addressing challenges associated with traditional catalysts such as low reusability and selectivity. In this chapter, we will discuss the implications of the above-mentioned advancements on the scalability and economic viability of biodiesel production. The integration of nanocatalysts not only accelerates reaction kinetics but also facilitates the use of diverse feedstocks, expanding the potential sources for the production of biodiesel. The environmental sustainability of these nanocatalysts, including their recyclability and reduced waste generation, is also discussed. The findings presented in this research hold promise for a more sustainable and efficient future in the realm of biofuel production. In short, the present chapter gives a transformative impact of nanotechnology on the synthesis of biodiesel.
In this study, five new surfactants derived from Sudanese Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) seed oil were synthesized. Three of them, namely: Surfactant-1 (SF-1), Surfactant-2 (SF-2) and Surfactant-3 (SF-3) were methyl ester sulphonate of Jatropha oil from different locations of South Kordofan, Ad-Damazin and Al Qadarif, respectively. Surfactant-4 (SF-4) and Surfactant-5 (SF-5) were ethyl ester and soap produced from South Kordofan Jatropha oil, respectively. The characterizations were studied by FT-IR spectroscopy and GC with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and they approved an excellent formation of functional group of surfactants produced. The execution of every surfactant was considered its emulsification quality and its thermal stability. The emulsification quality of every surfactant was tried by measuring the interfacial pressure between every surfactant and unrefined oil and by measuring the stage separation time between water and unrefined oil in the absence and in the presence of a surfactant. Surfactants (1-3) showed a reduction in the measurement of interfacial tension almost similar to that of the standard surfactant used in the field (sodium methyl ester sulphonate). SF (4 and 5) also reduced the interfacial tension, but with less quality. The measurement of phase separation time for a homogenized mixture of 100 ml water and 1.0 ml of crude oil (using a homogenizer) in the presence or absence of surfactant showed that SF (1-5) gave more time for phase separation. The results of the analysis showed that these products were real surfactants and it can be used in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) application. Özet Bu çalışma kapsamında, sütleğengillerden bir tür olan Jatropha curcas bitkisinin tohum yağında bulunan yağ asitlerinden 5 yeni yüzey aktif madde sentezlenmiştir. Sentezlenen maddelerden üçü; yüzey aktif-1 (YA-1), yüzey aktif-2 (YA-2) ve yüzey aktif-3 (YA-3) sırasıyla; Güney Kordofan, Ad-Damazin ve El-Kadarif bölgelerinden toplanan J. curcas yağında bulunan yağ asitlerinin metil ester sülfonatıdır. Yüzey aktif-4 (YA-4) ve yüzey aktif-5 (YA-5) ise güney Kordofan'dan toplanan J. curcas yağından elde edilen etil esteri ve aynı yağlardan elde edilen sabun ürünüdür. Yüzey aktif maddelerdeki fonksiyonel gruplar FT-IR spektroskopi ve GC-MS analizleri ile karakterize edilmiş ve yapıların çok iyi bir şekilde oluştuğu belirlenmiştir. Her bir yüzey aktif maddenin işlenmesi sırasında, maddelerin emülsiyonlaşma değeri ve ısıl kararlılığı tespit edilmiştir. Sentezlenen YA maddelerin emülsiyonlaşma değeri, bu maddenin ve ham petrolün yüzey geriliminin ölçülmesi ile hesaplanmıştır. Aynı işlemler su ile de yapılmıştır. Hazırlanan yüzey aktif maddeler Petrol ve su ile karıştırılarak ayrılma süreleri ölçülmüştür. YA'ların (1 ve 3 nolu Eurasian Journal of Forest Science 6(1):52-67 (2018) 53 maddeler) yüzeyler arası gerilimindeki azalmalar standart olarak kullanılan sodyum metil ester sülfonat'a yakın değerlerde bulunmuştur. YA (4 ve 5 nolu maddeler) de ise yüzeyler arası gerilimde azalma daha az oranda olmuştur. YA'ların ayrılma süreleri ölçümünde, YA (1 ve 5) için daha yüksek bir faz ayrılma süresi belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, bu ürünlerin iyi birer YA madde olduğu anlaşılmış ve bunların alternatif yüzey aktif kaynakları olarak kullanılabileceği görülmektedir.
The chapter is devoted to improving the fuel efficiency and environmental performance of diesel engines using biodiesel fuels, which is one of the effective ways to reduce exhaust gas toxicity, improve fuel efficiency and energy performance. This is achieved by ensuring the required physical and chemical properties of the used biodiesel blends, i.e., by adapting biodiesel fuels to diesel engines in operation. Experimental bench studies of the VAG ASV 1.9 Tdi engine were carried out when running on standard and mixed biodiesel fuels with different methyl esters of rapeseed oil additives. Calculated studies of the effect of methyl esters of rapeseed oil additives additives to diesel fuel on the environmental and fuel and economic performance of the car were carried out. Comparative tests of the Škoda Octavia 1.9 Tdi car with the VAG ASV 1.9 Tdi diesel engine on a simulation roller stand were carried out when running on regular and mixed biodiesel fuels. According to the results of the research, it was found that the total mass emissions reduced to carbon monoxide in the modified European driving cycle when running on two-component biodiesel fuel increase by 0.68%, and when running on three-component fuel – decrese by 8.22% compared to the same indicator when the engine runs on regular diesel fuel.
