Content uploaded by Enrique Coss-Adame
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Enrique Coss-Adame on Jan 15, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
NEUROGASTROENTEROLOGY AND MOTILITY DISORDERS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (S RAO, SECTION EDITOR)
Esophageal Hypomotility and Spastic Motor Disorders: Current
Diagnosis and Treatment
Miguel A. Valdovinos &Monica R. Zavala-Solares &
Enrique Coss-Adame
Published online: 7 November 2014
#Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
Abstract Esophageal hypomotility (EH) is characterized by
abnormal esophageal peristalsis, either from a reduction or
absence of contractions, whereas spastic motor disorders
(SMD) are characterized by an increase in the vigor and/or
propagation velocity of esophageal body contractions. Their
pathophysiology is not clearly known. The reduced excitation
of the smooth muscle contraction mediated by cholinergic
neurons and the impairment of inhibitory ganglion neuronal
function mediated by nitric oxide are likely mechanisms of the
peristaltic abnormalities seen in EH and SMD, respectively.
Dysphagia and chest pain are the most frequent clinical man-
ifestations for both of these dysfunctions, and gastroesopha-
geal reflux disease (GERD) is commonly associated with
these motor disorders. The introduction of high-resolution
manometry (HRM) and esophageal pressure topography
(EPT) has significantly enhanced the ability to diagnose EH
and SMD. Novel EPT metrics in particular the development of
the Chicago Classification of esophageal motor disorders has
enabled improved characterization of these abnormalities. The
first step in the management of EH and SMD is to treat
GERD, especially when esophageal testing shows pathologic
reflux. Smooth muscle relaxants (nitrates, calcium channel
blockers, 5-phosphodiesterase inhibitors) and pain modulators
may be useful in the management of dysphagia or pain in
SMD. Endoscopic Botox injection and pneumatic dilation are
the second-line therapies. Extended myotomy of the esopha-
geal body or peroral endoscopic myotomy (POEM) may be
considered in highly selected cases but lack evidence.
Keywords Weak peristalsis .Dysphagia .Chest pain .
Distal esophageal spasm .Hypercontractile esophagus .
Jackhammer esophagus .Ineffective esophageal motility .
High-resolution manometry .Nutcracker esophagus .
Esophageal hypomotility
Introduction
Esophageal hypomotility (EH) and spastic motor disorders
(SMD) are terms that have been used to define alterations in
esophageal peristalsis, whether from reduction or absence or
from the increased vigor or propagation velocity of esophage-
al body contractions. Dysphagia and chest pain are the prima-
ry clinical manifestations of both these motility disorders.
Previously, using conventional linear manometry (CLM), the-
se disorders were defined as ineffective esophageal motility
(IEM), nutcracker esophagus (NE), isolated hypertensive low-
er esophageal sphincter (LES), and esophageal spasm [1]. In
the last decade, the introduction of new technologies, such as
high-resolution manometry (HRM), esophageal pressure to-
pography (EPT), and multichannel impedance manometry
(MII), has radically changed the diagnosis of EH and SMD.
The identification of esophageal dysfunction biomarkers, the
development of diagnostic algorithms, and the creation of a
new classification of EH and SMD have all been made pos-
sible by these techniques. The Chicago Classification [2••,3]
defines these disorders as weak peristalsis, distal spasm, hy-
pertensive peristalsis, and hypercontractile peristalsis or jack-
hammer esophagus. Treatment of EH and SMD is a challenge.
Different therapeutic modalities exist, but their efficacy and
This article is part of the Topical Collection on Neurogastroenterology
and Motility Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract
M. A. Valdovinos (*):M. R. Zavala-Solares :E. Coss-Adame
Department of Gastroenterology, Gastrointestinal Motility
Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición
“Salvador Zubirán”, Vasco de Quiroga 15, Tlalpan, 14000 Mexico
City, Mexico
e-mail: miguelvaldovinosd@gmail.com
M. R. Zavala-Solares
e-mail: monikazs@hotmail.com
E. Coss-Adame
e-mail: enriquecossmd@gmail.com
Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421
DOI 10.1007/s11894-014-0421-1
safety are controversial due to the limited number of random-
ized clinical trials that have been conducted. In this review, we
will discuss the new diagnostic criteria and the current treat-
ment approaches for these esophageal motor disorders.
Spastic Motor Disorders
These comprise three separate manometric disorders: diffuse
esophageal spasm, nutcracker esophagus, and esophageal
hypercontractility or jackhammer esophagus.
Distal Esophageal Spasm
Distal esophageal spasm (DES) is a motor disorder of the
esophagus that clinically presents as chest pain and/or dys-
phagia and is characterized by the uncoordinated contraction
of the esophageal smooth muscle with manometric findings of
frequent simultaneous contractions alternating with normal
peristalsis. The prevalence of DES is low and, according to
different case series, is estimated at between 4 and 10 % when
CLM is used [4•,5,6] and atonly 2 % in patients evaluated for
dysphagia by HRM [7••].
The cause of DES is not known. Several studies have
suggested that DES occurs due to loss of inhibitory ganglion
neurons in the distal esophagus. The impairment of inhibitory
innervation produces premature, rapid, or simultaneous con-
tractions, as well as abnormal relaxation of the
esophagogastric junction (EGJ) [8,9]. Nitric oxide (NO) is
the primary mediator of the inhibitory neurons in the esoph-
ageal myenteric plexus [10,11]. In an experimental study,
scavenging NO with recombinant hemoglobin induced simul-
taneous esophageal contractions and abnormal deglutitive
relaxation of the EGJ in normal subjects [12]. These findings
support the important role of inhibitory nitrergic tone in the
pathophysiology of DES. Unfortunately, there are scarce his-
topathologic studies from patients with DES, and the findings
are nonspecific [13,14]. Studies with endoscopic ultrasound
have shown that patients with DES have a thicker muscularis
propria layer than controls [14,15]. Also, 31–33 % of cases
with DES demonstrate GERD [4•,16].
Clinical Manifestations
Clinically, DES is characterized by intermittent chest pain or
dysphagia [4•,17]. In a recent study conducted on 108 pa-
tients diagnosed with DES using CLM, Almansa et al. [4•]
found that the leading symptom was dysphagia (51 %),
followed by chest pain (29 %) and heartburn (12 %). Weight
loss occurred in 30 % of patients. Psychiatric disorders (de-
pression and anxiety) were common. Interestingly, 75 % of
patients were using acid-suppressive medications and 46 %
were being treated with psychotropic drugs, confirming the
heterogeneous presentation of DES, its frequent association
with GERD, and the possible roleof psychologic comorbidity.
