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Ecology of the Gulf of Mexico Commercial Sponges and Its Relation to the Fishery
... Many ecological functions and services, including bentho-pelagic coupling through filtration and nutrient cycling (Valentine and Butler, 2019;Pawlik and McMurray, 2020), enhancement of habitat complexity (Herrnkind et al., 1997), alterations in sediment structure ( Neuweiler and Burdige, 2005), contribution to underwater soundscapes ( Butler et al., 2016), provisioning of food for spongivorous species (Loh and Pawlik, 2014), and support of fisheries (Butler et al., 2017), are attributable to sponges and their associated microbiomes (Bell, 2008;Bell et al., 2017). With respect to support of fisheries, some shallow-water species are, or have been, commercially exploited, notably the wool sponge, which is also farmed (Storr, 1964;Osinga et al., 1999;McClenachan, 2008) and grown for use in habitat restoration (Butler et al., 2021). ...
... We fitted the VBGF to the empirical growth curve published by Storr (1964), which is based on wool sponges tagged in the upper Gulf of Mexico. Storr (1964) described the way he obtained growth data (mainly from sponges in grounds at Piney Point in Florida) as follows: ...
... We fitted the VBGF to the empirical growth curve published by Storr (1964), which is based on wool sponges tagged in the upper Gulf of Mexico. Storr (1964) described the way he obtained growth data (mainly from sponges in grounds at Piney Point in Florida) as follows: ...
... In Florida, Moore produced an early report in 1910 to inform about the existence of natural sponge beds and describe the methodology and prospects of sponge aquaculture starting from eggs or cuttings. Bath sponges then gradually began to be farmed on a small scale in the Mediterranean, on the off-coast of Florida and in several regions of the Pacific (Cahn, 1948;Croft, 1989;Handley et al., 2003;Storr, 1957Storr, , 1964. As demand grew, so did imports and domestic productions worldwide. ...
... Seasonal variation in growth and survival have indeed been evidenced in some populations, with very different trends depending on the locations (Duckworth et al., 1997;Koopmans and Wijffels, 2008;Storr, 1964;Turon et al., 1998). Temperature was early cited as one of the factors limiting sponge biomass gain, showing ranges beyond which individuals fail to develop even if they managed to fix the structure and survive (Barthel and Theede, 1986). ...
... Depth neither affected biomass decrease, weight loss, size reduction and body aspect modification (i.e. from compact to stringy) of the breadcrumb sponge H. panicea in the Baltic Sea (Barthel, 1988). Yet, sponges placed in shallow water during the winter season in the Mediterranean Sea and Gulf of Mexico experienced a reduction in volume (Storr, 1964;Verdenal and Vacelet, 1990). In temperate waters of New Zealand and Florida, growth rates of sponges varied between depth and season as driving changes in water flow (Butler et al., 1995;Duckworth and Battershill, 2003;Duckworth et al., 2004). ...
Marine sponges have a long history of farming, starting with bath sponges over 5000 years ago in the Mediterranean. Many species have since been found appropriate for distinct types of commercial assessment. Drug development relies on the isolation of sponge-derived secondary metabolites as natural compounds having a wide range of ecological functions, from deterring predation to preventing microbial infection/proliferation on the sponge body. For human society, they feature a broad array of pharmacological properties with some applications still being discovered. Their limited supply has however been faced as a major obstacle to the conduct of clinical trials. Marine aquaculture has to prove more integrated and sustainable to remain an interesting way to ensure sufficient amounts of biological substances for the early processing and production of drugs. This review presents sponge farming methods that were tested, the undergoing challenges they faced and the interest they raised on environmental and metabolic factors to explain contrasting spatiotemporal performances. Through global experiments, sometimes involving other marine organisms, technicity of sponge aquaculture has long been evolving to ensure efficient and cost-effective strategies. Further ways to make sponge farming more attractive and diversify its commercial applications are investigated, such as recent studies in collagen or chitin production for bone tissue engineering or bioremediation as an alternative to existing wastewater management. Overall, marine sponges exhibit astonishing intra and interspecific variation, which is why they should be considered with respect to the purpose of their economic valuation, their environmental context and all the symbiotic interactions they rely on.
... This is because so-called "marketed sponges" represent cell-and tissue-free, depigmented and demineralized skeletal constructs (Figure 2), which have been defined in the scientific literature as "commercial sponges" [12]. These commercial sponges represent the main source of the "sponge industry" [13]. with high socioeconomic value [11]. ...
... This is because so-called "marketed sponges" represent cell-and tissue-free, depigmented and demineralized skeletal constructs (Figure 2), which have been defined in the scientific literature as "commercial sponges" [12]. These commercial sponges represent the main source of the "sponge industry" [13]. According to Laubenfels and Storr, "the commercial sponge is the macerated and dried skeleton of one of the sponge animals that has no proper spicules. ...
... Of commercial sponges, those which have soft, durable, absorbent, and elastic fibers are the most expensive [66,86]. Consequently, the basic desirable qualities of a sponge-ability to hold water, compressibility, resiliency, and toughness-are all dependent upon its spongin fiber pattern and structure [13]. The structure-function relationship in spongin-based scaffolds is based on both the pattern and size of the fibers. ...
The biosynthesis, chemistry, structural features and functionality of spongin as a halogenated scleroprotein of keratosan demosponges are still paradigms. This review has the principal goal of providing thorough and comprehensive coverage of spongin as a naturally prefabricated 3D biomaterial with multifaceted applications. The history of spongin’s discovery and use in the form of commercial sponges, including their marine farming strategies, have been analyzed and are discussed here. Physicochemical and material properties of spongin-based scaffolds are also presented. The review also focuses on prospects and trends in applications of spongin for technology, materials science and biomedicine. Special attention is paid to applications in tissue engineering, adsorption of dyes and extreme biomimetics.
... Approximately 60 species of sponge dominate the sessile animal biomass of shallow (<3m) hard-bottom communities in the Florida Keys, but only five species are of commercial value (Torres et al., 2006;Stevely et al., 2010Stevely et al., , 2011. The region's sponge fishery began in the mid 1800 s (Rathbun, 1887;Storr, 1964) and annual landings peaked at ∼270,000 kg (∼8.6 million sponges) prior to World War II. However, the cumulative grouper (Epinephelus morio). ...
... Some sponges in the Florida Keys are reproductive year-round, but others probably reproduce only during the summer (Kaye and Reiswig, 1991a,b). Fecundity is thought to be related to sponge volume (Storr, 1964), but for most species surprisingly little is known about size at maturity, growth, or fecundity − information of obvious importance for sustainable management. ...
... This rate varies among species and seasons, and will also depend on the degree of tissue damage incurred while harvesting, a facet of the fishery that we did not examine. Our estimates of regrowth are similar to estimates from previous studies of wool sponges in the same region, indicating that sponges could grow to legal size in 3-6 yrs (Moore, 1910cited in Stevely et al., 1978Smith, 1954;Storr, 1964). Taking all of these factors into account, we conclude that at the harvest rates we measured, the commercial sponge fishery has a negligible impact on the sponge community in the Florida Keys, only a fraction of which are commercial sponges. ...
