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Food habits of African elephant (Loxodonta Africana) in Babile Elephant Sanctuary, Ethiopia
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Seasonal dietary composition and food habits of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) were studied in Babile Elephant Sanctuary, Ethiopia. Both focal watch and indirect methods such as analyzing habitat, interviews, and identifying seeds in the dung were used to collect data. Food habit was quantified by calculating preference indices. Elephants consumed 73 plant species. Data on fresh feeding signs either browsed or debarked showed 51 species, while an examination of elephant dung piles yielded seeds representing 21 species. Among the plants consumed by elephants, Opuntia ficus-indica was utilized the most (23.81 %), followed by Acacia robusta (20.17 %), Acacia nigrii (12.61 %) and Opuntia stricta (10.20 %). All other recorded plants were utilized below 10 %. This is a relict population of African elephant, which is in danger of extinction due to habitat loss and degradation.
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... Plant species consumed by elephants were studied by examination of fresh feeding signs following focal groups of elephants using opportunistic direct feeding and observations of elephant feeding sign on food trails (elephant feeding routes) [3,5]. Evidence of feeding sign included elephant footprints, fresh dung piles nearby to browsed foliage and identifying characteristics of plant damage caused by elephant browse such as debarkation, branch breaking and uprooting were also used during data collection [3,5]. ...
... Plant species consumed by elephants were studied by examination of fresh feeding signs following focal groups of elephants using opportunistic direct feeding and observations of elephant feeding sign on food trails (elephant feeding routes) [3,5]. Evidence of feeding sign included elephant footprints, fresh dung piles nearby to browsed foliage and identifying characteristics of plant damage caused by elephant browse such as debarkation, branch breaking and uprooting were also used during data collection [3,5]. During field surveys the following data were recorded. ...
... The feeding routes observed that was taken by elephants were followed by field researchers and all plant species showing signs of being consumed by elephants were recorded, collected, pressed and identified with the help of a taxonomist. Plant samples were preserved in plant press for identification following standard procedures [3,4,5] and for confirmation from the National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University. Data on food preference were gathered during the wet season for 45 consecutive days each year from (July to August 2020-2021) and March to April 2020-2021 for the dry season. ...
... Indeed, landscape modification can be critical for wide-ranging elephants whose existence depends on habitat conditions (Doumenge et al., 2021;Koirala et al., 2016;Mmbaga et al., 2017). Elephants are generalist feeders (Choudhury et al., 2008) with large body mass, and therefore need large range to collect their food (Biru and Bekele, 2012) and can spend up to 18h per day searching for food (Campos-Arceiz and Blake, 2011;Jin et al., 2006;Leggett, 2009;Sach et al., 2019). It *Corresponding author. ...
... Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License may be a challenge to satisfy their needs in an environment where habitat is increasingly being lost, resulting in reduced food availability for elephants (Koirala et al., 2016). Accordingly, they feed on different biological types of plants ranging from roots/tubers and grasses to trees of different species, depending on the seasons and the ecosystems (Biru and Bekele, 2012;De Boer et al., 2000;Koirala et al., 2016;Kouamé et al., 2011). The bulk of elephant's diet comes from leaves (Kabigumila, 1993;Short, 1981) and fruits (Blake and Inkamba-Nkulu, 2004;Campos-Arceiz and Blake, 2011;White, 1994). ...
... The bulk of elephant's diet comes from leaves (Kabigumila, 1993;Short, 1981) and fruits (Blake and Inkamba-Nkulu, 2004;Campos-Arceiz and Blake, 2011;White, 1994). However, various proportions of roots, barks, stems, branches, twigs, and flowers are also consumed by elephants (Biru and Bekele, 2012;Kabigumila, 1993;Koirala et al., 2016;Short, 1981;White et al., 1993). Forest elephants have been reported feeding on more than 500 plant items in Ndoki National Park, Congo (Blake, 2002), 307 food items in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon (White et al., 1993), and on at least 33 fruiting tree species in Odzala National Park, Republic of Congo (Maurois et al., 1997). ...