Diagnosis
Esophageal Manometry Utilizing CLM, the diagnosis of
DES requires the following findings: (1) simultaneous con-
tractions in >10 % of wet swallows, (2) contraction amplitude
>30 mmHg, and (3) intermittent normal peristalsis [1]. These
criteria have changed significantly with the use of HRM and
EPT plots. These techniques have introduced new tools that
have improved the identification of DES, and they include (1)
contractile deceleration point (CDP), (2) distal latency (DL),
and (3) contractile front velocity (CFV). CDP is “the inflec-
tion point along the 30 mmHg isobaric contour where propa-
gation velocity slows, demarcating the tubular esophagus
from the phrenic ampulla,”DL is “the interval between upper
esophageal sphincter (UES) relaxation and the CDP,”and
CFV is “the slope of the tangent approximating the
30 mmHg isobaric contour between the proximal pressure at
the transition zone and the CDP”[2••,18,19] (Fig. 1a).
Utilizing these metrics, Pandolfino et al. [7••] analyzed 1070
patients presenting with esophageal symptoms. Patient classi-
fication was based on the CFV and DL in those presenting
with rapid contractions (CFV >9 cm/s and DL >4.5), prema-
ture contractions (CFV <9 cm/s and DL <4.5 s), and with
rapid, premature contractions (CFV >9 cm/s and DL <4.5 s).
Using these parameters, the authors found only 24 patients
(2.2 %) with a DL <4.5 s, all of whom had chest pain or
dysphagia. Eighteen of those patients were diagnosed with
achalasia,and DES was established in the remaining 6. Twoof
those six patients presenting with DES had premature con-
tractions, and four had rapid and premature contractions.
There was no clinical basis for diagnosing DES in any of the
patients that presented with both rapid contractions and no
premature contractions. With these results, the authors showed
that the finding of simultaneous (rapid) contractions
corresponded to a very heterogeneous group of patients, the
majority of whom did not present with DES. Therefore, the
identification of patients with this disorder improved through
thepresenceofprematurecontractions defined by a DL
<4.5 s. The authors proposed that DES diagnosis with EPT
requires the presence of at least two premature contractions
(DL <4.5 s) and normal EGJ relaxation [mean integrated
relaxation pressure (IRP) <15 mmHg] (Fig. 1b).
Barium Swallow “Corkscrew esophagus”or “rosary bead
esophagus”is the finding in the barium swallow used to
describe the patient with DES, but it is rarely observed in
patients with a manometric diagnosis of DES, and usually
corresponds to spastic achalasia [20,21]. Almansa et al. [4•]
recently found that abnormal peristalsis was identified through
esophagogram in 61 % of the patients evaluated. However, the
421, Page 2 of 10 Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421
classical corkscrew esophagus was noted in only 4 % of the
patients with DES.
Endoscopy and 24-h Esophageal pH Monitoring Upper GI
endoscopy is of limited value in the diagnosis of DES.
However, it is very useful for excluding mechanical causes
of dysphagia such as stenosis, rings, neoplasia, or peptic
esophagitis and eosinophilic esophagitis. Endoscopic findings
of tertiary contractions, esophageal dilation, and resistance to
the passage of the endoscope in the EGJ may suggest a spastic
disorder of the esophagus or achalasia. In 101 patients with
DES that underwent upper endoscopy, Almansa et al. [4•]
found esophagitis in 25 % of cases hiatal hernia in 32 %,
Schatzki ring in 14 %, and epiphrenic diverticulum in 5 %.
Esophageal pH monitoring is indicated in the evaluation of
patients with DES that have chest pain, heartburn, and regur-
gitation, especially to rule out the presence of abnormal acid
reflux. At least 38 % of patients with DES are diagnosed with
GERD by a combination of upper endoscopy and 24-h pH
monitoring [4•].
Hypertensive Peristalsis (Nutcracker Esophagus)
Nutcracker esophagus (NE) is a motor disorder found in
patients with chest pain and dysphagia and is characterized
by hypertensive, but normally propagated, contractions [1,
22]. Even though this disorder was described more than
30 years ago [23], there is still much controversy as to whether
Fig. 1 (a) Esophageal pressure
topography (EPT) from a healthy
volunteer showing normal
integral resting pressure (IRP),
distal latency (DL), and distal
contractile integral (DCI). (b)
EPT from a patient with distal
spasm: normal IRP and short DL.
(c) EPT from a patient with
jackhammer esophagus: normal
IRP, normal DL, and DIC
>8000 mmHg s cm. (d)Weak
peristalsis: EPT of a swallow with
a large break in the mid-
esophagus
Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421 Page 3 of 10, 421
NE is a true esophageal motor disorder, a manometric marker
of noncardiac chest pain (NCCP), or an epiphenomenon of
GERD. It occurs in 48 % of the patients with NCCP and
coexists with GERD in 33–77 % of the cases [16,24•].
The pathophysiology of NE is not very clear. Studies
combining esophageal manometry and high-frequency ultra-
sound have shown the presence of hypertrophy of the
muscularis propria in patients with hypertensive contractions
[15,25]. Asynchrony between the circular and longitudinal
esophageal muscle contractions has also been demonstrated in
patients with NE [25,26]. Cholinergic stimulation with
edrophonium in healthy patients induces asynchrony in the
contraction of both muscle layers of the esophagus, and this
condition can be reversed with atropine [27,28]. These find-
ings suggest that an excessive cholinergic tone may explain
the vigorous contractions seen in NE.
Clinical Manifestations
NE is more frequent in women in the sixth decade of life. The
most common symptoms are chest pain and dysphagia. In a
recent study that included 115 patients presenting with man-
ometric NE criteria, Lufrano et al. [24•] found that chest pain
and dysphagia occurred in 31 and 21 % of subjects, respec-
tively. GERD symptoms were very common. Heartburn oc-
curred in 51 % of patients, 77 % had a previous history of
GERD, and 78 % were treated with acid suppressive medica-
tions. GERD was demonstrated through esophageal testing in
at least 35 % of the patients. Psychological comorbidity was
present in 24 % of the patients with NE and irritable bowel
syndrome coexisted in 15 % of the patients, respectively. This
study confirmed that NE is associated with GERD, psycho-
logical comorbidity, and other functional gastrointestinal
disorders.
