The roles of the river valleys in the life of the Körös culture in the Carpathian Basin

Abstract

The central part of the Carpathian Basin constitutes a very important transitory region between the environments of the Balkan Peninsula and the western part of Europe, which significantly differ from one another even at macro-level. These environmental differences were already present during the Holocene and basically determined the life of the Mesolithic and Neolithic groups. In the above-mentioned area, there was a Central European-Balkanic agroecological barrier in the Early Neolithic, determined the settlement and expansion possibilities of the Early Neolithic Körös-Starcevo culture, which had cultural and economic roots in the Balkan Peninsula. The same barrier played an essential role in the neolithization process of the Late Mesolithic communities in the northern part of the Carpathian Basin, in the development of the autochthonous Linear Pottery culture already independent of Balkanic roots. In this area, which was transitory from the aspect of landscape, climate, flora and soil, we not only have to take into consideration an environmental shift due to the increase in elevation above sea level, but also pay attention to the effect of meso- and micro-level mosaicity. The Pleistocene lag surfaces, "loessy islands" and the alluvial plains that are the result of differing geological evolution can be characterized with different individual subsoil and landscape conditions. These differing meso- and micro-environmental conditions altered and modified the settlement strategy of the Körös culture in the Early Neolithic. Thus the temporary settlement are found in the alluvial plain, however the permanent settlements are found in the pleistocene lag surfaces. Due to various environmental factors (hidrology, pedology, morfology, vegetation and fauna) the people farmed diverse method too.

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Comparative Archaeology and
Paleoclimatology
Socio-cultural responses to a changing world
Edited by
Maximilian O. Baldia
Timothy K. Perttula
Douglas S. Frink
BAR International Series 2456
2013

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139
Chapter 13
LATE NEOLITHIC MAN AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE CARPATHIAN
BASIN: A PRELIMINARY GEOARCHEOLOGICAL REPORT FROM
CSŐSZHALOM AT POLGÁR
Pál SÜMEGI, Sándor MOLNÁR, Katalin HERBICH, Mariann IMRE,
Gabriella SZEGVÁRI, Sándor GULYÁS
Dept. of Geology and Paleontology, University of Szeged, Hungary
Pál SÜMEGI, Gábor TIMÁR
Dept. of Geophysics, University of L. Eötvös, Budapest, Hungary
Abstract: The Late Neolithic tell of Csőszhalom near Polgár (ca. 5000-4600 cal BC) is an unusual site, situated in the northeastern
corner of the Great Hungarian Plains. It is surrounded by five concentric ditches with four causeways, similar to those found in the
Lengyel culture to the west. However, it belongs to the Tisza culture of eastern Hungary. Adjacent to the tell is a village with
hundreds of wattle and daub houses. This paper establishes a Late Neolithic paleogeography for the area, using sedimentological
and micromorphological analysis. Human activity, including grazing and cultivation, are concentrated near the tell and settlement
as well as the loess-covered levee and isthmus-like remnant surface near the site. Minimal activity can be identified in the alluvial
plain area of the Tisza River. Results from carpological analysis also point to relatively intensive agricultural activity in the
neighborhood. Pollen and pedological analyses imply that the highest flood protected areas of Csőszhalom, originally covered with
loess-steppe or forest-steppe, was used for the cultivation of crops. However, macrofossil research indicates the extension of the
croplands to the seasonally flooded areas. The micro-scale zonality and mosaic complexity in the area was enhanced by human
activities, completely altering the original vegetation cover of the loess levees. Yet, the composition of flora in marsh and forest areas
were only marginally modified.
INTRODUCTION
The prehistoric site of Csőszhalom near the town of
Polgár belongs to the Tisza culture of the Hungarian Late
Neolithic (Bánffy and Bognár-Kutzián 2007, Kalicz-
Raczky 1987, Raczky 1989, 1998, Raczky et al. 1994). It
is occupied from ca. 5000-4600 BC. Csőszhalom is an
unusual site consisting of two different kinds of
concomitant occupation sites: a tell and adjacent village.
Tells occur in the Near East, the Balkan Peninsula, and
the Tisza River drainage of Hungary. Their mound-like
appearance is the result of numerous successive building
phases in a confined space. However, in this case, the
building space is confined by five concentric ditches with
four causeways. Such enclosures are commonly found in
the Lengyel culture to the west of the Tisza culture,
where tells do not exist. It is perhaps even more
surprising that archaeologists discovered a huge village
adjacent to the tell. This horizontal settlement contains
the remnants of hundreds of wattle and daub houses.
Pottery is often painted in polychrome, exhibiting
geometric designs. Burials are richly furnished.
Csőszhalom is situated within the Carpathian Basin in the
northeastern corner of the Great Hungarian Plains. The
site is at the northern interface of two main regions: the
Hajdúság and the Hortobágy. It is bordered by the
alluvial plain of the Tisza (Fig. 13.1). The geological
history of these regions is fundamentally determined by
bedrock and soil conditions, as well as the composition of
the vegetation within the surroundings of Csőszhalom.
According to various scientists representing different
branches of 20th century earth sciences, the Tisza River
(after an east-west migration at the end of the Ice Age)
reached its final course only in the second half of the
Holocene, about 6000 years ago (Cholnoky 1907, Borsy
1995, Borsy et al. 1969). However, recent geological and
paleontological results indicate that the river established
its present course by 20,000 BP (Nyilas and Sümegi,
1991, Szöőr et al. 1991). Thus, a wide alluvial plain,
bearing similar hydrological and geomorphologic
conditions as today (Fig. 13.2 and Fig. 13.3), developed
by the end of the Pleistocene (Sümegi et al. 2000).
Nascent environmental conditions strongly determine
human settlement strategies and agricultural production.
Rivers deriving from the northern parts of the
Carpathians (the Sajó River and its tributaries) formed an
alluvial fan in the area surrounding Polgár. At the end of
the Pleistocene, the Tisza cut into this fan complex
following a northeast-southwest course and finally
beheaded it. Thus, the varied composition alluvial fan
complex became somewhat elevated, reducing the level
of saturation. This enabled air-dust particles to settle out
on wet floodplains allowing formation of infusional loess
deposits on natural levees. Former tributaries of the Sajó
River gradually caused infilling in the wind gaps. As a
result, the Tisza discharged water only during floods.
The alluvial fan complex at Csőszhalom was dissected
into islands and peninsulas by the alternating and
formerly active wind gaps at the end of the Pleistocene.