Transportation currently takes up around a third of overall energy usage, of which the majority is petroleum-based gasoline. Petroleum is both a finite resource and a big contributor to the carbon emissions that are causing climate change. To continue to benefit from transportation whilst mitigating climate change it is essential to find alternatives to petroleum-based gasoline. Although a lot of recent developments have focused on electrifying transport the infrastructure for large scale uptake of electric vehicles is still lacking and it may be less practical in some parts of the world than others. Biofuels, therefore, still have a role to play in improving the sustainability of our transportation systems.
The term green gasoline refers to biofuels intended to be direct drop-in replacements for petroleum-based gasoline. Such products allow vehicles to run on biofuel without any engine modifications and, being made from biomass, they are both renewable and have a better carbon emission profile than petroleum-based gasoline.
Green Gasoline covers a range of new technologies being used to produce these biofuels and compares them to petroleum-based fuels in terms of sustainability. It will be an interesting read for those working in fuel chemistry as well as green chemists and anyone with an interest in transport sustainability.
This experimental study aims to analyse the performance of sorted coffee beans-based biodiesel. This study is carried out in three main stages; (a) the preparation process of coffee beans raw material, (b) the biodiesel formation process, and (c) biodiesel performance analysis. In manufacturing process, the coffee bean powder is added with two chemical treatments sequentially; extraction-distillation and esterification/transesterification. Parameters of analysis in this study are the characteristics of the biodiesel and the performance of the biodiesel-diesel mixture in terms of fuel consumption efficiency and engine smoke opacity. Measurements of Engine Running Time (ERT) and smoke opacity were carried out on a single-piston diesel engine. There were five biodiesel-diesel mixture specimens; B0, B5, B10, B15, and B20 (20% biodiesel fraction). The experimental results show that mixing biodiesel with diesel fuel provides two main advantages; extending engine running time which means fuel consumption efficiency, and lowering the smoke opacity level. Therefore, it is more environmentally friendly. The efficiency of fuel consumption and smoke opacity depends on the biodiesel fraction in the fuel mixture. The results and methodology of this research are expected to be an additional reference in the development of biodiesel as an alternative fuel.
The utilization of biodiesel as an alternative fuel has gained significant attention due to its renewable nature and potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In this review paper, we explore the extraction process of biodiesel from palm oil, a widely available feedstock. The focus is on analyzing the performance of a diesel engine using various B-blends of biodiesel, which are blends of biodiesel with conventional diesel fuel. The study investigates the effects of different blend ratios on engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption, power output, emissions, and combustion characteristics. Furthermore, the review examines the impact of biodiesel properties, including viscosity, density, and cetane number, on engine performance. The findings of this review provide insights into the viability of palm oil-derived biodiesel and its potential for enhancing the performance of diesel engines. The knowledge gained from this study contributes to the ongoing efforts to promote sustainable and efficient energy solutions in the transportation sector. Key Words: Biodiesel, oil, B-Blends
Several catalyst formulations using waste fly ash along with Cu were prepared and characterised by XRD, BET and TEM. These catalysts were also evaluated for the first time for hydrogenolysis of glycerol to 1,2 propanediol (1,2-PDO) in a batch reactor under 52 bar H 2 pressure in the temperature range of 473-513 K conditions. The fly ash pretreated by alkali using the fusion method and impregnated with Cu showed higher activity and stability for glycerol hydrogenolysis. Due to pretreatment with alkali at high temperature, transformation of ␣-quartz to the tridymite phase of SiO 2 occurred. More importantly, use of alkali either during the pretreatment or the Cu loading step resulted in a high dispersion on the surface which was responsible for higher glycerol conversion and 1,2-PDO selectivity. The effects of temperature, Cu loading and solvent on glycerol conversion and product selectivities were also studied in this work.
Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) has great potential as a substrate for acetone, butanol and ethanol fermentation because it contains a mixture of carbohydrates including starch, hemicellulose, sucrose and other carbohydrates that can be utilized by microorganisms. Hence microorganisms were isolated from spontaneously fermenting POME, the predominant strains were selected as starters and the effect of starters singly and in combination for bioethanol production was evaluated/determined. POME was spontaneously fermented for 21 days from which samples were taken every 3 days for analyses of pH, microbial quality, ethanol content, free fatty acid and lipase activity. Microorganisms isolated were characterized and identified. Moulds isolated were strains of Aspergillus and Penicillum genera, yeast were Yarrowia lipolytica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida spp., while bacteria were strains of Bacillus spp. and Micrococus sp. Sterile palm oil mill effluent was fermented with the starter cultures for 12 days and analyzed every 3 days for bioethanol production. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, while used singly, produced the highest bioethanol (3.70%) concentration. Statistical analysis shows that bioethanol and percentage free fatty acid production by single and combined starter fermented POME is significantly different (P ≤0.05) while lipase production was not significantly different (P≥0.05). The study reveals that fermentation of POME for 12days at room temperature (30+2 0 C) using Saccharomyces cerevisiae singly gives the highest bioethanol concentration. Therefore, the use of starter cultures for fermentation of POME for the production of bioethanol is a potential solution for the control of pollution generated from the annual disposal of POME.