Diagnosis
Manometric diagnosis of NE has changed over time. Using
CLM, NE was originally defined by the presence of a mean
amplitude greater than 180 mmHg (corresponding to more
than 2 standard deviations above the normal values) in the
distal third of the esophagus [1]. This cutoff level was later
increased to 260 mmHg (more than 4 SDs above the normal)
for the purpose of improving specificity and identifying pa-
tients with dysphagia and chest pain more often and patients
with GERD less often [29]. Patients with NE generally have
normal LES pressure, and in some cases, hypertensive LES
defined by a resting pressure >45 mmHg can coexist [1,3].
HRM and EPT plots have introduced the distal contractile
integral (DCI) as a new tool to improve characterization of
esophageal peristaltic vigor [3]. DCI represents the volume of
the distal contraction using an isobaric contour of 20 mmHg,
and it is calculated by multiplying the integral of the
contraction amplitude (mmHg) in the distal esophagus times
the duration of the contraction (s) times the length of the distal
esophageal segment (cm) [2••,3] (Fig. 1a). In 75 healthy
volunteers, Pandolfino et al. [3] found that the median (IQR)
DCI was 2416 mmHg s cm, and a DCI value
>5000 mmHg s cm (95th percentile of normal distribution)
was considered abnormal. This DCI value of
5000 mmHg s cm corresponds to NE in CLM. Furthermore,
they found that a value of DCI >8000 mmHg s cm was never
encountered in healthy volunteers. Thus, hypertensive peri-
stalsis was defined as the presence of a mean DCI
>5000 mmHg s cm and does not include any swallow with a
DCI >8000 mmHg s cm.
Esophageal Hypercontractility (Jackhammer Esophagus)
Jackhammer esophagus (JE) corresponds to an extreme pheno-
type of the motor disorders with hypertensive peristalsis. Using
EPT plots, Roman et al. [30,31••] defined JE as the presence of
at least one contraction with DCI >8000 mmHg s cm in the
context of normal peristalsis propagation (normal CFV and nor-
mal DL) (Fig. 1c). It is a rare disorder that presents in 4.1 % of the
patients referred for manometric evaluation in tertiary referral
centers. Dysphagia, chest pain, and GERD symptoms are the
most common of its varied clinical manifestations. Interestingly,
patients with JE can present with different hypercontractility
patterns in the EPT plots: single or multipeaked contractions.
The patterns with multipeaked contractions were associated with
EGJ obstruction. There were no clinical differences between
these hypercontractility patterns [31••].
The pathophysiology of this disorder is unknown. An
excessive cholinergic stimulation, like that seen in hyperten-
sive peristalsis, appears to be the mechanism responsible for
the hypercontractile state.
Progression to Achalasia
EGJ outflow obstruction (IRP>15 mmHg) can be found in
patients with DES and JE. Case series and case reports have
shown progression of DES and NE to achalasia [32–34].
Fontes et al. [32] found that in 35 patients previously diag-
nosed with DES by CLM, 14 % progressed to achalasia at a
mean follow-up of 2.1 years. However, this is a very limited
evidence to confirm that SMD can progress to achalasia.
Further studies with HRM and EPT plots are necessary to
clarify the natural history of SMD.
Treatment of Spastic Motor Disorders
Different therapeutic modalities have been tried in SMD man-
agement, but few randomized clinical trials have been con-
ducted. Most results are based on case series, case reports, or
expert opinion.
421, Page 4 of 10 Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421
Pharmacologic Treatment
Short- or long-acting nitrates, calcium channel blockers, anti-
cholinergic agents, and 5-phosphodiesterase inhibitors have
been employed because of their relaxing effect on smooth
muscle [35–37]. Tricyclic antidepressants and serotonin reup-
take inhibitors have been used as visceral pain modulators
[37–44]. The majority of these studies were directed towards
management of patients with chest pain and not necessarily
NE or DES [10,37,39].
Nifedipine and diltiazem have shown limited efficacy in
chest pain and dysphagia management in randomized studies
when compared with placebo [45–48], and headache is a
frequent adverse effect. 5-Phosphodiesterase inhibitors, such
as sildenafil, have shown some effectiveness in improving
symptoms and manometric parameters [49–51].
In a population of patients treated for NCCP, there was
improvement in 52, 50, and 63 % of the cases with the use of
imipramine, venlafaxine, and sertraline, respectively [40–42,
52]. The manometric characteristics were not evaluated after
the interventions in any of the studies. Trazodone has been
shown to be superior to placebo in overall improvement and
chest pain [43]. A great limitation of these drugs is the high
frequency of adverse effects, resulting in treatment suspension
by patients. Therefore, visceral pain modulators should be
started at low doses and gradually increased on a weekly basis
[53].
Due to the possible overlap of NE and DES with GERD,
proton pump inhibitors should be tried first, especially if
abnormal acid reflux is demonstrated with pH monitoring
[54,55].
Endoscopic Treatment
Endoscopic injection of botulinum toxin (BTX) is a treatment
for achalasia [56,57] and has been tried in DES and JE due to
its effect on cholinergic transmission as a neuromuscular
blocking agent. In studies with no controls, BTX injection
has improved chest pain and dysphagia in patients with spastic
motor disorders [58–60]. In a recent randomized clinical trial
on 22 patients with DES and NE, BTX injection was superior
to saline injection in controlling dysphagia, but not in reduc-
ing chest pain [61•]. The BTX injection protocol has not been
standardized, and injections have been used in the EGJ or the
distal third of the esophagus. Randomized clinical trials are
required in order to examine the efficacy of BTX in spastic
disorders of the esophagus.
Pneumatic dilation has been employed in the treatment of
spastic disorders of the esophagus with some reports
showing favorable results [62], but it is not known if
the reported improvement was due to the inclusion of patients
with achalasia.
Peroral endoscopic myotomy (POEM) has been introduced
for treatment of achalasia [63–65] and has recently been used
in isolated cases of DES and JE with some success [66,67,
68••,69]. The medium-term and long-term results of this
technique are not known and hence should be employed only
in research protocols.