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Figure 13.1. Geological and morphological map of Csőszhalom at Polgár (after Gillings, 1995)
Figure 13.2. Digital field map of Polgár-Csőszhalom, and its surroundings (Timár-Rácz, 2002)

P. SÜMEGI ET AL.: LATE NEOLITHIC MAN AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE CARPATHIAN BASIN…
141
Figure 13.3. Three-dimensional digital field map of Polgár-Csőszhalom and its surroundings (Timár-Rácz, 2002)
Later, in the Neolithic, flooding on the dry levees occur-
red only during major floods. The deep and widening
alluvial plain of the Tisza bordered the whole area to the
northwest. Thus, on a micro-scale, the Late Neolithic
community chose to settle a morphologically extreme
mosaic area bearing an alluvial loess cover. Local
morphological and hydrological conditions greatly influ-
enced natural soil conditions and vegetation in this
habitat.
ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL CORES
Coring results show that the Csőszhalom tell and the
settlement are situated on a wide levee formed by a large
sandy area covered with alluvial loess. From the top
down to the surrounding river beds, the hydro series is
greatly dependent on local morphology responsible for
the mosaic of soil conditions and vegetation (Fig. 13.4).
The following Late Neolithic paleogeography is
established for the area based on sedimentological,
micro-morphological (Fig. 13.5), pollen analytical, and
carpological research (Raczky et al. 2002, Gyulai 2000).
The analyzed samples come from the surrounding
ditches, river beds, and archeological sites.
Micro-morphologic analysis
Micro-morphologic analysis of sediments from ditches
surrounding the Late Neolithic tell, along with coring
samples, indicate relatively thick vegetation cover
(mostly soft-bodied plants) with fine, red, amorphous,
jelly-like iron-oxihydroxid (limonite-goethite) bands
around roots. Carbonate grains and bands of reddish iron
concretions (pea structures) with a diameter of 0.5-
0.6 mm are identified between 92-92.5 m and maximally
up to the 93 m above sea level (asl). This indicates that
floods with surficial groundwater arteries reached
relatively high zones of saturation between 92–93 m asl
prior to river regulation. This implies that only areas
higher than 93 msl were suitable for the establishment of
settlements and farming in the investigated area.
Given the morphological and hydrological conditions of
the area and the altering levels of saturation around
Csőszhalom, the processes of soil formation are highly
varied. In areas lying below 92 m asl, floods and stagnant
waters caused dark, water-influenced polihedric meadows
and paludal, hydromorf soils. These soils contain iron
humate as well as reed, sedge, and bulrush remains. Such
is the case with Kender brook, surrounding the
Csőszhalom area to the northeast. Around 92 m asl, a
special type of water-influenced woodland soil formed
along the infilling channels. In these regions, a thick
cover of gallery forests composed of softwood (Salix,
Populus) and hardwood trees (Quercus, Ulmus, Fraxinus)
developed. The autochthonous, carbonized bark and leaf
prints of oaks and alders from the 92 m level of
archaeological site No. 6 at Csőszhalom, on the banks of