Crude vegetable oils contain considerable amounts of free fatty acids, and they ought to be minimized for use in food and non-food applications. Conventional deacidification adopts alkali neutralization for the removal of free fatty acids. Here, a novel method for the removal of free fatty acids from jatropha oil by reactive extraction using monoethanolamine in methanol is proposed. Extraction studies with initial free fatty acids concentration (0.1–0.5 kmol/m3) using monoethanolamine (0.4141–1.6568 kmol/m3) in methanol at 303–333 K were performed and investigated. Extraction parameters like distribution coefficient and equilibrium complexation constant loading ratio for free fatty acids extraction were obtained. Central composite design identified monoethanolamine composition and temperature as significant. The findings of this study revealed that reactive extraction of free fatty acids using monoethanolamine in methanol was highly successful in reduction of the free fatty acids in jatropha oil. The optimum extraction was attained at monoethanolamine concentration of 2.05011 kmol/m3 at 293.5 K. A quadratic response surface model exhibited good agreement with the experimental results. Further biodiesel was prepared using the deacidified oil, and the specifications obtained were well within the standard ASTM limits. Reactive extraction of free fatty acids is investigated in this work for the first time. The method demonstrated in this study can be of considerable interest to the biodiesel industry with regard to pre-treatment methodologies.
The need for replacement of fossil fuel with more efficient fuels that are eco-friendly and renewable (biodiesel) was the basis for the present study. Luffa cylindrica seed oil (LCSO) was extracted through solvent extraction using petroleum ether as a solvent between 60 and 80 C The produced oil was used for the production of biodiesel (LCBD) via two-stage transesterification. The percentage yield of the extracted oil and biodiesel were 17.3 and 18.8 % respectively. The physico-chemical properties were within ASTM recommended values, indicating a quality fuel production. GC-MS chromatograms of LCSO and LCBD indicated the presence of acridine,9-anilino acid, 11-octadecanoic acid, (methyl ester), methyl stearate and benz (a) anthracene, 6,7,12-trimethyl, 15-octadecanoic acid, methyl ester, methyl stearate, eicosanoic acid, serine methyl ester, and N-[2-oxo-4-phenylbutyryl]. Also, IR spectroscopy analyses of LCSO and LCBD revealed the presence of O-H,
Biodiesel adalah bahan bakar alternatif bagi bahan bakar solar berbasis petroleum yang terbuat dari sumber terbarukan seperti minyak nabati atau lemak hewani. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan kondisi operasi terbaik proses produksi biodiesel dari sludge palm oil dengan reaksi esterifikasi dan transesterifikasi secara terpisah dan serentak. Reaksi dijalankan pada temperatur refluks larutan yaitu 65oC dengan menggunakan pelarut metanol. Reaksi esterifikasi menggunakan katalis H2SO4, sedangkan reaksi transesterifikasi menggunakan katalis NaOH untuk proses dua tahap dan katalis H2SO4 untuk proses satu tahap. Proses satu tahap menghasilkan biodiesel dengan perolehan 65,67% dalam waktu 1 jam dengan karakteristik biodiesel bilangan asam 0.79 mgKOH/g, Viskositas kenematik 11.35 cSt dan densitas 920.56 kg/m3. Proses dua tahap menghasilkan biodiesel dengan perolehan 92,71 dalam waktu 2 jam dengan karakteristik biodiesel bilangan asam 5.87 mgKOH/g, Viskositas kenematik 5.6 cSt dan densitas 930 kg/m3
Deodorizer distillate is the primary waste product of the processing of vegetable oils. A two-step process, involving esterification and transesterification, was carried out on the deodorizer distillate to convert it into biodiesel. The properties of the produced biodiesel were measured and found to be comparable with diesel. The current study includes the compatibility of elastomers and the engine performance of biodiesel. The first section discusses the stability and degradation of several automotive elastomers with biodiesel according to Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standards. This study (as per SAE J1748) presents the degrading behavior of automotive elastomers with biodiesel using a different scientific technique. A static immersion test was conducted to study the degradation behavior of the elastomers when immersed in conventional diesel and biodiesel as per the standards mentioned above. The results show the stability and degradability of six different types of elastomers when used with biodiesel. Viton and neoprene showed more degradation in biodiesel and diesel than other elastomers. Nitrile butadine rubber (NBR) showed about 715% elongation for diesel and 703% elongation for biodiesel, while polyvinyl chloride (PVC) alone showed an increase in tensile strength of 7.63% and 15.2% for diesel and biodiesel, respectively. Regarding combustion and emissions performance, the biodiesel showed satisfactory results.