Surgical Treatment
Long myotomy that extends from the EGJ and along the
esophageal body with complete or partial fundoplication has
been tried incases of DESand JE [70,71]. Relief of both chest
pain and dysphagia has been described in 60 to 80 % of treated
cases [70,72]. However, there is a lack of control group,
standardized symptom evaluation, and objective measurement
of gastroesophageal reflux after surgery. Therefore, extended
myotomy may be considered in cases of persistent pain or
dysphagia that is refractory to other treatments.
In summary, we recommend the following treatment ap-
proach for spastic disorders of the esophagus (Table 1):
1. First-line treatment: (a) acid suppressive therapy with
PPIs in patients with associated GERD demonstrated by
endoscopy or 24-h ambulatory esophageal pH; (b)
smooth muscle relaxants such as nitrates, calcium channel
blockers, or sildenafil in patients without evidence of
GERD; and (c) Pain modulators such as tricyclic antide-
pressants, serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or trazodone for
the management of patients with chest pain as the leading
symptom.
2. Second-line treatment: patients who do not respond to
first-line approach can be treated with endoscopic BTX
injection or esophageal dilation. A temporary or partial
response may be an indication for repeat therapy.
3. Third-line treatment: rarely extended myotomy either by
surgery or POEM for treatment-refractory spastic
disorders.
Esophageal Hypomotility
Esophageal hypomotility disorders are characterized by a
decrease in the vigor of distal esophageal contractions associ-
ated with abnormalities of esophageal transit. IEM is the most
widely used term for these disorders identified by CLM [1].
Their clinical presentation is dysphagia, and they are frequent-
ly associated with GERD. IEM is also seen in other systemic
conditions which affects the esophagus, such as scleroderma,
diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, etc [73,74].
The pathophysiology of IEM is not yet defined. An esti-
mated 21 to 49 % of patients presenting with IEM also have
Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421 Page 5 of 10, 421
associated GERD [75,76]. This association is more frequent
in the presence of erosive esophagitis [77,78]. Some studies
have shown that esophageal hypomotility may be reversible in
acute esophagitis, but not in chronic esophagitis [78], suggest-
ing that chronic inflammation may cause permanent damage
to esophagealmotor function. Experimental studies in animals
and humans have shown that proinflammatory cytokines
spread throughout the esophageal wall in esophagitis and
reduce esophageal contractility by decreasing the release of
acetylcholine from the neurons of the myenteric plexus into
the circular muscle layer [79–82].
Manometric Diagnosis
Manometric diagnosis of IEM is established by the presence of
contractions in >30 % of wet swallows with any of the following
characteristics: (1) peristaltic contractions with an amplitude of
<30 mmHg, (2) simultaneous contractions <30 mmHg, (3) failed
peristalsis (the peristaltic contraction does not cross the entire
length of the distal esophageal body) (Fig. 2), or (4) absent
peristalsis [1]. The contraction amplitude criterion of
<30 mmHg was established based on its correlation with disor-
ders in esophageal transit observed in videofluoroscopy [77,83].
Subsequently, using combined esophageal impedance and con-
ventional manometry, Blonski et al. [84] demonstrated that the
presence of >50 % of contractions with <30 mmHg identified
patients with abnormal esophageal transit and symptoms like
heartburn and dysphagia more frequently.
Manometric diagnosis of esophageal hypomotility with HRM
and high-resolution impedance manometry (HRIM) has recently
been defined. Four tools of EPT plots have been shown to be
useful for defining EH: (1) the presence of frequent small or large
breaks in the 20-mmHg isobaric contour (IBC) at the distal
esophageal pressure troughs, (2) DCI <450 mmHg s cm, 3)
measurement of intersegmental trough (IST) length or transition-
al zone defects, and (4) proximal latency (PL). In asymptomatic
volunteers and patients with nonobstructive dysphagia, Roman
et al. [85••] showed that the presence of breaks in the 20-mmHg
IBC was associated with incomplete bolus transit (IBT).
Additionally, they found that the presence of >20 % of large
breaks (>5 cm) or >30 % of small breaks (2–5 cm), but not failed
peristalsis, occurred significantly more frequently in patients with
nonobstructive dysphagia.
These manometric findings were included in the Chicago
Classification for defining esophageal disorders with weak
peristalsis [2••]. Xiao et al. [86] recently evaluated the use of
HRM to define IEM in a case series of 150 patients with
nonobstructive dysphagia or GERD. They found that by using
a combination of the Chicago Classification criteria (weak
peristalsis with large or small breaks and frequent failed
peristalsis localized in the middle and distal esophageal pres-
sure troughs), there was a positive percent agreement of
78.6 % and a negative percent agreement of 92 % with IEM.
Tabl e 1 Treatment options in spastic motor disorders and esophageal
hypomotility
Spastic motor disorders
(DES, JE, NE)
First-line therapy PPIs in concurrent GERD
Nitrates
Calcium channel blockers (nifedipine,
diltiazem)
5-Phosphodiesterase inhibitors (sildenafil)
Pain modulators (low-dose antidepressants)
Second-line therapy Botulinum toxin injection
Pneumatic dilation
Third-line therapy Extended myotomy (surgery, POEM)
Esophageal hypomotility Manage GERD (PPIs, antireflux procedure)
Prokinetics?
DES distal esophageal spasm, JE jackhammer esophagus, NE nutcracker
esophagus, PPIs proton pump inhibitors, POEM peroral endoscopic
myotomy
Fig. 2 (a) Hypotensive
peristalsis with small break
(between2and5cm).(b)
Hypotensive peristalsis with a
large break (>5 cm). (c) Failed
peristalsis
421, Page 6 of 10 Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421
They also found that a DCI cutoff value of <450 mmHg s cm
was optimal for characterizing ineffective esophageal swal-
lows. The agreement between IEM defined by conventional
manometry and a DCI <450 mmHg s cm found in >5 swal-
lows in HRM was even better (85.7 % positive percent and
92.3 % negative percent agreement). More recently, Kumar
et al. [87•] evaluated IST and PL as possible esophageal
hypomotility markers in 110 patients with GERD, 74 patients
without GERD, and 15 healthy controls. Using a 20-mmHg
IBC, IST length was defined as “the vertical distance from the
distal extent of the proximal striated muscle to the proximal
extent of the smooth muscle contraction segment.”The IST
was considered as extended if it exceeded 20 % of the total
esophageal length in ≥30 % of wet swallows. PL was defined
as the time duration from the onset of UES relaxation to the
most proximal point of the smooth muscle contraction seg-
ment. PL was considered prolonged if it exceeded 4 s in
>50 % of wet swallows. They found that IST and PL were
longer in the GERD patients than in the non-GERD patients
and controls. Extended IST was more frequent in the GERD
group (44.5 %) compared with the non-GERD patients (27 %)
and controls (26.7 %). Patients with Barrett’s esophagus had
the highest prevalence of extended IST (56 %). Prolonged PL
followed similar trends. Interestingly, peak and mean
contraction amplitudes were lower in patients with
GERD and more frequent in those with extended IST.