For more than 100 years, the Florida Keys (USA) have supported a commercial sponge fishery but there is little information about the small artisanal fishery that now exists, which is nonetheless controversial because of concerns about the ecological consequences of sponge harvest. We estimated the harvest of commercial sponges and bycatch (sublegal or non-commercial species), as well as the mortality, growth, and reproduction of commercial sponge species. In heavily fished areas, ∼33% of the legal-sized sponges, ∼3% of the sublegal sponges, and virtually none of the non-commercial species were harvested. Approximately 40% of our study area was never fished during the four month long peak in the fishing season. Self-reporting of harvest by fishers who participated in our study closely matched our fishery-independent estimates. Natural mortality of sublegal-sized sponges was ∼7% of the population/yr, with little difference among species. Discarded “roller” sponges grew at rates comparable to attached sponges and many reattached to the seafloor within 18 mos, although rates of reattachment varied among species. Growth also differed among species and sampling periods (mean = 3 cm dia/yr), and reproductive effort was positively related to sponge size in some species, but not others. Given the careful targeting of commercial sponge species and sizes by fishers and the small fraction of the sponge community that is commercially valuable, harvest is estimated to have minimal impact on the diverse assemblage of sponges in the region.
... Thus, the incidence and rate at which injuries are healed form part of the ecological fitness, especially for organisms living in highly dynamic environments such as coral reefs (Bak et al. 1977, Jackson & Palumbi 1979, Bak & Luckhurst 1980). A limited number of studies on the ecological significance of predation, growth and regeneration in Porifera have been carried out on sponge species in the Antarctic (Dayton et al. 1974), temperate regions (Ayling 1981, Fell & Lewandrowski 1981) and the tropics (Storr 1964, Reiswig 1973, Jackson & Palumbi 1979). The majority of the data concern cryptic and encrusting sponge species and relatively little is known about the larger and massive species (Storr 1964, Reiswig 1973). ...
... A limited number of studies on the ecological significance of predation, growth and regeneration in Porifera have been carried out on sponge species in the Antarctic (Dayton et al. 1974), temperate regions (Ayling 1981, Fell & Lewandrowski 1981) and the tropics (Storr 1964, Reiswig 1973, Jackson & Palumbi 1979). The majority of the data concern cryptic and encrusting sponge species and relatively little is known about the larger and massive species (Storr 1964, Reiswig 1973). These large sponges attain dimensions comparable to dominant sessile organisms on reefs, such a s gorgonians and scleractinian corals. ...
... N. nolitangere showed the greatest increase in body volume, with almost 20 O/O yr-l. Such a value rates high to intermediate compared to other equally sized sponge species (Storr 1964, Reiswig 1973, Dayton 1979). Even after correction between the species for differences in tissue density and internal canal volume (Hoppe unpubl.), it appears that N. nolitangere increased its real tissue mass twice as fast as the other 2 species in this study. ...
... Additionally, whilst in temperate seas most species will breed within the same few months (Mariani et al., 2005), which will possibly result in competition of the larvae in the plankton during settlement, tropical species breeding during different seasons will tend to have their larval stock (taken as a whole) more or less equally distributed in the plankton all year round. This strategy may decrease the need to compete for the same resources and increase the chance of population survival, even if a catastrophic event occurs (Thorson, 1950;Storr, 1964;Simpson, 1984;Lanna et al., 2015 and references therein). ...
... Interestingly, temperate species tend to have an annual reproductive activity, with a concentrated production of oocytes, embryos, and larvae in a single season. The total number of reproductive elements during a whole year (i.e. the annual fecundity) could be similar between tropical and temperate sponges, as proposed previously for bath (keratose) sponges (Storr, 1964) and calcareous sponges (Lanna et al., 2015). Therefore, it seems that tropical sponges (with few exceptions) reproduce continuously investing a small amount of energy for their offspring in a given month if compared to the temperate species. ...
Although the Orton’s rule was already questioned for several invertebrate lineages, it remains unchallenged in sponges. To assess its validity in Porifera, we investigated the reproductive cycle of five species of Demospongiae on a tropical rocky shore, aiming to determine the effect of some environmental variables (EVs) on the periodicity, density of reproductive elements, and population engagement in reproduction. All species reproduced continuously, with low percentage of reproductive individuals and low fecundity. Each species presented a set of models containing different EVs to explain their reproductive traits. In general, the relationship of the EVs on the percentage of reproductive individuals and density of gametes and embryos was delayed in 1–3 months. Temperature was amongst the factors that best explained the species reproduction, with a delay of 1 month being the factor most consistently found amongst the models. In addition, we carried out a meta-analysis and discovered that in temperate regions most species reproduced periodically, whilst in the tropics, a small percentage reproduced continuously. Our findings suggest that Orton’s Rule is partially sustained, as species reproduced continuously, but challenge the lack of the influence of the temperature and other EVs in the reproduction of tropical marine invertebrates.
... Commercial sponge diseases had been previously reported in the Mediterranean (Allemand-Martin, 1906;1914;Arndt, 1937),although their virulence appears to have been mild and did not significantly affect sponge production. This contrasts with the recent disease, which may be compared to the devastating one that wiped out the sponge industry for years in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico in 1938-39 and 1947 (Galtsoff, 1942;Storr, 1964). ...
... Bar =0.5~In = fealures: skeleton of affected sponges became brittle and lost ilS commercial value; non commercial dict)'oceratids (genera Ircinia and Sarcotragus) suffered l'rom the same disease, but were attaeked later and ta a Icsserextent; and spongin-tunneJling bacteria were present in attackcc\ skcJeton. In the Caribbean discase (Galtsoff, 1942;Storr, 1964), skelcton of discased sponges maintained commcrcial value; only Spo/lgia and l!ippospmzgia suffered from the disease; and a fungus was al ways prcsent in diseascd sponges aod was the presumed agenl. In both cases, howevcr, sponges were more resistant in lleeper and eolder water, and thc incidence and spread of the disease suggested that it was contagious. ...
... Historically, research on sponge biodiversity from the Gulf of Mexico (GMx) has been done mainly on the northern (USA) and east-southeastern regions (Cuba), where most of the current sponge species richness has been described. This pattern can be explained by the larger research effort in that area (Alcolado 1976;1984;de Laubenfels 1953;1936;Little 1936;Storr 1964), and as a result it seemed that the southern region of the GMx has a lower sponge species richness. Species diversity in this region is most certainly underestimated, owing to the limited number of sponge specialists and lack of funds to finance more sampling efforts in Mexican waters. ...
... Distribution and ecology. Bahamas (Dendy 1890), Lesser Antilles ( van Soest 1980); Jamaica (Lehnert & van Soest 1998), Florida (Storr 1964);Cuba (Alcolado 2002). Amphimedon complanata inhabits particularly shallow coral reef environments. ...
Marine sponges usually constitute the most diverse group of the benthic community in coral reefs. Although they are reasonably well studied at the northern Gulf of Mexico (GMx), the southern GMx is poorly known and lacks records from many major reef systems that lie off the Mexican coast. The present taxonomic study is the first sponge account from Alacranes reef, the largest coral reef system in the GMx, and from the shallow reef banks of Sisal, both in the northwest Yucatan Peninsula. The 19 species herein described represent the first sponge fauna records from these reefs. Among these, seven species represent new record for GMx: Erylus formosus, Cliona flavifodina, Spirastrella aff. mollis, Strongylacidon bermuda, Topsentia bahamensis, Agelas tubulata and Chelonaplysilla aff. erecta. Twelve species are new records for the Southern GMx: Erylus trisphaerus, Cliona amplicavata, Chondrilla caribensis, Halichondria lutea, Hymeniacidon caerulea, Axinella corrugata, Dragmacidon reticulatum, Chalinula molitba, Amphimedon caribica, A. complanata, Hyatella cavernosa and Dysidea variabilis. Additionally, a redescription of Erylus trisphaerus is presented which had not been reviewed since its original description in 1953 off Western Florida, except that it was listed for north
La Habana, Cuba.