Forest elephants are nocturnal and elusive animals, making it difficult to perform direct observations on them. Data on elephants' diet and feeding habit are lacking despite most forest elephants' habitats being lost to anthropogenic activities; yet such knowledge may be important for their conservation, particularly in a human dominated landscape. Local ecological knowledge and field investigations were combined to assess diet composition and feeding habit of forest elephants in Campo-Ma'an landscape. The study also aimed to evaluate the level of concordance between the two approaches. The study reports that forest elephants in Campo-Ma'an feed on 87 plants species, including crops. Twenty-two of these plant species were reported by both methods, most of them being potential drivers of human-elephant conflict as they are simultaneously used by humans and elephants. Also, field investigations revealed that, to satisfy their energy requirements, forest elephants relied mostly on leaves and fruits during the wet seasons and mostly on barks from trees during the dry seasons. Overall, the two methods appeared to be complementary, despite field investigations yielding fewer species, as we only covered the park partially. We suggest that combining both methods could be a cost-efficient way to address forest elephants ecological and management questions.
... Elephants are non-ruminant, monogastric herbivorous, hindgut fermenters (Van Hoven and Lankhorst, 1981;Dumonceaux, 2006). In the wild, African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) have preferences in plant types and parts, and diet selection is optimized for energy, growth or reproduction (Biru and Bekele, 2012;Pretorius et al., 2012;Mwambola et al., 2014;Sach et al., 2019). As such, zoo-housed elephants should be provided with various types of hay and browse with differing energetic and digestibility coefficients (Bolechova et al., 2020). ...
... Microbiology 11 frontiersin.org lower diversity in diet items compared to the wild (Biru and Bekele, 2012;Pretorius et al., 2012;Mwambola et al., 2014;Sach et al., 2019), and with seasonal changes in food availability which is dramatically reduced in yearlong homogeneous pellet-based diet of captive-bred elephants (Codron et al., 2006;Dierenfeld, 2006;Clauss and Dierenfeld, 2008;Wood et al., 2020). This may explain markedly reduced bacterial occurrence networks in captive individuals as evidenced in Figure 5 and a markedly reduced network robusteness ( Figure 6). ...
The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in animal health and homeostasis,
particularly in endangered species conservation. This study investigated the
fecal microbiota composition of European captive-bred African savanna
elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed in French zoos, and compared it with
wild African savanna elephants. Fecal samples were collected and processed
for DNA extraction and amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The
analysis of α and β diversity revealed significant effects of factors such as diet,
daily activity, and institution on microbiota composition. Specifically, provision
of branches as part of the diet positively impacted microbiota diversity.
Comparative analyses demonstrated distinct differences between captive and
wild elephant microbiomes, characterized by lower bacterial diversity and altered
co-occurrence patterns in the captive population. Notably, specific taxa were
differentially abundant in captive and wild elephants, suggesting the influence of
the environment on microbiota composition. Furthermore, the study identified a
core association network shared by both captive and wild elephants, emphasizing
the importance of certain taxa in maintaining microbial interactions. These findings
underscore the impact of environment and husbandry factors on elephant gut
microbiota, highlighting the benefits of dietary enrichment strategies in zoos to
promote microbiome diversity and health. The study contributes to the broader
understanding of host-microbiota interactions and provides insights applicable to
conservation medicine and captive animal management.
... Additionally, riparian types in Kafta Shiraro National Park (KSNP) in the northern country include Acacia-commiphora, Combretum-Terminalia, and dry evergreen montane forests (Teklay Girmay et al., 2020). As relatively few studies were available with regards to the ecology (Yirmed Demeke, 2008), food habits (Yihew Biru & Afework Bekele, 2012), and threats (e.g., HEC/HWC) of African elephants (Sintayehu Workeneh & Ready Uttama, 2014) in BES. This study was conducted since there has been little information on the feeding ecology and current status of the species. ...
A study was conducted on the ecological, and threats to African elephants in the Babile Elephant Sanctuary in eastern Ethiopia from March 2019 to December 2021. The research aimed to understand population size, age structure, movement, feeding preference, impact on woody plant species, and threats to elephants. For the study, before carrying out data collection, the habitat of the sanctuary was first divided into riverine, woodland, and bushlands. A total area of 48 km 2 divided into 16 km 2 each, was sampled to compare and collect the dung of an elephant. The study used dung counting techniques and woody species assessment to estimate elephant population size, feeding preferences, and the impact of elephants on woody species. The sanctuary had 210 to 250 elephants or (i.e., 230±20) at a Mean of (χ) =230 and SD=20, with 47% being younger and 2.6% sub-adult. Others were adult (19%), calves (17.2%), and Juveniles (13.4%). According to all (100%) key informants and observations revealed, the elephants' movement followed the Erer and Gobele valleys. The result also showed that 24(63.15%) of the 38 woody species were selected by elephants as a diet. The Acacia seyel (PI= 3.3033) and Opuntia ficus-indica (PI= 2.0328) were the most frequently browsed tree and shrub species, respectively. Observations revealed elephants uprooted debarked trees and destroyed parts, particularly a small size class. The study found that the high human population and settlers' need for land for cultivation increased conflicts between people and elephants. Despite a remnant elephant population in the sanctuary, the species could be negatively affected by human activities. Therefore, rehabilitating woody plants consumed by elephants, reducing threats and conserving the remaining elephant population is crucial.