M. BALDIA, T. PERTTULA AND D. FRINK : SOCIO-CULTURAL RESPONSES TO A CHANGING WORLD
142
Figure 13.4. Soil conditions and vegetation series of the Polgár-Csőszhalom area in the Neolithic
(Raczky et al. 2002)
Figure 13.5. Micromorphological section from
the basal loess layer at Polgár-Csőszhalom
Kengyel brook, also indicate gallery forests. On the other
hand, patchy salt accumulation levels and an alkali soil
layer with columnar B horizon are observed between
levels of 92–93 m asl. These geological signs indicate a
process of alkalization in the former back swamp, located
opposite Kengyel-brook on the southeastern side of a
spit-like natural levee at Csőszhalom. Similar signs
were found during the archaeological investigations
of the northeastern margin of the Late Neolithic
settlement.
Determining original soil cover for levels above 93 m asl
is fraught with difficulties. According to historical maps,
the area was under cultivation at least since the Middle
Ages, so the soils are greatly and deeply disturbed.
However, from the ditches surrounding the Csőszhalom
tell and during the archaeological investigations of the
Neolithic settlement, we managed to take soil samples,
representing the original soil cover of the Neolithic.
Micro-morphological analysis of these soils indicates
dominance of soft-bodied plants in this horizon. High
quality black soils developed having adequate carbonate
and organic content along with very good porosity and
water balance conditions. Signs of a patchy forest cover
are found only near a former bed of Kengyel brook.
However, in certain places the black soil horizon shows
signs of salt accumulation indicating some sort of alkali-
zation process. Thus, several subtypes or transitional
forms of the black soil may have developed in the
area, although these cannot be precisely determined
today.