... The material reviewed for this study suggests a distribution ranging from East off Georgia and Florida to western Florida and the entire Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Specimens, in addition to the present material from Belize and the eastern Gulf of Mexico, were reported from the upper (northern) Florida Keys (Storr, 1964), Puerto Rico (Wilson, 1902) and Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles (Kobluk & van Soest, 1989), and of course the type locality, Veracruz, Mexico (Carter, 1870). Comments. ...
... Dimensions of the strongyloxeas, however, allow us to separate three species that occur in the subtropicaltropical western Atlantic (Table 1). A. pernucleata stands out with the most distinctive strongyloxea shape, thick center and slim rounded end, very similar to those of A. aaptos but only about 70% of their mean length (roughly 1100 versus 1500 µm, on average). A. bergmanni de Laubenfels (1950), described from Bermuda and also found in the upper Florida Keys (Storr, 1964) and a cave in the Bahamas, has much shorter and slimmer (about half the diameter) strongyloxea than A. pernucleata and transitions to styles are more common. A. lithophaga (Wiedenmayer, 1977), found in the Bahamas and in one cave in Bermuda, was synonymized with A. pernucleata by van Soest et al. (2013b) but from our review it seems closer to A. bergmanni, except for the longer type I strongyloxeas. ...
The Caribbean barrier reef near Carrie Bow Cay, Belize, has been a focus of Smithsonian Institution (Washington) reef and mangrove investigations since the early 1970s. Systematics and biology of sponges (Porifera) were addressed by several researchers but none of the studies dealt with cryptic habitats, such as the shaded undersides of coral rubble, reef crevices, and caves, although a high species diversity was recognized and samples were taken for future reference and study. This paper is the result of processing samples taken between 1972 and 2012. In all, 122 species were identified, 14 of them new (including one new genus). The new species are Tetralophophora (new genus) mesoamericana, Geodia cribrata, Placospongia caribica, Prosuberites carriebowensis, Timea diplasterina, Timea oxyasterina, Rhaphidhistia belizensis, Wigginsia curlewensis, Phorbas aurantiacus, Myrmekioderma laminatum, Niphates arenata, Siphonodictyon occultum, Xestospongia purpurea, and Aplysina sciophila. We determined that about 75 of the 122 cryptic sponge species studied (61%) are exclusive members of the sciophilic community, 47 (39 %) occur in both, light-exposed and shaded or dark habitats. Since we estimate the previously known sponge population of Carrie Bow reefs and mangroves at about 200 species, the cryptic fauna makes up 38 % of total diversity.
... Little is known about the biology of the commercial sponge. Several aspects of the reproduction of a few species from the Spongiidae family were investigated: Spongia officinalis in the Mediterranean Sea (Scalera-Liaci et al. 1971;Gaino et al. 1984;Baldacconi et al. 2007), and some Spongia and Hippospongia species from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea (Storr 1964;Kaye 1991;Kaye & Reiswig 1991a,b). However, the only available data for H. communis comes from very early studies undertaken in Tunisia (Allemand-Martin 1906;Tuzet & Pavans de Ceccatty 1958). ...
... As in a large number of organisms, temperature is frequently assumed to be involved in the regulation of sponge reproduction (Fell 1974;Ayling 1980;Fromont 1999). A relationship between periods of initiation of gametogenesis, embryonic development and spawning on the one hand and seasonal variations of seawater temperature on the other has been suggested in a number of studies on sponges from different regions (Storr 1964;Kaye & Reiswig 1991a;Fromont 1999;Ereskovsky 2000;Meroz-Fine et al. 2005;Ettinger-Epstein et al. 2007;Gerasimova & Ereskovsky 2007;Mercurio et al. 2007;Riesgo et al. 2007;Whalan et al. 2007a;Maldonado & Riesgo 2009;Gaino et al. 2010;Leong & Pawlik 2011). ...
The study of the reproductive processes of benthic invertebrates is essential to
the understanding of their population dynamics and is also important in formulating
conservation plans, especially for exploited species. The sexual reproduction
of Hippospongia communis, the ‘honeycomb’ bath sponge, was studied
at two locations in the Mediterranean Sea: the Kerkennah Islands (Tunisia,
South Mediterranean), where the mean annual seawater temperature is 19 °C,
and Marseille (France, Northwestern Mediterranean Sea), where the mean
annual water temperature is 16 °C. The aim of this comparative study was to
determine whether different environmental conditions could affect reproduction
patterns. At both locations, H. communis was found to contain sexual
reproductive elements year-round. Oogenesis and embryogenesis occurred
throughout the year, whereas spermatogenesis occurred during shorter periods
between October and November, in both populations. While gametogenesis
seemed to be synchronized, indicating that fertilization could occur at the same
time at both locations, spawning was observed in late summer in Marseille,
whereas it started in late spring for the Kerkennah population. Larval development
of H. communis seems to take longer for sponges living at cooler locations
such as Marseille. Reproductive effort calculated for both sexes showed
significantly higher values for specimens from Kerkennah Islands. By comparing
sexual reproductive patterns of populations living in two contrasted environments,
we suggest that a change of thermal regime can affect H. communis
phenology.
... Bergquist and Sinclair 1968; van Koolwijk 1982; Zea 1993). The maximum asynchrony at larval release is found in some tropical and subtropical sponges, which may incubate variable amounts of embryos at any time over the year (e.g. Storr 1964; Bergquist 1978; Ilan and Loya 1990; Kaye and Reiswig 1991). On the basis of the available studies, it is usually assumed that reproductive activity is maintained over the year in the tropics because of the relatively high and unchanging seawater temperatures, while drastic seasonal changes in temperature are thought to be responsible for the discontinuous reproductive patterns reported from temperate latitudes (e.g. ...
... This oocyte cannibalism is known to occur in many invertebrates (Zihler 1972; Bierne and Rué 1979; Beams and Kessel 1983). Very few demosponges other than C. candelabrum produce new oocytes over many months of the year, though some that do follow this pattern include Haliclona ecbasis (Fell 1974), Hippiospongia lachne (Storr 1964), Halisarca dujardini (Lévi 1956) and Mycale contarenii (Corriero et al. 1998). Yet the case of C. candelabrum is distinct because new oocytes are produced every month of the year. ...
... Verdenal & Vacelet (1990) recorded alternating periods of growth and reduction in volume of explants of the Mediterranean bath-sponge Spongia officinalis Linnaeus, 1759 a decrease in volume being noted particularly in shallow water sites in winter. A decrease in the volume of bath-sponge explants during cooler seasons in the Gulf of Mexico was also noted by Storr (1964). ...
... This striking variability in growth rates of individual explants has also been observed for other bath-sponge species (Storr 1964;Stevely et al. 1978;Verdenal & Vacelet 1995;Kelly-Borges 1996), even when explants are derived from the same donor sponge and cultured under identical conditions (Kelly-Borges 1996). Moreover, variability of growth rates does not appear to be correlated with any particular parameters considered in these previous studies, including depth, degree of illumination, or the amount of pollutants in the locality. ...