The findings of this study suggest that the identification
of extended IST and prolonged PL with HRM supports EH as
a mechanism for explaining esophageal symptoms, especially
in patients with GERD.
Treatment
Due to the frequent association of IEM with GERD, acid-
suppressive therapy or an antireflux procedure is indi-
cated in patients with objective signs of reflux (endo-
scopic esophagitis or abnormal 24-h pH testing).
Different studies have demonstrated that IEM is not a
contraindication for antireflux surgery; it does not have
an impact on the outcome of the surgery and does not require
tailoring of surgical treatment. In the majority of patients, IEM
is not corrected with PPI treatment or with fundoplication,
regardless of the type of procedure employed (Nissen or
Tou pe t) [88–91].
Unfortunately, there are few treatment options for patients
with EH and dysphagia. Different prokinetic agents have been
shown to increase contraction amplitude and improve esoph-
ageal transit in normal subjects and in patients with EH.
However, its usefulness in the control of dysphagia is ques-
tionable [92,93]. Procholinergic agents, dopamine D2 antag-
onists, 5HT4 serotonin, and prokinetic agents have been
triedinanattempttoimprovedysphagiainpatients
with EH [92,94–96].
Conclusions
The diagnosis of EH and SMD has changed significantly with
the introduction of HRM and EPT plots. The Chicago
Classification has established new diagnostic criteria for
DES, hypertensive peristalsis, JE, and weak and failed
peristalsis. These esophageal motor disorders are fre-
quently associated with GERD, and the objective dem-
onstration of pathologic reflux is an indication for acid-
suppressive therapy. First-line treatment in SMD in-
cludes the use of smooth muscle relaxants for dysphagia
management and pain modulators for the treatment of
chest pain. BTX injection and pneumatic dilation are both
second-line therapy modalities. Extended myotomy per-
formed by surgery or POEM is reserved for cases that are
refractory to other therapies.
Compliance with Ethics Guidelines
Conflict of Interest Miguel A. Valdovinos, Monica R. Zavala-
Solares, and Enrique Coss-Adame declare that they have no
conflict of interest.
Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent This article does
not contain any studies with animal subjects performed by any of
the authors. With regard to the authors’researchcitedinthis
paper, all procedures were followed in accordance with the ethical
standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation
and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000 and
2008.
References
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been
highlighted as:
•Of importance
•• Of major importance
1. Spechler SJ, Castell DO. Classification of oesophageal motility
abnormalities. Gut. 2001;49:145–51.
2.•• Bredenoord AJ, Fox M, Kahrilas PJ, Pandolfino JE, Schwizer W,
Smout AJ, et al. Chicago classification criteria of esophageal mo-
tility disorders defined in high resolution esophageal pressure to-
pography. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2012;24 Suppl 1:57–65. This
is the most recent revised version of the Chicago Classification
which contains a hierarchical algorithm for the diagnosis of esoph-
ageal motor disorders.
3. Pandolfino JE, Ghosh SK, Rice J, Clarke JO, Kwiatek MA,
Kahrilas PJ. Classifying esophageal motility by pressure topogra-
phy characteristics: a study of 400 patients and 75 controls. Am J
Gastroenterol. 2008;103:27–37.
4.•Almansa C, Heckman MG, DeVault KR, Bouras E, Achem SR.
Esophageal spasm: demographic, clinical, radiographic, and man-
ometric features in 108 patients. Dis Esophagus. 2012;25:214–21.
This is the largest published case series of DES that describes the
heterogenous presentation of distal spasm.
Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421 Page 7 of 10, 421
5. Tsuboi K, Mittal SK. Diffuse esophageal spasm: has the term lost its
relevance? Analysis of 217 cases. Dis Esophagus. 2010.
6. Richter JE, Castell DO. Diffuse esophageal spasm: a reappraisal.
Ann Intern Med. 1984;100:242–5.
7.•• Pandolfino JE, Roman S, Carlson D, Luger D, Bidari K, Boris L,
et al. Distal esophageal spasm in high-resolution esophageal pres-
sure topography: defining clinical phenotypes. Gastroenterology.
2011;141:469–75. This study demonstrated that a short distal la-
tency (DL) is a better biomarker instead of contraction velocity to
diagnose DES. Only 2% of patients with nonobstructive dysphagia
had distal spasm using DL.
8. Roman S, Kahrilas PJ. Management of spastic disorders of the
esophagus. Gastroenterol Clin N Am. 2013;42:27–43.
9. Achem SR, Gerson LB. Distal esophageal spasm: an update. Curr
Gastroenterol Rep. 2013;15:325.
10. Goyal RK, Chaudhury A. Physiology of normal esophageal motil-
ity. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2008;42:610–9.
11. Murray J, Du C, Ledlow A, Bates JN, Conklin JL. Nitric oxide:
mediator of nonadrenergic noncholinergic responses of opossum
esophageal muscle. Am J Physiol. 1991;261:G401–6.
12. Murray JA, Ledlow A, Launspach J, Evans D, Loveday M, Conklin
JL. The effects of recombinant human hemoglobin on esophageal
motor functions in humans. Gastroenterology. 1995;109:1241–8.
13. Champion JK, Delise N, Hunt T. Myenteric plexus in spastic
motility disorders. J Gastrointest Surg. 2001;5:514–6.
14. Kim HS, Park H, Lim JH, Choi SH, Park C, Lee SI, et al.
Morphometric evaluation of oesophageal wall in patients with
nutcracker oesophagus and ineffective oesophageal motility.
Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2008;20:869–76.
15. Pehlivanov N, Liu J, Kassab GS, Beaumont C, Mittal RK.
Relationship between esophageal muscle thickness and
intraluminal pressure in patients with esophageal spasm. Am J
Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2002;282:G1016–23.