... The vegetation of the sanctuary was represented by Acacia Commiphora woodland, semi-desert scrubland and evergreen scrub ecosystems and with high endemicity of various plants and grasslands (Yirmed Demeke et al., 2006). Due to altitudinal variation effects, rainfall variability occurred and a marked effect on the vegetation is observed (Yihew Biru and Afework Bekele, 2012). Generally, the vegetation of BES is divided into two major categories of riverine and woodland vegetation (Yirmed Demeke et al., 2006). ...
The focus of this paper is to study the conservation threats on African elephants in Babile Elephant Sanctuary, Eastern Ethiopia. A simple random sampling method was used to gather data from sampled households. Total of 138 households were selected for interview nearby the study area, and qualitative survey was collected. Focus group discussion and site observations were carried out. According to the result showed, all respondents (100%) were perceived that the population explosion around the sanctuary was increasing for encroaching the land. Following human population, settlement (89.13%), human-elephant conflict (87.7%), and agricultural expansion (87%) through deforestation (84.7%) were the major threats that faced the sanctuary. The result also revealed that livestock grazing, charcoal production, poaching, less community participation, ineffective law enforcement, illegal (uncontrolled) fire, excavation of sands, and fuelwood collection were other discerned threats. Besides, less than (45%) of them were believed as hunting (i.e., other than elephants), lack of management capacity, ineffective stakeholders & partners involvement were brought less effect on present elephant conservation when related with other threats. However, only 22% of respondents were agreed with the existing management system. This might showed why the increased number and types of threats were observed in the sanctuary. Overall, this study disclosed the existence of conservation threats. Based on research results, the following inference is drawn: awareness creation for local communities and other stakeholders along with benefit-sharing for nearby communities around the sanctuary is important to lower the threats then conserve and protect elephant habitat and the values of the sanctuary. Moreover, strengthening the capacity of management and enforcing laws can minimize the intimidation and enhance opportunities.
... In other dryland ecosystems with higher cactus densities, a related species, O. lindheimeri, can comprise 55% of the diet of white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus (Everitt & Gonzalez, 1979) and 74% of the diet of collared peccaries Dicotyles tajacu (Everitt et al., 1981). In semi-arid Ethiopian rangelands, O. stricta and O. ficus-indica were among the top five most frequently consumed plants by elephants (Biru & Bekele, 2012). Herbivory of cacti by native herbivores in African savannas may therefore be sufficient to suppress Opuntia densities. ...
Whether wild herbivores confer biotic resistance to invasion by exotic plants remains a key question in ecology. There is evidence that wild herbivores can impede invasion by exotic plants, but it is unclear whether and how this generalises across ecosystems with varying wild herbivore diversity and functional groups of plants, particularly over long‐term (decadal) time frames.
Using data from three long‐term (13‐ to 26‐year) exclosure experiments in central Kenya, we tested the effects of wild herbivores on the density of exotic invasive cacti, Opuntia stricta and O. ficus‐indica (collectively, Opuntia), which are among the worst invasive species globally. We also examined relationships between wild herbivore richness and elephant occurrence probability with the probability of O. stricta presence at the landscape level (6150 km²).
Opuntia densities were 74% to 99% lower in almost all plots accessible to wild herbivores compared to exclosure plots. Opuntia densities also increased more rapidly across time in plots excluding wild herbivores. These effects were largely driven by megaherbivores (≥1000 kg), particularly elephants.
At the landscape level, modelled Opuntia stricta occurrence probability was negatively correlated with estimated species richness of wild herbivores and elephant occurrence probability. On average, O. stricta occurrence probability fell from ~0.56 to ~0.45 as wild herbivore richness increased from 6 to 10 species and fell from ~0.57 to ~0.40 as elephant occurrence probability increased from ~0.41 to ~0.84. These multi‐scale results suggest that any facilitative effects of Opuntia by wild herbivores (e.g. seed/vegetative dispersal) are overridden by suppression (e.g. consumption, uprooting, trampling).