A submarine lantern system was trailed in the aquaculture of explants of the endemic New Zealand bath‐sponge Spongia (Heterofibria) manipulatus (Demospongiae: Dictyoceratida: Spongiidae) at four New Zealand sites, two in the Marlborough Sounds and two off Coromandel Peninsula. The main objectives were to compare growth rates of explants at different sites, compare these with those of control sponges, and to assess the utility of these lanterns for the culture of this species. After a period of 13 months, sponges at exposed Bonne Point in the Marlborough Sounds were on average 73% larger in estimated volume than at the start of the experiments. Growth rates of explants at exposed Port Charles, Coromandel, showed no significant change over the study period, although positive growth over spring 2003 was evident. Sponge explants at sheltered Wairangi Inlet and Kennedy Bay, in the Marlborough Sounds and Coromandel, respectively, did poorly, with most explants regressing in size and becoming moribund. Growth rates varied considerably between individuals at each location. Implications of the growth rate characteristics of S. (H.) manipulatus, and the design and construction of the aquaculture lantern, for the future commercial production of this species are discussed.
... Various microbial organisms including symbiotic cyanobacteria [132], Bacillus spp., and Pseudomonas spp. [133], as well as filamentous fungi [134,135] have been suggested to cause disease outbreaks in sponges, while the role of viruses has hardly been explored until now. Isolating and identifying specific etiological agents has not been successful so far, the only exception being the pathogenic Pseudoalteromonas agarivorans strain NW4327 from unhealthy Great Barrier Reef sponges (Rhopaloides odorabile) [136,137]. ...
Sponges—like all multicellular organisms—are holobionts, complex ecosystems comprising the host and its microbiota. The symbiosis of sponges with their microbial communities is a highly complex system, requiring interaction mechanisms and adaptation on both sides. The microbiome seems to rely on eukaryotic-like protein domains, such as ankyrins, modifications of the lipopolysaccharide structure, CRISPR-Cas, toxin-antitoxin, and restriction-modification systems, as well as secondary metabolism to communicate with the host and within the microbial community, evade phagocytosis, and defend itself against foreign DNA. Secondary metabolites produced by certain symbionts may even defend the entire holobiont against predators. On the other hand, the immune system of the sponge itself has evolved to discriminate not only between self and nonself but also between its associated microbiota and foreign microbes, such as food bacteria. Sponge holobionts are inextricably dependent on the surrounding environmental conditions due to their sessile nature. Thus, we discuss the link between environmental stress and sponge disease and dysbiosis, with a particular focus on the holobiont’s response to ongoing global change. While some species may be the “winners of climate change,” other species are adversely affected, e.g., by metabolic and immune suppression, as well as microbiome shifts resulting in loss of symbiotic functions. Hence, a much better understanding of sponge holobionts and the underlying molecular mechanisms of host-microbe interaction is required before the fate of sponge holobionts in a changing ocean can finally be validated.
... Solar radiation, illumination and temperature are factors that regulate sponge distribution, colonisation and success in their natural reproductive processes. Although they can withstand extreme temperature (10-36°C) values in short periods, the optimum values for their sexual proliferation is from 23 to 29°C [27,28]. In Cuba the southern sponge zones of the Gulf of Batabanó showed water temperature average of 28.03°C, while in the northern zone of Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, average temperature was 27.33°C in Sabana and 28.32°C in Camagüey [29]. ...
Sponges are very primitive multicellular organisms that belong to phylum Porifera; they are sessile and live attached to different types of hard and soft substrates. Sponges have different shapes and colours and very varied sizes, from a few millimetres to more than 2 m in height. They inhabit mainly in the marine environment at different depths. This chapter describes the general biological characteristics of sponges, their properties, uses and applications. Moreover, this study discusses a commercial fishery analysis of this natural resource in Cuba during the period 1970-2017, as well as the different characteristics of their natural populations subjected to commercial extraction. The applied techniques for aquaculture, harvest and postharvest processing are reviewed, including those procedures adapted from other countries or locally developed by Cuban fishermen. Finally, this study examines the challenges and perspectives of this productive activity with a long-term eco-sustainable approach.
... The first attempts to farm sponges date back to the 19th century, presumably as a consequence of periodical depletion of "bath-sponge" stocks [1,2], or-in more recent times-in pursuit of a safer and economically more attractive alternative to wild collection [3,4]. Overfishing and repeated outbreaks of mass mortality events halted the ancient tradition of Mediterranean fishing of commercially important "bath sponge" species, such as Spongia officinalis (Linnaeus) and Hippospongia communis (Lamarck) [3][4][5][6]. ...
In this study, novel methods were tested to culture the collagen-rich sponge Chondrosia reniformis Nardo, 1847 (Demospongiae, Chondrosiida, Chondrosiidae) in the proximity of floating fish cages. In a trial series, survival and growth of cultured explants were monitored near a polluted fish farm and a pristine control site. Attachment methods, plate materials, and plate orientation were compared. In a first trial, chicken wire-covered polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was found to be the most suitable substrate for C. reniformis (100% survival). During a second trial, survival on chicken wire-covered PVC, after six months, was 79% and 63% for polluted and pristine environments, respectively. Net growth was obtained only on culture plates that were oriented away from direct sunlight (39% increase in six months), whereas sponges decreased in size when sun-exposed. Chicken wire caused pressure on explants and it resulted in unwanted epibiont growth and was therefore considered to be unsuitable for long-term culture. In a final trial, sponges were glued to PVC plates and cultured for 13 months oriented away from direct sunlight. Both survival and growth were higher at the polluted site (86% survival and 170% growth) than at the pristine site (39% survival and 79% growth). These results represent a first successful step towards production of sponge collagen in integrated aquacultures.
... This nearly complete annihilation of sponge communities by HABs over such a large area (∼500km 2 ) is an unprecedented threat to Florida Bay's sponges and the organisms that rely on them. Even during the 1800s when the Florida Keys was home to a large commercial sponge fishery that harvested up to nine million sponges a year (Storr 1964;Stevely et al. 2008), the risk was less because <10% of the sponge species are of commercial value, so sponge fishing left most of the community intact. Today, only a small, artisanal sponge fishery persists in the Florida Keys. ...
The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) is intended to restore the Everglades ecosystem (FL, USA) by altering its hydrology, with likely consequences for “downstream” estuarine and marine communities in Florida Bay and the Florida Keys. Spiny lobsters (Panulirus argus) are among several species of special concern with respect to CERP because they are of economic and ecological importance and because their nursery habitat may be impacted. We used agent-based, spatially explicit modeling to evaluate the possible impacts of changing water quality (temperature, salinity, harmful algal blooms (HABs)) on spiny lobsters and sponges, the latter of which provide shelter for juvenile lobsters. In our simulations, lobster abundance declined 6–24% in scenarios where salinity either decreased alone or in combination with HABs that kill sponges and are associated with changing water quality. The most severe decline in lobsters occurred when salinity was lowest and HABs occurred annually. One third of this decline was attributable to decreased salinity that increased lobster mortality and movement. However, the greatest impacts on lobsters were indirect. CERP-associated changes in salinity along with HABs caused a die-off of large sponges, resulting in higher predatory mortality on lobsters that depend on sponges for shelter in hard bottom nursery habitats. Sponges declined by ∼50% in simulations with HABs, whereas decreased salinity alone led to sponge mortality of 9–18%. In contrast, higher temperatures increased juvenile lobster growth and eventual recruitment by approximately 7%. Our results suggest that returning Florida Bay to more estuarine, pre-development conditions is likely to result in an ecosystem reversal that is detrimental to stenohaline marine taxa, a scenario with significant socioeconomic implications.