P. SÜMEGI ET AL.: LATE NEOLITHIC MAN AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE CARPATHIAN BASIN…
143
Sedimentological and micro-morphological analyses
Sedimentological and micro-morphological analyses
indicate the development of paludal soils in the infilling
channels and hydromorf woodland soils on the banks. A
gradual formation of black soils is observed towards the
top of the alluvial loess-covered levees. Meanwhile, the
former back swamp area of the levee, opposite the
riverbed, shows seasonal water coverage resulting in
alkali soils. These belts and the soil mosaics significantly
influenced the economics of the Neolithic community.
The black soil-covered areas would have been suitable
for cultivation, while the saline parts and the areas with
hydromorphic soils could be used for grazing and
harvesting fodder. However, animals would be exposed
to significant danger in the marshy areas due to the
presence of Lymnea truncatula, which is responsible for
spreading liver rot. The wood from gallery-trees, which
developed on the alluvial plain of the Tisza and the banks
of brooks in the former alluvial fan, would be used for
heating. Leaves could be used as fodder, and the
environment would have supported the collection of
various fruits, berries, and plants. Large forests may have
played a significant role in the lives of Neolithic
community as indicated by the high number of hunted
game.
Palaeobotanical analysis
Palaeobotanical results reinforce the interpretations of
human activities from the pedological analyses. The
pollen diagrams show a gradual increase in crop pollen
(Triticum) and weeds as one moves towards the
Csőszhalom ditch system from the alluvial plains of the
Tisza through the Kengyel brook. The weeds consist of
Chenopodiaceae, Compositae, Poaceae, Plantago
lanceolata, and Polygonum. They were probably spread
through plowing agricultural fields as well as walking. In
the same area, pollen of Cyperaceae Gramineae,
indicative of open vegetation, show a similar pattern. In
the alluvial plain of the Tisza, pollen rates for woody
plants (AP) are over 60% with a decrease to below 40%
in the surroundings of Kengyel brook. The rates are
below 30% in the ditch next to the tell. These pollen
diagram trends clearly point to the gradual decrease of
woody plants towards the Csőszhalom tell and settlement.
An increase in steppe elements and cultivated plants and
weeds are observed.
According to these data, human activities (grazing,
walking, and cultivation) are concentrated mainly in
the areas of the tell, the settlement, as well as the
loess-covered levee and the isthmus-like remnant
surface lying above the 93 m asl horizon. On the one
hand, signs of human activities in the alluvial plain area
of the Tisza during the Late Neolithic are minimal. On
the other, considerable activity is observed in the area
surrounding Kengyel brook. A more open gallery-forest
(oak, ash, alder, willow, and poplar) with undergrowth
of thick fern-cover and various shrubs of hazel,
blackthorn, elder, and cornel are reconstructed for this
area.
Large amounts of fruits, berries and their pits, along with
fruit and pip remains of crab-apples are characteristic of
open gallery-forests. Acorns and pieces of oak charcoal
are found in the area of the Csőszhalom tell (Gyulai
2000). In addition, a significant amount of emmer
(Triticum turgidum ssp dicoccum), spelt (T. aestivum ssp.
spelta) einkorn (T. monococcum), rivet type wheat (T.
turgidum ssp. turgidum), club wheat (T. aestivum ssp.
compactum), bread wheat (T. aestivum spp. aestivum),
barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. hexastichum), and even
millet (Panicum miliaceum) are recovered archaeolo-
gically (Gyular 2000). Seeds of papilionaceous plants,
such as lentil (Lens culinaris), green pea (Pisum sativum),
and vetch (Vicia cf. sativa) (Gyulai 2000) verify that Late
Neolithic people living at Csőszhalom reached a peak of
early agricultural production. A wide array of weeds from
various habitats (alkalic marshes, loess-steppes, wetland
meadows, floodplain forests, fields, pastures, and dirty
walkways are identified through pollen analysis (Gyulai
2000). The weeds associated with these areas included
Polygonum arenastrum, P. persicaria, Chenopodium
album, C. hybridum, Gallium spurium, G. palustre,
Carex hirta, Rumex hydrolapathum, Scoenoplectus
lacustris, Hordeum bulbosum, Fallopia, etc.
Results of the carpological analysis also point to the
presence of large-scale, versatile agricultural production,
mainly the growth of crops in the neighborhoods of the
Csőszhalom tell during the Late Neolithic. The crops
were complemented with arid loving crop weeds
(Secalietea species) (Küster 1985) and seeds of wetland
and swamp plants.
CONCLUSION
The nascent environmental conditions strongly
determined human settlement strategies and agricultural
production. Palaeobotanical data along with the results of
pollen analysis and pedological research imply that the
highest flood protected areas of Csőszhalom, originally
covered with loess-steppe or forest-steppe, were chosen
for the cultivation of crops as evidenced by the presence
of Stipa seeds. However, results of macrofossil analysis
indicate the extension of the croplands to the seasonally
flooded areas. Furthermore, seeds of plants preferring
wetlands, swamps, forests, and saline marshes suggest
development of plant assemblages in the low lying areas
befitting local morphological, hydrological, and soil
conditions (Fig. 13.6), creating micro-scale zonality and a
complex mosaic that was further enhanced by human
activities. In this mosaic environment where Late
Neolithic people settled, human activities completely
altered the original vegetation cover of the loess levees
while the composition of marshy flora and forest areas
was only mildly modified.
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