Synthesis. Our experimental and observational findings that wild herbivores confer resistance to invasion by exotic cacti add to evidence that conserving and restoring native herbivore assemblages (particularly megaherbivores) can increase community resistance to plant invasions.
... We grouped feeding metrics in the following categories: -Percentage.in.diet (indicates the estimated percentage of a particular plant species in the diet of a megaherbivore at the study location) -Relative.preference (indicates the relative preference of a megaherbivore for a particular plant species at the study location; this can be indicated using a percentage, a ratio, or ordinal categorical units such as low, medium, and high; preference ratios or indices are often calculated by dividing the percentage indicted by the relative abundance, see for examples (Biru and Bekele, 2012;Cardoso et al., 2020) . CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license available under a (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. ...
Terrestrial mammalian herbivores heavier than ~1000 kg, also known as megaherbivores, perform unique ecological functions due to their combination of heavy body mass, extended home ranges, abundant biomass consumption, and highly diverse diet. Megaherbivores can have substantial effects on ecosystem functioning, vegetation structure, and biogeochemical cycles. Elephants (family Elephantidae) and rhinoceros (family Rhinocerotidae) are two of the remaining megaherbivores that survived the late Pleistocene extinctions, but their populations have been globally declining in the last century. Feeding preferences are a key factor determining the influence of megaherbivores on ecosystems and plant communities; however, comprehensive and centralized data on megaherbivores food preferences are lacking. Here we present MegaFeed, an extensive dataset of megaherbivores' feeding preferences across their distribution. This first version of MegaFeed here described contains more than 12,000 records of feeding preferences for the extant elephant species: Loxodonta africana (African savanna elephant), Loxodonta cyclotis (African Forest elephant), and Elephas maximus (Asian elephant). MegaFeed will contribute to a better understanding of the ecological functions of megaherbivores, evaluate the consequences of their decline, and guide rewilding and conservation initiatives such as habitat restoration and reduction of human-wildlife conflicts.
The quantification of vegetation structure and composition at local and global scales provides valuable information for understanding the balance of the natural and human-made environment, which is crucial for natural resource planning and management, and the sustenance of ecosystem biodiversity. In this study, we proposed using the Sentinel 2A imagery to classify vegetation cover into communities based on the floristic association of individual vegetation species. We apply traditional remote sensing techniques to process the satellite image and identify training regions of interest (ROI) which are thoroughly assessed for spectral uniqueness before using the pixel-based supervised classification algorithms for our classification. Ground truthing assessment and species dominance computations are done to determine the vegetation community composition and naming based on floristic associations. We apply the floristic compositions output in analysing elephant movement tracks in the area, to assess the potential influence the location of specific vegetation species and communities utilized by elephants has on their movement and presence, as well as on elephant bulls and family groupings. The results show that the 10 m spatial resolution Sentinel-2A is suitable for investigating and mapping vegetation species in communities for large-scale mapping operations. We determined Near-Infrared band 8 and shortwave Infrared band 11 as key for identifying and differentiating ROIs at the floristic association community vegetation mapping level. We attained an overall accuracy of 87.395%. The analysis proved the 10 m spatial resolution of Sentinel 2A to be sufficient in distinguishing vegetation communities, including those with similar dominant species but variations in other contributing species. We also found a direct connection between vegetation location and elephant movement based on the summative analysis of utilised vegetation by the different elephant groupings. Bull elephants were predominantly present in areas with Combretum, family groups in areas with Commiphora, and mixed groups with both bulls and families in areas with Commiphora, and Cissus. This study shows the value that remote-sensing scientific support can offer conservationists and governments in objective evidence-based land management, policy making and governance.
Anthropogenic activities like overexploitation of natural vegetation and plantation of exotic species in degraded areas are commonly occurring in the natural vegetation of Ethiopia. Natural forests conserve plant species and provide a number of ecosystem services to society. This study focuses on the tree species composition and regeneration possibility of Ganda Roba and Ganda Shabbo in Natural Vegetation of Damota, Eastern Ethiopia. The sample of tree species were collected from 40 plots of 20 m × 20 m, while seedlings and saplings were collected from 160 plots of 5 m × 5 m and 320 plots of 1 m × 1 m, respectively from elevations ranging from 2039-3023 m. There were 47 tree species identified, belonging to 32 genera and 21 families, with Fabacaea being the most prominent family with the most species. The mean species richness of adult trees was 39 ± 2.4, for saplings 38 ± 6.5, and for seedlings, it was 34.5 ± 5.3. The average seedling density was 21850 ± 1131.37 individuals ha⁻¹, for saplings 17162.5 ± 972.27 individuals ha−1, and of mature trees 12450 ± 2050.61individuals ha⁻¹. The mean basal area for trees, saplings, and seedlings were 267.65 ± 30.78 m² ha⁻¹, 68.6 ± 4.12 m² ha−1, and 45.83 ± 2.86 m² ha⁻¹, respectively. Good regeneration was seen in 41% of total species in the Ganda Roba site while in Ganda Shabbo fair regeneration was seen in 44% of species. In Ganda Roba and Ganda Shabbo sites, 7% and 6% of species exhibited no regeneration respectively. Density-diameter distribution curve exhibited a consistent reduction in tree densities with an rise in DBH patterns. The current study provides baseline information for foresters and policymakers to better manage the forest for sustaining tree diversity and regeneration patterns and formulate better strategic conservation plans for the future.