In this study biodiesel was produced from Parkia biglobosa via optimization of transesterification reaction condition (methanol to oil ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction temperature and reaction time) under sulphuric acid catalyst (H 2 SO 4 ). Oil was first extracted from Parkia biglobosa seeds using soxhlet extraction method. The physico-chemical properties of the biodiesel were analysed and then compared to international standards. Subsequently, the oil was then used to produce biodiesel at optimized transesterification reaction conditions. At the end, the free fatty acid (FFA) content of the oil was 1.61% w/w while the saponification value (mgKOH/g) was 191.65. The maximum yield (percentage weight) of the biodiesel produced was 93.4% at the maximum transesterification conditions of methanol to oil molar ratio of 6:1, sulphuric acid catalyst amount of 3 wt %, reaction temperature of 65\(℃\) and reaction time of 1.5 h. When compared with other international standards the biodiesel produced was found to be within the limits of the specification by ASTM D6751 (American standard), EN 14241 ( European Standard) and Ghana Standard Authority. It was therefore recommended that biodiesel from Parkia biglobosa seed oil under acidic catalytic condition is a potential new non-edible substitute for petroleum diesel for commercialization purposes.
This work focuses on optimizing various process parameters involved in transesterification of cotton seed oil to biodiesel by bentonite clay catalyzed reaction. The various process paramaters studied include temperature, oil to alcohol ratio, reaction time and amount of catalyst to improve the yield of biodiesel. The various properties of biodiesel produced such as calorific value, Cetane index, flash point and pour point were determined. The aim of applying nano-catalysis in the present project is to produce catalysts with improved selectivity, extremely high activity, low energy consumption, and long lifetime. This can be achieved only by precisely controlling the size, shape, spatial distribution, surface composition and electronic structure, and thermal and chemical stability of the individual nano-components. Cotton seed oil is extracted from the seeds of cotton plants (Gossypium herbaceum, G. barbadense and G. hirsutum) and other related species of Gossypium. Current production technology for the extraction of cotton seed oil generally relies on crushing with solvent extraction. The clay used in this work is calcium bentonite clay from Northeastern Nigeria. The biodiesel produced is characterized using FT-IR spectral analysis and GC-MS analysis to ascertain the various functional groups and compounds present. The major finding is that genotype differences in characteristics of cotton seed oil exist under field conditions. Highest oil content and amount of tocopherol is obtained from Funtua, while the highest oleic and linoleic acid content is found in Zaria and Funtua cotton species respectively. It is desirable to use non-edible oils, particularly those which can be grown on non-fertile or waste lands unfit for growing food crops. This will help in not only utilization of waste land but also create jobs for the rural poor.
The combustion, efficiency, and emission properties of a single-cylinder variable compression ratio diesel engine are examined in this research (B100A30C30). To create a homogeneous solution, the ultrasonicator is used in conjunction with a 30 part per million (ppm) concentration of Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Carbon Nanotubes(CNT),two common nanoparticles found in fuel combinations. The increased mixing and chemical reactivity offered by nanoparticles' greater surface area to volume ratio during combustion has improved the combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of diesel engines. The engine with nanoparticles (B20A30C30) has a thermal efficiency of braking that is 20 % higher than the engine with regular particles (B100). Following that, nitrogen oxide emissions reduced by 38%, carbon monoxide emissions by 68%, hydrocarbon emissions by 52%, and smoke emissions by 48%.
Esterification of Turkish sulphur olive oil with different types of straight- and branched-chain monohydric alcohols has been
investigated. Reaction conditions such as temperature and time have been evaluated, and monoester yield has been determined.
As the alcohol component, direct application of an industrial byproduct such as crude fuel oil has been investigated. Finally
some preliminary laboratory tests concerning the suitability of the fuel oil monoester as a diesel fuel substitute have been
performed.
The primary problems associated with using straight soybean oil as a fuel in a compression ignition internal combustion engine
are caused by high fuel viscosity. Transesterification of soybean oil with an alcohol provides a significant reduction in
viscosity, thereby enhancing the physical properties of the renewable fuel to improve engine performance. The ethyl and methyl
esters of soybean oil with commercial diesel fuel additives revealed fuel properties that compared very well with diesel fuel,
with the exception of gum formation, which manifested itself in problems with the plugging of fuel filters. Engine performance
using soybean ester fuels differed little from engine performance with diesel fuel. A slight power loss combined with an increase
in fuel consumption were experienced with the esters, primarily because of the lower heating value of the esters than for
diesel fuel. Emissions for the 2 fuels were similar, with nitrous oxide emissions higher for the esters. Measurements of engine
wear and fuel-injection system tests showed no abnormal characteristics for any of the fuels after the 200-hr tests. Engine
deposits were comparable in amount, but slightly different in color and texture, with the methyl ester engine experiencing
greater carbon and varnish deposits on the pistons.