... Seasonal differences in macro-invertebrate coverage were rare, but differences in algal coverage did occur. Sessile fauna generally grow slowly and can persist over many years (Moulding et al. 2011, Storr 1964 whereas algal growth can increase quickly in response to seasonal nutrient influx and die back when the nutrients are depleted (Cheney and Dyer 1974). It was unclear whether Page 396 67 th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute the differences in benthic flora and fauna influenced the patterns we observed in the fish communities, but further analysis may reveal linkages. ...
EXTENDED ABSTRACT It is well known that nearshore reefs provide habitat for a diverse array of fishes and macro-invertebrates, but there are few studies that compare nearshore artificial and natural reefs and explore the temporal variations in their communities. The primary objective of this study was to quantify seasonal patterns of fish and macro-invertebrate associations with several natural and artificial reef types in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. The study area off the coast of northwest Florida was divided into 4 blocks, each containing both natural and artificial reefs (Figure 1). Natural reefs were composed of two types: (1) exposed rocks covered with macro-invertebrates, " rocky reefs " , and (2) macro-invertebrates without exposed rock, " invertebrate only reefs ". Artificial reefs consisted of several types of materials: concrete debris, concrete culverts, reef-balls, concrete beams, and a steel-hull shipwreck (Table 1). The exact position of reef types was determined by mapping a 1-km x 1-km area around known reef structures (Figure 1) using a Humminbird side-imaging sonar system and methodology described in Kingon (2013). Within each block, five sampling stations were randomly selected from the maps to represent each of the three reef types. Thus, there were 15 sampling stations per block, except in blocks 2 and 4 where additional stations were added to include the different artificial reef structures present (Table 1). Stations were surveyed seasonally using Submersible Rotating Video systems (SRVs, Koenig and Stallings 2015) to assess fish diversity and abundance as well as habitat characteristics. Coverage of sessile macro-invertebrates and algae was quantified seasonally from down-looking quadrat photos taken along three random 30-m transects within each reef type of each block. The study was run for two years, from summer 2012 to summer 2014.
... Other records suggested to belong to D. reticulatum by the latter authors, vis. Pseudaxinella sp. by Pearse & Williams (1951) and Axinella sp. by Storr (1964), need to be revised. Moreover, records from Brazil compiled by Muricy et al. (2011) require to be revised to find out if the two species are also there. ...
Although there is a long history of taxonomic investigation in Caribbean sponges, there are still many undescribed species. Furthermore, field observations and corroborating morphological analyses are revealing that what was believed to be sin-gle, somewhat variable species, may consist of two or more species, often easier to distinguish once well characterized. This is the case for Dragmacidon reticulatum (Ridley & Dendy, 1886) (Porifera, Demospongiae, Axinellida, Axinellidae), a rather well-known sponge, with an ample distribution and presence in rocky and reef environments of the tropical and subtropical Western Atlantic, with local records in the majority of the countries of the area, from Bermuda to Brazil. Field observations and a detailed review of material from different areas, including some type specimens, led us to the distinc-tion of two different species in terms of external morphology, size of spicules, and skeletal architecture. The distinction was confirmed in the Bahamas and Santa Marta, Colombia, where the two species coexist. One of the species is Drag-macidon reticulatum sensu stricto, but for the other there is need to erect a new name, for which we propose Dragmacidon alvarezae n. sp. The purpose of the present work is to describe, illustrate and compare these two species.
... If the tissues of the sponges were artificially inflicted, the regeneration process was activated at rates 50-100 times faster than the undisturbed growth rate of the species which depicts that growth and regeneration are entirely different cellular processes. The regeneration in the sponges Hippiospongia lachne and Spongia barbara involved formation of ectosome tissue without the formation of new biomass (Storr, 1964), which further supports our contention that regeneration and growth are different phenomenon. In a recent study on the sponge Halisarca caerulea, it was found that regeneration involves collagen production and migration of existing amoeboid cells to the mesohyl tracts of the damaged area rather than proliferation of mesohyl cells (Alexander et al., 2015). ...
Abstract
Availability of suitable substratum is often a limiting factor for sessile organisms. We studied growth and regeneration of golf ball sponge Cinachyrella cf. cavernosa with and without its aggressive neighbour, soft coral (Zoanthus sansibaricus) in rocky intertidal area of Anjuna (Goa), India to understand impact of spatial competition on these life-history processes. Specific growth rate of C. cf. cavernosa ranged from 3.38 ± 0.47 to 24.57 ± 1.99% year−1. A wound-healing experiment demonstrated 50–100 times faster regeneration, compared to their average growth rate. Both growth and regeneration decreased as sponge size increased. The sponges exhibited 36–69% higher growth and 30–76% faster regeneration rate in the absence of the competitor species, Z. sansibaricus. The protein synthesis ability (RNA to DNA ratio), which is an index for physiological activity was adversely affected by sponge size and competitor abundance. Results suggest that in a space-limited region, the presence of an aggressive neighbour acts as one of the crucial factors affecting the primary functions (such as growth and regeneration) of the sponge. This study also highlights the remarkable regenerative ability of the slow growing sponge C. cf. cavernosa which aids in maintaining its abundance under stressful conditions of rocky intertidal region.
... According to him a growth factor less than 2 is low, 2 is average, while 2-5 is good. Experiments conducted by Storr (1964) in the Gulf of Florida also suggested a growth factor of 2-3 and hence a sponge would require about 3 years to reach a legal size of 5" in diameter. ...
... Moore (1910a) considero salinidades de 27,5 ‰ como perjudiciales para las esponjas y salinidades por debajo de las 26 ‰ como letales. En las Bahamas (Storr, 1964), reportó que salinidades menores que las 32‰ eran nocivas para las esponjas. ...
... Bahamas. (Storr, 1964) De las cuatro áreas muestreadas en la región del Golfo de Batabanó, se pudo observar que las de mayor abundancia fueron Cayo Juan Ruíz y Cayo Las Gordas (Tabla 1). No obstante, al realizar la prueba de ...
... Hippospongia lachne -is known locally as the sheepswool or wool sponge ( Figure 4F, Table 3). The softness and durability of the fiber skeleton, when prepared as a bath sponge, makes it by far the most valuable Caribbean commercial bath sponge (Storr 1964). Hippospongia lachne was eliminated at both sites by 1993. ...
... Numerous experiments have been conducted on wound regeneration in temperate and tropical sponges and corals (e.g. Storr, 1964;Bak et al., 1977;Jackson and Palumbi, 1979;Ayling, 1983;Hoppe, 1988), but since different sizes of wound have been inflicted in each study a true comparison of rates cannot be made. Complete filling in of 2 the wound in Rhabdocalyptus took up to 5 months for a wound 5 cm , a rate more than 40 times the rate of growth of new tissue. ...