Numerous indices have been developed to compare use and availability of foods in field diets of wild ungulates. However, little attention has been given to laboratory analysis for comparing food preferences. To this end, a study aimed at investigating the diet composition and preference of Bohor reedbuck was conducted in the compound of Alage Agricultural College, Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia from 2017 to 2018 encompassing both dry and wet seasons. Bohor reedbuck is a medium sized horned antelope species endemic to Africa. Continuous focal animal observation was used to collect the data on plant species included in the diet of Bohor reedbuck. Focal individuals’ observation was carried out for 30 min in 10 min sampling interval during their active feeding period (early morning and late afternoon) over four different habitat types. The nutrient composition of plants consumed was determined using wet chemistry laboratory analysis. Bohor reedbucks consumed 15 species of plants; herbs comprised 94.3% of the foods they consumed. Digitaria abyssinica was the most preferred plant species with highest crude protein (23.75%) and less fiber (61.8% nitrogen detergent fiber and 27.8% acid detergent fiber). These findings suggest that food preference of Bohor reedbuck is determined by the nutritional content of the plant it consumed, since the area is more or less natural habitat in terms of plant species composition. For sustainable conservation of the species, there is a need to actively promote management of the plant species most preferred by the reedbuck to feed on.
A study of the effects of elephant activities on forest plantations was conducted between December 1971 and May 1972 in the Kilimanjaro Forest-Game Reserve. Faecal counts in the forest gave an estimate of elephant population density of 0.67 km-2 and a total population of 1197 ± 259. Trees damaged by elephants were enumerated in a total of 180 quadrats of (50 × 50) m each, covering an area of 45 ha. Out of 175450 trees enumerated an estimated 42565 or 24.3% sustained damage from elephants. Pinus patula Schiede and Deppe suffered most damage of four exotic tree species studied. Damage by uprooting and breaking was higher in young than in old trees. Girdling accounted for over 75% of the damage; more in young trees. Browsing resulted in stunted growth of young trees. Damage to tree plantations was severe in areas where weeding, pruning and thinning were late, or in areas where patches of bush were left uncleared between the compartments. Damage was also more severe in the dry season than in the rainy season. Trees were examined for secondary damage by borers or fungi, but no evidence was found. Recommendations for control and regulation of game populations in the reserve are suggested. /// Изучение влияния слоноб на лесные посадки проводилось с декабря 1971 по май 1972 гг в Лесной демонстрационной резервации Килиманджаро. По подсчетам фекалиев в лесы плотность популяции слонов составляла 0,67 экз./к m2, а общая численность попупяцнн - 1197 ± 259. Дервья, поврежденные слонамн, былн пронумерованы на 180 квадратах (50 × 50) m2 на площади в 45 га. Из 175450 пнонымерованных деревьев 42565 или 24,3% былн повреждены слонами Pinus patula Schiede и Deepe - наиболее повреждаемые из 4-х экзотических видов деревьеб. Вырывание с корнем и ломка стволов чаще наблюдаются у молодых деревьев, чем у старых. Круговое объедание коры составляет 75% всех повреждений, и чаще наблюдается у молодых деревьев. Объедание побегов останавливает рост молодых деревьев. Повреждения лесонасаждений особенно сильны в участках, где пропожка сорняков подрезка ветвей и пророживание делается поздно, либо в участках, где оставляют заросли кустов между кулисами. Повреждения также более сильны в сухие сезоны, чем во влажные. Исследовали втопичные повреждения деревьев копоедами или грибами, но материалы не были получены. Даны рекомендации по контролю и регуляции демонстраюионных популяюий слонов в резервации.