16. Katz PO, Dalton CB, Richter JE, Wu WC, Castell DO. Esophageal
testing of patients with noncardiac chest pain or dysphagia. Results
of three years’experience with 1161 patients. Ann Intern Med.
1987;106:593–7.
17. Konturek T, Lembo A. Spasm, nutcracker, and IEM: real or ma-
nometry findings? J Clin Gastroenterol. 2008;42:647–51.
18. Pandolfino JE, Sifrim D. Evaluationof esophageal contractile prop-
agation using esophageal pressure topography. Neurogastroenterol
Motil. 2012;24 Suppl 1:20–6.
19. Roman S, Kahrilas PJ. Distal esophageal spasm. Dysphagia.
2012;27:115–23.
20. Ott DJ. Motility disorders of the esophagus. Radiol Clin N Am.
1994;32:1117–34.
21. Hewson EG, Ott DJ, Dalton CB, Chen YM, Wu WC, Richter JE.
Manometry and radiology. Complementary studies in the assess-
ment of esophageal motility disorders. Gastroenterology. 1990;98:
626–32.
22. Burmeister S. Review of current diagnosis and management of
diffuse esophageal spasm, nutcracker esophagus/spastic nutcracker
and hypertensive lower esophageal sphincter. Curr Opin
Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;21:543–7.
23. Brand DL, Martin D, Pope 2nd CE. Esophageal manometrics in
patients with angina-like chest pain. Am J Dig Dis. 1977;22:300–4.
24.•Lufrano R, Heckman MG, Diehl N, Devault KR, Achem SR.
Nutcracker esophagus: demographic, clinical features, and esopha-
geal tests in 115 patients. Dis Esophagus. 2013. This a large case
series of NE that describes the relevant clinical manifestations,
comorbidities, and esophageal testing findings in patients with this
motor disorder.
25. Mittal RK, Kassab G, Puckett JL, Liu J. Hypertrophy of the
muscularis propria of the lower esophageal sphincter and the body
of the esophagus in patients with primary motility disorders of the
esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003;98:1705–12.
26. Jung HY, Puckett JL, Bhalla V, Rojas-Feria M, Bhargava V, Liu J,
et al. Asynchrony between the circular and the longitudinal muscle
contraction in patients with nutcracker esophagus.
Gastroenterology. 2005;128:1179–86.
27. Korsapati H, Babaei A, Bhargava V, Mittal RK. Cholinergic stim-
ulation induces asynchrony between the circular and longitudinal
muscle contraction during esophageal peristalsis. Am J Physiol
Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2008;294:G694–8.
28. Korsapati H, Bhargava V, Mittal RK. Reversal of asynchrony
between circular and longitudinal muscle contraction in nutcracker
esophagus by atropine. Gastroenterology. 2008;135:796–802.
29. Agrawal A, Hila A, Tutuian R, Mainie I, Castell DO. Clinical
relevance of the nutcracker esophagus: suggested revision of
criteria for diagnosis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;40:504–9.
30. Roman S, Kahrilas PJ. Challenges in the swallowing mechanism:
nonobstructive dysphagia in the era of high-resolution manometry
and impedance. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2011,40:823–835, ix-x.
31.•• Roman S, Pandolfino JE, Chen J, Boris L, Luger D, Kahrilas PJ.
Phenotypes and clinical context of hypercontractility in high-
resolution esophageal pressure topography (EPT). Am J
Gastroenterol. 2012;107:37–45. This paper shows the EPT plots
findings in the extreme hypercontractile disorder called jackham-
mer esophagus. Different phenotypes based on single or
multipeaked contractions and clinical manifestations are described.
32. Fontes LH, Herbella FA, Rodriguez TN, Trivino T, Farah JF.
Progression of diffuse esophageal spasm to achalasia: incidence
and predictive factors. Dis Esophagus. 2013;26:470–4.
33. Paterson WG, Beck IT, Da Costa LR. Transition from nutcracker
esophagus to achalasia. A case report. J Clin Gastroenterol.
1991;13:554–8.
34. Anggiansah A, Bright NF, McCullagh M, Owen WJ. Transition
from nutcracker esophagus to achalasia. Dig Dis Sci. 1990;35:
1162–6.
35. Achem SR, Kolts BE. Current medical therapy for esophageal
motility disorders. Am J Med. 1992;92:98S–105.
36. Schmulson MJ, Valdovinos MA. Current and future treatment of
chest pain of presumed esophageal origin. Gastroenterol Clin N
Am. 2004;33:93–105.
37. Nguyen TM, Eslick GD. Systematic review: the treatment of non-
cardiac chest pain with antidepressants. Aliment Pharmacol Ther.
2012;35:493–500.
38. Clarke JO, Pandolfino JE. Esophageal motor disorders: how to
bridge the gap between advanced diagnostic tools and paucity of
therapeutic modalities? J Clin Gastroenterol. 2012;46:442–8.
39. Lacy BE, Weiser K. Esophageal motility disorders: medical thera-
py. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2008;42:652–8.
40. Lee H, Kim JH, Min BH, Lee JH, Son HJ, Kim JJ, et al. Efficacy of
venlafaxine for symptomatic relief in young adult patients with
functional chest pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-con-
trolled, crossover trial. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105:1504–12.
41. Cannon 3rd RO, Quyyumi AA, Mincemoyer R, Stine AM, Gracely
RH, Smith WB, et al. Imipramine in patients with chest pain despite
normal coronary angiograms. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:1411–7.
42. Varia I, Logue E, O’Connor C, Newby K, Wagner HR, Davenport
C, et al. Randomized trial of sertraline in patients with unexplained
chest pain of noncardiac origin. Am Heart J. 2000;140:367–72.
43. Clouse RE, Lustman PJ, Eckert TC, Ferney DM, Griffith LS. Low-
dose trazodone for symptomatic patients with esophageal contrac-
tion abnormalities. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Gastroenterology. 1987;92:1027–36.
44. Spinhoven P, Van der Does AJ, Van Dijk E, Van Rood YR. Heart-
focused anxiety as a mediating variable in the treatment of noncar-
diac chest pain by cognitive-behavioral therapy and paroxetine. J
Psychosom Res. 2010;69:227–35.
45. Richter JE, Dalton CB, Buice RG, Castell DO. Nifedipine: a potent
inhibitor of contractions in the body of the human esophagus.
421, Page 8 of 10 Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421
Studies in healthy volunteers and patients with the nutcracker
esophagus. Gastroenterology. 1985;89:549–54.