Vegetable oils can potentially be used as fuels for diesel engines. But in direct injection engines, such as are used in agricultural tractors and trucks, some difficulties with vegetable oils - even with fully refined oils - have been noticed, so that long-time operation is impossible. Engine tests are made to evaluate some modifications to these oils. The result is that the former problems do not occur with derivatives of vegetable oils after transesterification with ethanol or methanol if the injection is advanced.
Vegetable oils and animal fats can be transesterified to biodiesel for use as an alternative diesel fuel. Conversion of low cost feedstocks such as used frying oils is complicated if the oils contain large amounts of free fatty acids that will form soaps with alkaline catalysts. The soaps can prevent separation of the biodiesel from the glycerin fraction. Alternative processes are available that use an acid catalyst. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of process variables on acid-catalyzed transesterification. The molar ratio of alcohol, reaction temperature, catalyst amount, reaction time, water content, and free fatty acids were investigated to determine the best strategy for producing biodiesel. Food grade soybean oil was used to prepare esters using excess methanol and sulfuric acid as a catalyst. To compare the effect of different alcohol types on ester formation, methanol, ethanol, 2-propanol, and n-butanol were compared. The American Oil Chemists' Society Method Ca 14-56 was used to measure the biodiesel's total glycerin amount as an indicator of the completeness of the reaction. It was found that acid catalysis can provide high conversion rates but much longer times are required than for alkaline catalysts. The acid catalyst also requires the concentration of water to be less than 0.5%, which is about the same as is required for alkaline catalysts. Water formed by the esterification of free fatty acids limited their presence in the oil to 5%.
In the last years great attention has been paid on the use of straight or modified vegetable oils as fuel in Diesel engines, in developed countries mainly to reduce the enormous amount of subsidies spent for agricultural over-prc&ction, in underdeveloped countries to become less dependent on fossil oil imports. In Europe especially the route of transforming the \.egetable oils into fatty acid methl.1 esters is intensively followed, so there is no need for any mcdilications of the engines. Austria is one of the leading countries in that field, which can be demonstrated by the existence of two industrial plants and se\.eral decentralized plants for the production of rape seed oil methyl esters (RME) \\.ith a total capacity of about 30.000 t per yex. As vegetable oils are economically still not competiti\.e \vith mineml based products, the use of old frying oils as s&rung materials seems \.ery attracti\-e. First investigalions in that field, ;t labordtory scale production and first emission lests in a Diesel engine have already been published (Nye et al., 1983; Mittelbach and Tritthart, 19%). The purpose of the rcscarch reported herein \fxs to collect and analyze representati\,e samples of used fqing oils for their suitability as stxtlng material for the productlon of mcrh>4 cstcrs, to modify and adapt existing tnnsestcrification prtxxsses and to compare the t'ucl propertics of the obtained methyl esters lr.ith those of RME according to the stclndards established for RME in Austria (ONORhl, 1991). This ij,ork \vas conducted during 1989 and 1991 in cooperation with Vogel & Nwt Industrieanlagcnbuu Gcs.m.b.H., Graz. Austria, and \\'a~ supported by the "Forschungsftirdcrungsfonds fiir die gcwcrblichc Wirtschaft".
This paper documents the presence of piston ring deposits responsible for sticking piston rings in the diesel engine when using a vegetable oil-diesel fuel blend. It was found that piston ring immobilization is caused by carbon buildup on the combustion chamber side of the rings and in the annular space behind the rings. The carbon buildup is postulated to be the result of a polymerization growth process on preferred metallic surfaces. Most of the growth takes place on the relatively more stationary piston groove rather than on the ring. Carbon buildup preference was found for aluminum rather than cast iron at a common junction of the two metals. Possible solutions to these major problems are summarized.
Test quantities of ethyl and methyl esters of four renewable fuels were processed, characterized and performance tested. Canola, rapeseed, soybean oils, and beef tallow were the feedstocks for the methyl and ethyl esters. Previous results have shown methyl esters to be a suitable replacement for diesel fuel; however, much less has been known about the ethyl esters. A complete set of fuel properties and a comparison of each fuel in engine performance tests are reported. The study examines short term engine tests with both methyl and ethyl ester fuels compared to number 2 diesel fuel (D2). Three engine performance tests were conducted including an engine mapping procedure, an injector coking screening test, and an engine power study. The gross heat contents of the Biodiesel fuels, on a mass basis; were 9 to 13 percent lower than D2. The viscosities of Biodiesel were twice that of diesel. The cloud and pour points of D2 were significantly lower than the Biodiesel fuels. The Biodiesel fuels produced slightly lower power and torque and higher fuel consumption than D2. In general, the physical and chemical properties and the performance of ethyl esters were comparable to those of the methyl esters. Ethyl and methyl esters have almost the same heat content. The viscosities of the ethyl esters is slightly higher and the cloud and pour points are slightly lower than those of the methyl esters. Engine tests demonstrated that methyl esters produced slightly higher power and torque than ethyl esters. Fuel consumption when using the methyl and ethyl esters are nearly identical. Some desirable attributes of the ethyl esters over methyl esters were: significantly lower smoke opacity, lower exhaust temperatures, and lower pour point. The ethyl esters tended to have more injector coking than the methyl esters and the ethyl esters had a higher glycerol content than the methyl esters.