The preferred habitats of the African bush elephant, Loxodonta africana, are forestedge, woodland, bushland and wooded or bushed grassland. Increasing amounts of grass in the elephants' diet are correlated with conversion of wood habitats towards grassland, and with increasing elephant mobility, poorer physical condition, and progressively increasing natural regulatory processes leading to decrease in numbers. Elephant occur in discrete unit populations. Each population shows a series of highly contagious instantaneous distributions which, when averaged over a period of time, probably tend, in a uniform habitat, to approach a random or regular distribution. High densities or disturbance by man lead to increase in mean group size and more uneven distribution. The effect on woody vegetation is greater and more lasting than on grass or herbs and usually radiates outwards from the initial centre of damage. The typical cycle begins with destruction of the understory, followed by ringbarking of adult trees, and is accelerated by fire. Several case studies involving forest, moist and dry woodlands, and dry bushland are described which fit this pattern. /// Предпочитаемые местообитания Африканских слонов Loxodonta africana - опушки леса, лесистые местности, кустарник и открытые участки с деревьями или кустами. Увеличение относительного количества травы в диете слонов коррелирует со сменой лесных местообитаний открытыми, увеличением подвижности слонов, ухудшением физических условий и усилением действия естественных регулирующих процессов, ведущих к снижению поголовья. Слоны встречаются отдельными разрозненными популяциями. Каждая популяция образует ряд временных, вступающих в контакт группировок, которые при анализе в среднем за определенный промежуток времени очевидно имеют тенденцию к однородным местообитаниям, и их распределение приближается к рандомическому распределению. Высокая плотность и влияние деятельности человека приводит к увеличению стад слонов и еще более неравномерному распределению. Повреждения древесной растительности более сильные и длительные, чем травянистой. Обычно эти повреждения распространяются вширь от одного исходного очага. Типичный цикл смены местообитаний начинается с уничтожения подстилки и обгрызания коры на деревьях. Эта деятельность усугубляется пожарами. Приведены некоторые случаи исследований во влажных и сухих лесах и сухих кустарниках, которые подтверждают эту схему.
1. Most methods of studying the food preferences of grazing herbivores are difficult or impossible to apply under conditions such as those encountered on the East African plains, which have an outstanding large-mammal fauna and a rich herbaceous flora. There are therefore few data regarding the preferences of these mammals. 2. A method involving the identification of plant epidermis in faeces avoids some of the limitations of other techniques. It has been used elsewhere both with large mammals and with other groups, but usually where the numbers of animal and plant species are fewer; the data obtained have usually been qualitative only. 3. The present study examines the qualitative and quantitative potential of the method under East African conditions. It has been limited to grasses, and to their leaf epidermis. It has involved feeding experiments with seven animal species (six ruminants and one non-ruminant) and, for quantitative purposes, eight species of grasses, the number of the latter being limited by practical considerations. 4. The results indicate that perennial grasses forming more than 5~%, by fresh weight, of a constant diet can be identified in the faeces. No information was obtained regarding species which form a smaller, regular part of the diet, or on ephemerals regularly forming more than 5%. 5. With a changing diet perennials temporarily forming a major part will be identified within a period governed by the times of throughput and elimination (see 6 below). Grasses eaten in occasional small quantities may not be identified; the evidence was insufficient to indicate whether ephemeral species are less likely to be recorded. 6. In both the ruminants and the non-ruminant the period between the first ingestion of a grass and its first appearance in the faeces (time of throughput) was 20-30 h; the period between the last ingestion and last appearance in the faeces (time of elimination) was about 3 days in the non-ruminant and 5-6 days in the ruminants. 7. Since the major constituents of the diet can be identified in the faeces, quantitative data on a frequency basis, indicating the relative importance of different grasses in the diet, can be obtained. 8. The proportions of epidermis from different grasses can be estimated in the faeces by measuring the area of fragments or by using point quadrats; counts of fragments are invalid for this purpose since different grasses break into fragments differing significantly in size. The proportions so measured do not necessarily represent those ingested, however, since different grasses may be digested to different extents. The fact that epidermis from both leaf surfaces survives digestion in some species and from only one in others does not account for all these differences. There are also significant differences between animals in the extent to which particular grasses are digested. 9. Although for intensive studies involving a few plant and animal species it might be possible to establish correction factors to allow for variations in digestibility, this and the subsequent analyses would be extremely time-consuming; it must therefore be accepted that most studies must be limited to obtaining quantitative data on a frequency basis.