It has been well established that sponges play an important role in benthic ecology as abundant, large, sessile filter-feeders. However, the ecology of one group, the Hexactinellida, whose electrophysiology and cell biology is quite distinct from other Porifera, has received little attention due to the inaccessibility of their preferred deep water habitat. Now, a three year study of a population of the hexactinellid sponge Rhabdocalyptus dawsoni (Lambee, 1892) has been carried out in the fjords of British Columbia, Canada. Rhabdocalyptus was found to have a patchy distribution in Saanich Inlet, British Columbia, with local abundance reaching 5.3 individuals m-2. The mean length of the tube-like sponges in the inlet was 32 cm (an equivalent of 5.8 1 volume) although sponges could reach 87 cm in length (36 1 volume). The average growth rate of sponges measured over the course of 3 years was 1.98 cm year-1 (min. -0.76 cm year-1, max, 5.7 cm year-1) or 167 ml year-1 (min. - 537 ml year-1, max. 856 ml year-1). The rate of tissue regeneration after artificial wounding in the field was 0.05±0.03 cm2 day-1, some 40 times the rate of growth. No recruitment was observed during the study, but mortality of large individuals was seen. Using the calculated growth rate (average rate of increase in volume), the age of an average-sized sponge was estimated to be 35 years. With the assumption that growth rate is constant, large individuals (1 m in length) were estimated to be 220 years old. All sponges showed seasonal trends in sloughing of the debris-covered outer spicules during winter months (November to February). Increase in outer spicule coat occurred from March to October and sloughing corresponded to the end of seasonal phytoplankton blooms in October or November. These data suggest that hexactinellid sponges have life history strategies and growth rates similar to those of massive tropical and temperate demosponges and that, despite their deep water habitat, they experience seasonality which influences their growth rates and perhaps reproductive period.
... When such sponges are transferred back to 30 ppt salinity, some redevelop a normal active appearance, but others exhibit only partial recovery (only part of the original explant develops into a functional sponge) or become moribund. Evidently, a salinity of 45 ppt is near Z *st There have been few other studies of uppe Storr (1964) found that commercial sponges as high as 46 ppt. Gemmules of Haliclona lo ppt salinity at 20?C for 15 days, but gemmule under these conditions. ...
Explants of Microciona prolifera maintained in long-term laboratory culture survived exposure to salinities as high as 44-45 ppt for up to 10 days when they were transferred from a salinity of 30 ppt to elevated salinities and back on a schedule that changed the salinity 5 ppt every three days. As the salinity was raised above 35 ppt, the pumping of water by the sponges was progressively reduced, and at 44-45 ppt, the sponges underwent reversible tissue regression. During this process oscula, canals, subdermal spaces, and choanocyte chambers disappeared. Sponges kept at 45 ppt for 16 days or at 48.5 ppt for 10 days did not survive.
... We do not know how the sponges are killed. Previous instances of mass sponge mortalities in central Florida, the Bahamas, and the Mediterranean were attributed to a variety of infections (Lauchner 1980, Peters 1993, usually activated by deleterious environmental conditions such a s low salinity, abnormal temperature, organic pollution, or heavy sedimentation (Storr 1964, Hummel et al. 1988, Vincente 1989, Vacelet et al. 1994. No previous reports of sponge mass mortality were associated with blooms of planktonic cyanobacteria. ...
Florida Bay, the shallow lagoon separating mainland Florida and the Florida Keys, USA, is experiencing an unprecedented series of ecological disturbances. In 1991, following reports of other ecosystem perturbations, we observed widespread and persistent blooms of cyanobacteria that coincided with the decimation of sponge communities over hundreds of square kilometers. Juvenile Caribbean spiny lobsters Panulirus argus, among other animals, rely on sponges for shelter; the impact of sponge loss on the abundance of lobsters and their use of shelter, in particular, has been dramatic. The loss of sponges on 27 experimental sites in hard bottom habitat in central Florida Bay resulted in the redistribution of juvenile lobsters among the remaining shelters, an influx of lobsters into sites where artificial shelters were present, and a decline in lobster abundances on sites without artificial shelters. Diver surveys of sponge damage at additional sites in central Florida Bay confirmed that the sponge die-off was widespread and its occurrence coincided with areas that had been exposed to the cyanobacteria bloom. This cascade of disturbances has dramatically altered the community structure of affected hard bottom areas and demonstrates the coupled dynamics of this shallow marine ecosystem.
... Verongula rigida (Esper, 1794) Verongula ardis; WIEDENMAYER, 1977: 77. Curasao, Bonaire, Antigua (CARTER, 1882, as Aplysina aerophoba in part), Florida (DE LAUBENFELS, 1953;STORR, 1964), Gulf of Mexico (LITTLE, 1963), Jamaica (HECHTEL, 1965), Bahamas (WIEDENMAYER, 1977 General diagnosis: (Fig. 24, PI. XIV 1) ...
... This report provides diagnostic characters of the genera , descriptions of the species with their synonyms , and a key to those species represented in the studied region . Class DEMOSPONGIAE Sollas , 1885 Family AXINELLIDAE Ridley and Dendy , 1887 ( sensu Levi , 1973 ) Axinella Schmidt , 1862 Axinella Schmidt , 1862 : 60 [ type species : Axinella polypoides Schmidt , 1862 , by subsequent designation ( de Laubenfels , 1936 : 130 ) ; BMNH 1867 : 7 : 26 : 81 ] . —Gray , 1867 : 513 . ...
... massive peaks of release occurs only once or twice a year (e.g., Bergquist and Sinclair 1973; Koolwijk 1982; Zea 1993). The maximum asynchrony at larval release is found in some tropical and subtropical sponges, which may incubate variable amounts of embryos at any time during the year (e.g., Storr 1964; Bergquist 1978; Kaye and Reiswig 1991; Ilan and Loya 1990; Meroz and Ilan 1995). The duration of the reproductive period may be determined by not only species-specific genetic factors, but also by environmental factors such seawater temperature. ...
The present work summarizes the progress attained in the study of sponge larval ecology since the state-ofthe-
art reviews performed in the 1970s and stresses the major weaknesses in our current understanding. Most available
information on this subject comes from laboratory studies, with just occasional field observations or experiments. The
data are also strongly biased because they are mostly derived from just one larval type out the eight types known in
the phylum Porifera. Descriptive studies on larval histology are relatively abundant, but investigations directed at unravelling
the cytological basis of the main larval behaviors are scarce. Most aspects of basic larval metabolism and sensing
processes remain largely not investigated. Modelling of larval ecology is virtually lacking, with no serious attempt
to investigate how the major features of larval ecology affect the structure and dynamics of sponge populations. In
summary, the ecology of the sponge larva needs further research attention if we are to achieve a global understanding
of the biology of the phylum Porifera.
In the orders Dendroceratida, Verongida and Dictyoceratida, the characteristic for most Demospongiae siliceous skeleton is replaced by proteinaceous, fibrous like spongin skeleton. These spongin fibers can be anastomosed in order to create a network which provides support for skeleton of the sponge’s cell tissues. This network represents sets of diverse unconnected, mostly dendritic three dimensional structures. From chemical point of view, spongin remains to be an enigmatic proteinaceous biomaterial than contains halogenated residues and cannot be sequences till now. Consequently it was defined previously as pseudoceratin, euceratin, horny or sclerotized protein, iodospongin, silk-, or gelatin-like protein, etc. State-of the art concerning diversity, biological functions, and material features of spongin are described and discussed in this chapter.
Sponges are complex holobionts in which the structure of the microbiome has seldom been characterized above the host species level. The hypothesis tested in this study is that the structure of the sponge microbiomes is specific to the host at the order and family levels. This was done by using 33 sponge species belonging to 19 families representing five orders. A combination of three primer sets covering the V1-V8 regions of the 16S rRNA gene provided a more comprehensive coverage of the microbiomes. Both the diversity and structure of sponge microbiomes were demonstrated to be highly specific to the host phylogeny at the order and family levels. There are always dominant operational taxonomic units (OTUs) (relative abundance >1%) shared between microbial communities of sponges within the same family or order, but these shared OTUs showed high levels of dissimilarity between different sponge families and orders. The unique OTUs for a particular sponge family or order could be regarded as their 'signature identity'. 70%-87% of these unique OTUs (class level) are unaffiliated and represent a vast resource of untapped microbiota. This study contributes to a deeper understanding on the concept of host-specificity of sponge microbiomes and highlights a hidden reservoir of sponge-associated microbial resources.