Eleven vegetable oils that can be grown as domestic field crops were identified for inclusion in a comparative study. Sample lots of each oil were subjected to ASTM tests appropriate for diesel fuels. The tests identified some problem areas with vegetable oil fuels. The oil samples were also characterized chemically and certain fuel properties were correlated to chemical composition. 10 refs.
The addition of antioxidants and dispersants is not sufficient to eliminate gum formation in vegetable oils. Even with relatively unsaturated oils like rapeseed the extent of unsaturation overwhelms these additives. Fuel deterioration during storage will be minimized in an anaerobic storage environment and, to a lesser extent, with a lower degree of oil unsaturation. Gum formation and carbon coking can also occur immediately preceding and during combustion. Thermal polymerization may be the dominant gum forming reaction under combustion conditions since thermal polymerization has a higher activation energy than oxidative polymerization and anaerobic conditions can occur within atomized fuel droplets. Carbon coking can be reduced with a lower degree of oil unsaturation and with better atomization of the fuel. 4 figures, 1 table.
The effect of injector tip temperature on coking propencity when sunflower oil is used as a fuel for direct injection engines, was tested. Partial retraction of the injector, the addition of a heat shield to the injector and cooling the injector with water was tried. Also, injector temperature was increased by reducing heat transferred to the cylinder head and preheating the sunflower oil. None of these measures could prevent coking of the injector tip. Coating the injector tip with Teflon and increasing the back leakage rate was also tried without success. Only a few of many additives tested, showed some promise of being able to prevent coking. 5 figures, 1 table.
Transesterification of sunflower and soybean oils to fatty esters has been carried out to study reaction variables such as: (1) molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil, (2) alcohol type (methanol, ethanol, and 1-butanol), (3) catalyst type (alkaline and acidic), and (4) reaction temperature (60/sup 0/, 45/sup 0/, and 32/sup 0/C). These studies showed that ester formation was 90 to 98% complete at the respective molar ratios of methanol/sunflower oil of 4:1 and 6:1. All three alcohols produced high yields of esters. Alkaline catalysts were much more effective than acid catalysts. At both 45/sup 0/ and 60/sup 0/, 97% of methyl esters were produced in 1 hr. 5 figures.
1. An investigation has been made of the esterification of glycerol and peanut oil fatty acids under reduced pressure, with
and without the assistance of various metal chlorides and oxides as catalysts.
2. The uncatalyzed reaction is bimolecular in character but proceeds in two successive stages, of which the latter has the
lower velocity constant. Velocity constants have been determined for the initial and final stages of the reaction, at intervals
between 166° and 241° C. The calculated heats of activation for the initial and final stages of the reaction are respectively
12,300 and 10,800 calories per mole. The free fatty acid concentration corresponding to the termination of the first stage
decreases progressively as the temperature of the reaction is increased.
3. Of a wide variety of metal oxides and chlorides tested, zinc and tin chlorides were outstanding in catalytic activity.
The reaction, when catalyzed with these materials, is complex and no longer simply bimolecular. It is believed that tin and
zinc chlorides react initially with free fatty acids and free glycerol to form metal soaps and chlorohydrins, and that esterification
proceeds through interaction of these two initial reaction products. Other metal chlorides, including the chlorides of aluminum,
antimony, mercury, nickel, magnesium, manganese, lead, iron, and cadmium, do not appear to be capable of reacting in this
manner, and are relatively poor catalysts. The oxides of tin and zinc are also deficient in catalytic activity, as is hydrochloric
acid.
4. The reaction proceeds at a reasonable speed, i.e., the FFA content of the product is reduced to about 3% in 6 hours, if
0.0008 mole of tin chloride per 100 g. of fatty acids is used as a catalyst at 175° C. or if a similar amount of zinc chloride
is used as a catalyst at 200° C. Equally rapid esterification is obtained without a catalyst only above 250° C. Esterification
is assisted by maintaining a vacuum upon the reaction vessel to remove water vapor from the reacting material as rapidly as
it is formed. A vacuum of about 20 mm. pressure of mercury is satisfactory.
5. If zinc or tin chloride catalysts are employed, the metals may be completely removed from the esterified oils by ordinary
alkali refining. These catalysts do not cause the oil to polymerize during the course of esterification, do not cause conjugation
in the oils, and are not detrimental to the color of the product.