46. Davies HA, Lewis MJ, Rhodes J, Henderson AH. Trial of nifedi-
pine for prevention of oesophageal spasm. Digestion. 1987;36:81–
3.
47. Richter JE, Spurling TJ, Cordova CM, Castell DO. Effects of oral
calcium blocker, diltiazem, on esophageal contractions. Studies in
volunteers and patients with nutcracker esophagus. Dig Dis Sci.
1984;29:649–56.
48. Drenth JP, Bos LP, Engels LG. Efficacy of diltiazem in the treat-
ment of diffuse oesophageal spasm. Aliment Pharmacol Ther.
1990;4:411–6.
49. Eherer AJ, Schwetz I, Hammer HF, Petnehazy T, Scheidl SJ, Weber
K, et al. Effect of sildenafil on oesophageal motor function in
healthy subjects and patients with oesophageal motor disorders.
Gut. 2002;50:758–64.
50. Lee JI, Park H, Kim JH, Lee SI, Conklin JL. The effect of sildenafil
on oesophageal motor function in healthy subjects and patients with
nutcracker oesophagus. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2003;15:617–
23.
51. Fox M, Sweis R, Wong T, Anggiansah A. Sildenafil relieves
symptoms and normalizes motility in patients with oesophageal
spasm: a report of two cases. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2007;19:
798–803.
52. Venes DJ. Imipramine in patients with chest pain despite normal
coronary angiograms. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:882. author reply
882–883.
53. Maradey-Romero C, Fass R. New therapies for non-cardiac chest
pain. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2014;16:390.
54. Achem SR, Kolts BE, MacMath T, Richter J, Mohr D, Burton L,
et al. Effects of omeprazole versus placebo in treatment of noncar-
diac chest pain and gastroesophageal reflux. Dig Dis Sci. 1997;42:
2138–45.
55. Crozier RE, Glick ME, Gibb SP, Ellis Jr FH, Veerman JM. Acid-
provoked esophageal spasm as a cause of noncardiac chest pain.
Am J Gastroenterol. 1991;86:1576–80.
56. O’Neill OM, Johnston BT, Coleman HG. Achalasia: a review of
clinical diagnosis, epidemiology, treatment and outcomes. World J
Gastroenterol. 2013;19:5806–12.
57. Ramzan Z, Nassri AB. The role of botulinum toxin injection in the
management of achalasia. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2013;29:468–
73.
58. Storr M, Allescher HD, Rosch T, Born P, Weigert N, Classen M.
Treatment of symptomatic diffuse esophageal spasm by endoscopic
injection of botulinum toxin: a prospective study with long term
follow-up. Gastrointest Endosc. 2001;54:18A.
59. Miller LS, Parkman HP, Schiano TD, Cassidy MJ, Ter RB,
Dabezies MA, et al. Treatment of symptomatic nonachalasia esoph-
ageal motor disorders with botulinum toxin injection at the lower
esophageal sphincter. Dig Dis Sci. 1996;41:2025–31.
60. Miller LS, Pullela SV, Parkman HP, Schiano TD, Cassidy MJ,
Cohen S, et al. Treatment of chest pain in patients with noncardiac,
nonreflux, nonachalasia spastic esophageal motor disorders using
botulinum toxin injection into the gastroesophageal junction. Am J
Gastroenterol. 2002;97:1640–6.
61.•Vanuytsel T, Bisschops R, Farre R, Pauwels A, Holvoet L, Arts J, et al.
Botulinum toxin reduces dysphagia in patients with nonachalasia pri-
mary esophageal motility disorders. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol.
2013;11:1115–21. This is the first randomized controlled trial showing
promising effects of Botox injection in the management esophageal
symptoms in patients with DES and NE.
62. Irving JD, Owen WJ, Linsell J, McCullagh M, Keightley A,
Anggiansah A. Management of diffuse esophageal spasm with
balloon dilatation. Gastrointest Radiol. 1992;17:189–92.
63. Inoue H, Tianle KM, Ikeda H, Hosoya T, Onimaru M, Yoshida A,
et al. Peroral endoscopic myotomy for esophageal achalasia:
technique, indication, and outcomes. Thorac Surg Clin. 2011;21:
519–25.
64. Stavropoulos SN, Desilets DJ, Fuchs KH, Gostout CJ, Haber G,
Inoue H, et al.Per-oral endoscopic myotomy white paper summary.
Surg Endosc. 2014;28:2005–19.
65. Teitelbaum EN, Soper NJ, Santos BF, Arafat FO, Pandolfino JE,
Kahrilas PJ, et al. Symptomatic and physiologic outcomes one year
after peroral esophageal myotomy (POEM) for treatment of acha-
lasia. Surg Endosc. 2014.
66. Shiwaku H, Inoue H, Beppu R, Nakashima R, Minami H,
Shiroshita T, et al. Successful treatment of diffuse esophageal
spasm by peroral endoscopic myotomy. Gastrointest Endosc.
2013;77:149–50.
67. Khashab MA, Saxena P, Kumbhari V, Nandwani M, Roland BC,
Stein E, et al. Peroral endoscopic myotomy as a platform for the
treatment of spastic esophageal disorders refractory to medical
therapy (with video). Gastrointest Endosc. 2014;79:136–9.
68.•• Louis H, Covas A, Coppens E, Deviere J. Distal esophageal spasm
treated by peroral endoscopic myotomy. Am J Gastroenterol.
2012;107:1926–7. This study reports POEM as a potential thera-
peutic technique for the treatment of DES.
69. Kandulski A, Fuchs KH, Weigt J, Malfertheiner P. Jackhammer
esophagus: high-resolution manometry and therapeutic approach
using peroral endoscopic myotomy (POEM). Dis Esophagus. 2014.
70. Leconte M, Douard R, Gaudric M, Dumontier I, Chaussade S,
Dousset B. Functional results after extended myotomy for diffuse
oesophageal spasm. Br J Surg. 2007;94:1113–8.
71. Henderson RD, Ryder D, Marryatt G. Extended esophageal
myotomy and short total fundoplication hernia repair in diffuse
esophageal spasm: five-year review in 34 patients. Ann Thorac
Surg. 1987;43:25–31.
72. Patti MG, Pellegrini CA, Arcerito M, Tong J, Mulvihill SJ, Way
LW. Comparison of medical and minimally invasive surgical ther-
apy for primary esophageal motility disorders. Arch Surg.