Sponges (phylum Porifera), sessile invertebrates, are the oldest multicellular animals that play an important role in evolutionary study. Thanks to their efficient filter-feeding capabilities, sponges have important ecological and biotechnological functions in nutrient cycles within marine ecosystems. Sponges permanently host remarkable microbial taxa with high diversity and complex structure. The associated microbes have been proved to highly contribute to the host growth and metabolite production, chemical defence, and susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stressors. This chapter will provide a systematic review on the variations of sponge microbiomes in relation to environmental stressors, including physical, chemical, and biological factors; as well as on how the changes in microbial composition cause the host sponge to suffer diseases and the consequent variations of the associated microbial community during a disease outbreak.
Sponges (phylum Porifera), sessile invertebrates, are the oldest multicellular animals that play an important role in evolutionary study. Thanks to their efficient filter-feeding capabilities, sponges have important ecological and biotechnological functions in nutrient cycles within marine ecosystems. Sponges permanently host remarkable microbial taxa with high diversity and complex structure. The associated microbes have been proved to highly contribute to the host growth and metabolitesm production, chemical defence, and susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stressors. This chapter will provide offer a systematic review on the variations of sponge microbiomes in relation to environmental stressors, including physical, chemical, and biological factors;, as well as on how the changesd in microbial composition causes the host sponge to suffer diseases and the consequent variations of the associated microbial community during a disease outbreak.
Reports of sponge disease have increased in recent years, impacting a wide range of species from tropical, temperate and freshwater environments. In this chapter, we provide a current overview of reported sponge diseases, focusing particularly on the symptoms of disease, the microbial shifts that occur in affected sponges and the identification of putative pathogens. In addition, we explore the potential role of climate-driven dysbiosis in disease aetiology.
We include in this chapter species of plants and animals from a wide range of phyla that are cultured either as foods for aquacultural species, for bait to catch sportfish, for medical research or environmental assays, as ornamental species, for chemical (carrageen) production, or for miscellaneous market products (e.g., pearls, sponges). As mentioned in the Introduction to this book, some species are raised for more than one market: Summaries of such species are normally given in the discussion of their principal use, to which the reader is directed for additional information.
México has great biological diversity, but deforestation and climate change threatens its conservation. The loss of biodiversity has been inferred, quantifying deforestation of the principal vegetation types, relating that loss with the reduction in natural habitat. Nonetheless, this scope does not evaluate the impact of deforestation at species level. Climate change is causing changes in climatic regimes that are already impacting in different aspects of biodiversity, like alteration in geographic distributional ranges of species. In this chapter, we integrated habitat loss and climate change to evaluate the effect in the geographic distribution range of a selection of vertebrate species and species from the Opuntia genera in México. Ecological niche models were generated and then projected as distributional ranges. The actual distribution for each species was estimated according to the loss of vegetation types to which these species are associated, using a land use and vegetation map for México. Projections on two different climate change scenarios were done, using scenario A2 (severe or "pessimistic") and B2 (conservative or "non pessimistic") for 2020, 2050 and 2080 in order to anticipate its effect in the distribution of the species selected.
For successful aquaculture of sponges, with the aim of producing metabolites, a farming method is required that promotes sponge growth and survival, and produces high yields of target metabolites. To help develop a suitable farming method growth and survival were compared for two New Zealand sponges, Latnmciilia brevis (Ridley & Dendy) and Polymastia croceus (Kelly-Borges & Bergquist), experimentally grown in a variety of ways. Expiants were farmed in mesh, on rope, and with rope threaded through them. For both species of sponge, survival was greatest for expiants farmed in mesh, probably because this produces little tissue damage and prevents expiants from dislodging and 'escaping'. This method also promoted highest growth of/, brevis, with some expiants doubling their weight in two months. The growth of P. croceus, however, was highest in expiants with rope threaded through them. Expiants of both sponges farmed on rope did not attach and had poor growth and survival. These findings are a major step forward in developing a method for farming sponges in temperate waters of New Zealand. D Porifera, aquaculture, farming method.
This chapter focuses on two general themes regarding the possible mingling of coral reef biotas across the Isthmus of Panama: (1) identification and study of potential colonizing species and (2) assessment (in isolation, but simulating natural systems as closely as possible) of the nature and intensity of the interactions of novel species. The study of these themes presents (1) an inventory of local coral reef biotas and (2) information on the life history tactics of diverse taxa relevant to colonization. Of particular interest are population growth characteristics, including egg and larval production and development (like frequency and intensity of reproduction, seasonal timing, and time spent in water column), the settling behavior of planktonic larvae and the morphological plasticity. Information obtained on species interactions, such as feeding ecology (like generalist versus specialist diets, switching behavior, and prey palatability), competition, symbiosis, parasites and disease organisms, inter alia, help identify potentially undesirable species. The identification of such forms could also serve as a point of focus for further analysis of the attributes of colonizing species.
The commercial sponge industry is a fascinating cultural heritage of several Mediterranean countries, where it continues to represent an important economic activity. Mediterranean bath sponges are of the highest quality and the commercial demand for them is still significant, however, sponges are suffering from environmental disturbances that seem to be occurring more frequently in recent decades. Here we present some general data about commercial sponges of the Mediterranean Sea, and examine probable consequences of both overfishing, which has been occurring for many centuries on most sponge beds, and the effects of climatic change, which appears to be responsible for increased disease outbreaks and mass mortality events. Together these disturbances may alter the species distribution. We also examine the potential future of sponge cultivation under these conditions. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. All rights are reserved by the Publisher.
A major obstacle to acceptance and use of sponge aquaculture as a viable method for production of biologically active metabolites is the lack of a farming technology suitable for commercial use. Using the New Zealand sponges Latrunculia sp. nov, Polymastia croceus and Raspailia agminata, all containing bioactive metabolites with biomedical potential, four general farming methods were examined: held on longline arrays sponge explants were farmed inside mesh support structures, rope threaded through explants and rope wrapped around explants. The fourth method additionally acted as a control procedure with sponge explants attached to substrate. Each general farming method was expanded to examine the effects of various mesh sizes and/or rope materials. Most methods were found to be unsuitable for commercial application because the farmed explants did not attach to the supporting substrate but instead grew away from it and were subsequently lost. The two methods that showed the most potential for large-scale sponge farming, in terms of good growth, survival and metabolite biosynthesis, were threaded polyvinyl alcohol rope and individual bags with large mesh size and thin strand diameter. These were developed into “rope” and “mesh” arrays that may be suitable for commercially farming sponges for metabolite production.
The nature of a number of fundamental processes occurring during reproduction in sponges still remains in doubt. Among the more significant of these are: the true status of sponges described as dioecious, namely whether some are actually successive hermaphrodites; the origin of oogonia, which have recently been claimed to be derived from choanocytes; the origin and mechanism of formation of large spermatogenic masses; the specific pathway leading to fertilization taken by sperm cells within the sponge tissue of viviparous species; the role played during larval metamorphosis by somatic cells which are incorporated into embryos; the cell lineage of choanocytes which form flagellated chambers during larval metamorphosis; the specific relationship of somatic growth and dormancy to gametogenesis; the role of budding and fragmentation in population maintenance; the role, if any, of gemmules in dispersion. It is considered mandatory that new techniques be developed in order to further elucidate these and other reproductive processes and to gather definitive data concerning them. The employment of only microscopic techniques is ultimately insufficient for investigating the dynamic relationships of reproductive processes.