Transesterification reaction variables that affect yield and purity of the product esters from cottonseed, peanut, soybean
and sunflower oils include molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil, type of catalyst (alkaline vs acidic), temperature and
degree of refinement of the vegetable oil. With alkaline catalysts (either sodium hydroxide or methoxide), temperatures of
60 C or higher, molar ratios of at least 6 to 1 and with fully refined oils, conversion to methyl, ethyl and butyl esters
was essentially complete in 1 hr. At moderate temperatures (32 C), vegetable oils were 99% transesterified in ca. 4 hr with
an alkaline catalyst. Transesterification by acid catalysis was much slower than by alkali catalysis. Although the crude oils
could be transesterified, ester yields were reduced because of gums and extraneous material present in the crude oils.
Theoretically, preparation of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) deals with reversible chemical reactions in a complex system.
Methodologically, there are numerous ways, generally characterized by the type of catalysts used and steps involved. Although
there are more than a half dozen common catalysts, the majority fall into either acidic (HCl, H2SO4 and BF3) or alkaline types (NaOCH3, KOH and NaOH), with each having its own catalytic capability and application limitations. In terms of steps, many conventional
methods, including those officially recognized, consist of drying, digestion, extraction, purification, alkaline hydrolysis,
transmethylation/methylation and postreaction work-up. Although these methods are capable of providing reliable estimates
if some precautions are taken, they are cumbersome, time-consuming and cost-inefficient. A new approach has been to transmethylate
lipidsin situ. Due to its simplicity, high sensitivity, comparable reliability and capability to determine total fatty acids, the method
of direct transmethylation is finding a unique place in lipid determination. Regardless of which method is used, quantitative
methylation requires chemists to take precautions at every step involved, particularly during FAME formation and subsequent
recovery steps. Evidently, there is an urgent need for more systematic studies, guided by the chemical principle of reactions
involved and physicochemical properties of regents and end products, into factors affecting these steps. Hopefully, this will
lead to an improved method, which measures lipid composition in biological materials not only with high accuracy but also
with high efficiency and minimum costs.
The preparation of methyl esters of used frying oil, available as waste from restaurants and households, is described. Fuel
specifications of this fuel are given, and values for gaseous (HC, CO, NOx) and particulate emissions, measured with a vehicle powered by a turbocharged, direct injection diesel engine, are shown.
The ester fuel shows slightly lower HC and CO emissions but increased NOx values compared with reference US-2D fuel. The particulate emissions, however, are significantly lower with used frying oil.
Preliminary results of an engine road test are described.
The catalyst amounts were calculated based on 2.03 mg KOH/g acid value of the brown grease, which initially had Evaluation of Turkish sulphur olive oil as an alternative diesel fuel
- Ffa
- References
- H A Aksoy
- I Kahraman
- F Karaosmanoglu
- H Civelekoglu
21 NaOCH 3 1.42 300 225.36 75.12 37.12 31.11 5.23 – [a] The catalyst amounts were calculated based on 2.03 mg KOH/g acid value of the brown grease, which initially had 33% FFA.REFERENCES Aksoy, H. A., I. Kahraman, F. Karaosmanoglu, and H. Civelekoglu. 1988. Evaluation of Turkish sulphur olive oil as an alternative diesel fuel. JAOCS 65(6): 936–938.
Personal communication. Dept. of Food Science
- E G Hammond
Hammond, E. G. Personal communication. Dept. of Food Science,
Iowa State Univ., Ames, Iowa, 16 September 1998.
Renderers give new life to waste restaurant fats
- B F Haumann
Haumann, B. F. 1990. Renderers give new life to waste restaurant
fats. Inform 1(8): 722-725.
Process for the pre-esterification of free fatty acids in fats and oils
- L Jeromin
- E Peukert
- G Wollmann
Jeromin, L., E. Peukert, and G. Wollmann. 1987. Process for the
pre-esterification of free fatty acids in fats and oils. U.S. Patent
No. 4698186.
Process for producing lower alcohol esters of fatty acids. U.S. Patent No. 4164506 Treating fats and fatty oils
- Y Kawahara
- T Ono
- G I Keim
- N J Newark
Kawahara, Y., and T. Ono. 1979. Process for producing lower alcohol esters of fatty acids. U.S. Patent No. 4164506. Keim, G. I., and N. J. Newark. 1945. Treating fats and fatty oils. U.S. Patent No. 2383601.
Process for the production of fatty acid esters of short–chain aliphatic alcohols from fats and/or oils containing free fatty acids Organic Chemistry: A Brief Course
- H Lepper
- L Friesenhagen
Lepper, H., and L. Friesenhagen. 1986. Process for the production of fatty acid esters of short–chain aliphatic alcohols from fats and/or oils containing free fatty acids. U.S. Patent No. 4608202. Linstromberg, W. W. 1970. Organic Chemistry: A Brief Course. 2nd ed. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Co.
Conversion of rapeseed oil to esters for use as diesel fuel
- M J Nye
- P H Southwell
Nye, M. J., and P. H. Southwell. 1984. Conversion of rapeseed oil
to esters for use as diesel fuel. Fifth Canadian Bioenergy R and
D. Seminar, 487-490. London, U.K.: Elsevier Applied Science.
Commercialization of Idaho biodiesel (HySEE) from ethanol and waste vegetable oil. ASAE Paper No
- St
- Joseph
- Mich
St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE. _____. 1995. Commercialization of Idaho biodiesel (HySEE) from ethanol and waste vegetable oil. ASAE Paper No. 95–6738.