1995;130:609–15. discussion 615–606.
73. Lahcene M, Oumnia N, Matougui N, Boudjella M, Tebaibia A,
Touchene B. Esophageal involvement in scleroderma: clinical,
endoscopic, and manometric features. ISRN Rheumatol.
2011;2011:325826.
74. Gustafsson RJ, Littorin B, Berntorp K, Frid A, Thorsson O, Olsson
R, et al. Esophageal dysmotility is more common thangastroparesis
in diabetes mellitus and is associated with retinopathy. Rev Diabet
Stud. 2011;8:268–75.
75. Diener U, Patti MG, Molena D, Fisichella PM, Way LW.
Esophageal dysmotility and gastroesophageal reflux disease. J
Gastrointest Surg. 2001;5:260–5.
76. Ho SC, Chang CS, Wu CY, Chen GH. Ineffective esophageal
motility is a primary motility disorder in gastroesophageal reflux
disease. Dig Dis Sci. 2002;47:652–6.
77. Kahrilas PJ, Dodds WJ, Hogan WJ, Kern M, Arndorfer RC, Reece
A. Esophageal peristaltic dysfunction in peptic esophagitis.
Gastroenterology. 1986;91:897–904.
78. Timmer R, Breumelhof R, Nadorp JH, Smout AJ. Oesophageal
motility and gastro-oesophageal reflux before and after healing of
reflux oesophagitis. A study using 24 hour ambulatory pH and
pressure monitoring. Gut. 1994;35:1519–22.
79. Cheng L, Cao W, Fiocchi C, Behar J, Biancani P, Harnett KM.
Platelet-activating factor and prostaglandin E2 impair esophageal
ACh release in experimental esophagitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest
Liver Physiol. 2005;289:G418–28.
80. Rieder F, Cheng L, Harnett KM, Chak A, Cooper GS, Isenberg G,
et al. Gastroesophageal reflux disease-associated esophagitis in-
duces endogenous cytokine production leading to motor abnormal-
ities. Gastroenterology. 2007;132:154–65.
81. Cao W, Cheng L, Behar J, Fiocchi C, Biancani P, Harnett KM.
Proinflammatory cytokines alter/reduce esophageal circular muscle
Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421 Page 9 of 10, 421
contraction in experimental cat esophagitis. Am J Physiol
Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2004;287:G1131–9.
82. Zhang X, Geboes K, Depoortere I, Tack J, Janssens J, Sifrim D.
Effect of repeated cycles of acute esophagitis and healing on esoph-
ageal peristalsis, tone, and length. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver
Physiol. 2005;288:G1339–46.
83. Richter JE, Blackwell JN, Wu WC, Johns DN, Cowan RJ, Castell
DO. Relationship of radionuclide liquid bolus transport and esoph-
ageal manometry. J Lab Clin Med. 1987;109:217–24.
84. Blonski W, Vela M, Safder A, Hila A, Castell DO. Revised criterion
for diagnosis of ineffective esophageal motility is associated with
more frequent dysphagia and greater bolus transit abnormalities.
Am J Gastroenterol. 2008;103:699–704.
85.•• Roman S, Lin Z, Kwiatek MA, Pandolfino JE, Kahrilas PJ. Weak
peristalsis in esophageal pressure topography: classification and
association with dysphagia. Am J Gastroenterol. 2011;106:349–
56. This study proposes a new classification for weak peristalsis
based on the presence of breaks in the proximal and distal esoph-
ageal body. This new classification correlates with dysphagia and
abnormal esophageal bolus transit.
86. Xiao Y, Kahrilas PJ, Nicodeme F, Lin Z, Roman S, Pandolfino JE.
Lack of correlation between HRM metrics and symptoms during
the manometric protocol. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109:521–6.
87.•Kumar N, Porter RF, Chanin JM, Gyawali CP. Analysis of inter-
segmental trough and proximal latency of smooth muscle contrac-
tion using high-resolution esophageal manometry. J Clin
Gastroenterol. 2012;46:375–81. This paper demonstrated that ex-
tended proximal latency and transitional zone defects support the
presence of esophageal hypomotility as a mechanism of esophageal
symptoms.
88. Fibbe C, Layer P, Keller J, Strate U, Emmermann A, Zornig C.
Esophageal motility in reflux disease before and after fundoplication:
a prospective, randomized, clinical, and manometric study.
Gastroenterology. 2001;121:5–14.
89. Novitsky YW, Wong J, Kercher KW, Litwin DE, Swanstrom LL,
Heniford BT. Severely disordered esophageal peristalsis is not a
contraindication to laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication. Surg
Endosc. 2007;21:950–4.
90. Chrysos E, Tsiaoussis J, Zoras OJ, Athanasakis E, Mantides A,
Katsamouris A, et al. Laparoscopic surgery for gastroesophageal
reflux disease patients with impaired esophageal peristalsis: total or
partial fundoplication? J Am Coll Surg. 2003;197:8–15.
91. Heading RC. Should abnormal oesophageal motility in gastro-
oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) influence decisions about
fundoplication? Gut. 2002;50:592–3.
92. Cho YK, Choi MG, Park EY, Lim CH, Kim JS, Park JM, et al.
Effect of mosapride combined with esomeprazole improves esoph-
ageal peristaltic function in patients with gastroesophageal reflux
disease: a study using high resolution manometry. Dig Dis Sci.
2013;58:1035–41.
93. Chen CL, Yi CH, Liu TT, Orr WC. Effects of mosapride on
secondary peristalsis in patients with ineffective esophageal motil-
ity. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2013;48:1363–70.
94. Agrawal A, Hila A, Tutuian R, Mainie I, Castell DO. Bethanechol
improves smooth muscle function in patients with severe ineffec-
tive esophageal motility. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2007;41:366–70.
95. O’Rourke A, Weinberger P, Morrison M, Conklin J, Postma G.
Topical bethanechol for the improvement of esophageal
dysmotility: a pilot study. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2013;122:
481–6.
96. Scarpellini E, Vos R, Blondeau K, Boecxstaens V, Farre R,
Gasbarrini A, et al. The effects of itopride on oesophageal motility
and lower oesophageal sphincter function in man. Aliment
Pharmacol Ther. 2011;33:99–105.
421, Page 10 of 10 Curr Gastroenterol Rep (2014) 16:421