The life cycle events in two fresh-water sponges, Spongilla lacustris and Tubella pennsylvanica, have been followed over a three-year period. This study has established that oogenesis, spermatogenesis, larva production, gemmule hatching, and gemmule formation are processes which occur at specific times of the year. The absence of intracellular algae in T. pennsylvanica may be directly related to the earlier (August) formation of gemmules in this species as compared to S. lacustris (gemmules form in October). Thick individuals of S. lacustris display a midsummer gemmulation period (July) which is related to their size and to other undetermined factors. All available data indicate that both of these sponges are dioecious. Gemmule hatching in both of these sponges occurs when water temperature is low (4-5 C); factors other than an increase in temperature serve to stimulate gemmule hatching. Groups of archeocytes, post-larval aggregates, occur in the mesenchyme of S. lacustris following larva production; their function has not been established.
Sexual reproductive cycles of a Florida, U.S.A., population of four Caribbean commercial sponge species, Hippospongia lachne, Spongia barbara, S. cheiris and S. graminea, were determined by analysis of tissue samples collected over a three-year period. Spermatogenesis in these species was studied using light and transmission electron microscopy. The production of male gametes occurs in cysts within the endosomal tissue of mature specimens. Reproductive elements within an individual cyst develop synchronously while development between cysts is asynchronous. All available evidence suggests that these species are dioecious. Spermatogonia differentiate directly from choanocytes in situ. All cells of the chamber lose their collars and flagella and undergo mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes, each possessing a single flagellum. The ratio of nucleus to cell diameter in these cells is almost double that of choanocytes. Circumstantial evidence suggests that primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis to produce four spermatids, but confirmational chromatid linkage figures are still lacking. The mature spermatozoa lack both intermediate segments and acrosomes. Male gametes displayed a bright yellow-white autofluorescence when excited with blue light (460–485 nm).
The siliceous skeleton that characterizes most sponges in the class Demospongiae is replaced by a skeleton of spongin fibers
in a group of sponges that comprises the order Verongida, Dictyoceratida, and Dendroceratida. To provide skeletal support
to the bulk of sponge cell tissue, spongin fibers may be either anastomosed to form a network of organized as sets of diversily
dendritic, unconnected structures. The history of spongin’s discovery as well as its chemical definition is very similar to
those of gorgonin and antipathin described in this book. Therefore, it is not surprising to know that spongin was defined
previously as silk, pseudokeratin, eukeratin, gelatinous matter, horny protein, iodospongin, sclerotized collagen, etc. Biological
functions, diversity, and material properties of spongin are described and discussed. Studies on chemistry, biochemistry,
and the material properties of spongin-based skeletal formations in sponges are in trend now; in particular due to the poorly
understood basis of sponge diseases and perspectives of direct applications of sponge skeletons in tissue engineering.
Lack of evidence that sponge aquaculture can produce sustainable supply of target metabolite for industrial or pharmaceutical use is constraining commercial development. Experiments to determine aquaculture feasibility examined the influence of environmental factors and explant characteristics on the growth and survivorship of three morphologically distinct sponge species — Psammocinia hawere, a massive cup-shape fibrous sponge, Raspailia agminata, a thickly encrusting siliceous sponge and Raspailia topsenti, a branching digitate siliceous sponge. A variety of expiant types were cultured at different exposures, depths and seasons. P. hawere expiants transplanted to deeper water in winter demonstrated highest growth and survivorship. This was attributed to a relatively lower intensity of UV radiation and cooler water temperatures which promoted fast pinacoderm healing. Growth and survivorship increased with increasing explant size and with proportion of intact pinacoderm. R. agminata explants demonstrated the highest growth rates, perhaps a function of the encrusting and flexible morphology. Highest growth and survivorship were obtained in sheltered locations. Within each species, ratio of body size to wound size and overall size of the wounds inflicted, would greatly influence survival, but with respect to temperate rocky reef sponges, this study suggests that encrusting and amorphous sponges have the greatest potential for success in aquaculture.
Annual changes in the structure, cell types, and reproductive elements of the marine sponge Microciona prolifera have been investigated in intertidal colonies in Long Island Sound. During the winter months flagellated chambers, subdermal spaces, canals, dermal membrane, fiber cells, endopinacocytes, choanocytes, and active growth areas are absent. The onset of overwintering is associated with a drop in water temperature to and below 10 °C. The overwintering tissue becomes re-organized and fully functional in the spring when water temperatures are rising above 10 °C. During the spring re-organization the choanocytes, fiber cells and endopinacocytes arise anew. Experimental data have shown that a temperature of 10 °C inhibits growth while temperatures of 15, 20 and 25 °C are all equally conducive to growth. The production of eggs by nucleolate cells (= archeocytes) occurs simultaneously with tissue re-organization in the spring and is also associated with a rise in water temperature. Spermatozoa production does not begin until water temperatures are approximately 15 °C. Larval production is completely inhibited at 10 °C and is strongly retarded at 15 °C.The metamorphosis of larvae involves the activity of the larval flagellated cells and the nucleolate cells which produce, respectively, the flagellated chambers and epithelial linings during metamorphosis. Mature larvae contain the same major cell types as do adult colonies and thus appear not to be developmentally distinct from adult tissue.
Explants of the Indo-Pacific sponge Pseudosuberites aff. andrewsi were fed with the microalgae Chlorella sorokiniana and Rhodomonas sp. It was microscopically observed that these algae were ingested and digested by the sponge cells, suggesting that they were consumed by the sponges. The algae were further used for two growth experiments with five explants of P. aff. andrewsi and four explants of P. andrewsi. Growth was measured as the increase in projected body area. The explants showed considerable growth (up to 730% in 54 days for P. aff. andrewsi and up to 680% in 22 days for P. andrewsi), which is much higher than previously reported growth rates for sponges. Growth started after a stationary phase of 5–20 days in which the projected body area did not increase. The growth of P. aff. andrewsi appeared to be linear and was inhibited at the end of the experiment. Two explants of P. andrewsi showed exponential growth instead of linear growth. Hence, no general statements about the growth kinetics of these sponges can be made at this time. However, the high growth rates found in this study suggest a promising future for cultivation of sponges in closed systems.
Investigations have been made to determine whether any simple, linear correlations exist between Red Tide outbreaks and various ambient phenomena. Outbreaks are compared with rainfall, tropical disturbances, and river runoff. A pattern of cyclic recurrence of outbreaks is presented. An attempt is made to show the path of individual outbreaks.
The Gulf of Mexico sponge investigation. State of Florida Board of Conservation
- Charles E Dawson
- F G Walton Smith
DAWSON, CHARLES E., and F. G. WALTON
SMITH.
1953. The Gulf of Mexico sponge investigation. State of Florida Board of Conservation, Technical Series No. 1, 28 p.
A discussion of the sponge fauna of the Dry Tortugas in particular and the West Indies in general, with material for a revision of the families and orders of the Porifera
- M W De Laubenfels
DE LAUBENFELS, M. W.
1936. A discussion of the sponge fauna of
the Dry Tortugas in particular and the
West Indies in general, with material
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1953. Sponges from the Gulf of Mexico.
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Wasting disease causing mortality of sponges in the West Indies and Gulf of Mexico
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