A comparison of ethyl and methyl esters of vegetable oil as diesel fuel substitutes
- C L Peterson
- D L Reece
- R Cruz
- J Thompson
Peterson, C. L., D. L. Reece, R. Cruz, and J. Thompson. 1992. A
comparison of ethyl and methyl esters of vegetable oil as diesel
fuel substitutes. In Liquid Fuels from Renewable Resource:
Proc. of an Alternative Energy Conference, 99-110. St. Joseph,
Mich.: ASAE.
Personal communication. Simonsen Rendering
- J Simonsen
Simonsen, J. Personal communication. Simonsen Rendering, Quimby, Iowa, October 2000.
Process for manufacturing a composition of fatty acid esters useful as gas oil substitute motor fuel with hydrated ethyl alcohol and the resultant esters composition Attempts to prevent injector coking with sunflower oil by engine modifications and fuel additives
- R Stern
- G Hillion
- P Gateau
- J C Guibet
- Van
- A N Walt
- F J C Hugo
Stern, R., G. Hillion, P. Gateau, and J. C. Guibet. 1987. Process for manufacturing a composition of fatty acid esters useful as gas oil substitute motor fuel with hydrated ethyl alcohol and the resultant esters composition. U.S. Patent No. 4695411. Van der Walt, A. N., and F. J. C. Hugo. 1982. Attempts to prevent injector coking with sunflower oil by engine modifications and fuel additives. In Vegetable Oils Fuel: Proc. of the Intl. Conf. on Plant and Vegetable Oils as Fuels, 230–238.
Process for the production of fatty acid esters of lower alcohols. U.S. Patent No. 5399731 Diesel engine durability when fueled with methyl ester of winter rapeseed oil. ASAE Paper No
- T Wimmer
- Q Zhang
- M Feldman
- C Peterson
Wimmer, T. 1995. Process for the production of fatty acid esters of lower alcohols. U.S. Patent No. 5399731. Zhang, Q., M. Feldman, and C. Peterson. 1988. Diesel engine durability when fueled with methyl ester of winter rapeseed oil. ASAE Paper No. 88–1562.
Seed oils for diesel fuels: Sources and properties. ASAE Paper No. 87-1583
- M O Bagby
- B Freedman
- A W Schwab
Bagby, M. O., B. Freedman, and A. W. Schwab. 1987. Seed oils for
diesel fuels: Sources and properties. ASAE Paper No. 87-1583.
St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE.
Diesel engine durability when fueled with methyl ester of winter rapeseed oil. ASAE Paper No. 88-1562
- Q Zhang
- M Feldman
- C Peterson
Zhang, Q., M. Feldman, and C. Peterson. 1988. Diesel engine
durability when fueled with methyl ester of winter rapeseed oil.
ASAE Paper No. 88-1562. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE.
Process for the production of fatty acid esters of lower alcohols
- T Wimmer
Wimmer, T. 1995. Process for the production of fatty acid esters of
lower alcohols. U.S. Patent No. 5399731.
Process for manufacturing a composition of fatty acid esters useful as gas oil substitute motor fuel with hydrated ethyl alcohol and the resultant esters composition
- R Stern
- G Hillion
- P Gateau
- J C Guibet
Stern, R., G. Hillion, P. Gateau, and J. C. Guibet. 1987. Process for
manufacturing a composition of fatty acid esters useful as gas oil
substitute motor fuel with hydrated ethyl alcohol and the
resultant esters composition. U.S. Patent No. 4695411.
Official Test Method Ca 14–56 for total, free, and combined glycerol (iodometric–periodic acid method) In Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists Society
AOCS. 1991. Official Test Method Ca 14–56 for total, free, and
combined glycerol (iodometric–periodic acid method). In
Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American
Oil Chemists Society. Champaign, Ill.: AOCS.
- J Rudbeck
Rudbeck, J. 2000. Market Report 1999. Render (April): 10–14.
Process for producing lower alcohol esters of fatty acids
- Y Kawahara
- T Ono
Kawahara, Y., and T. Ono. 1979. Process for producing lower
alcohol esters of fatty acids. U.S. Patent No. 4164506.
Process for the production of fatty acid esters of short-chain aliphatic alcohols from fats and/or oils containing free fatty acids. U.S. Patent No. 4608202. Linstromberg, W. W. 1970. Organic Chemistry: A Brief Course
- H Lepper
- L Friesenhagen
Lepper, H., and L. Friesenhagen. 1986. Process for the production
of fatty acid esters of short-chain aliphatic alcohols from fats
and/or oils containing free fatty acids. U.S. Patent No. 4608202.
Linstromberg, W. W. 1970. Organic Chemistry: A Brief Course.
2nd ed. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Co.