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Chromosome Number and Meiotic Behavior of Cultivated Chia, Salvia hispanica (Lamiaceae)
Abstract
Edible chia seeds, purchased from the local markets in Guatemala, Mexico, and southern California, were used for species identification, chromosome counts, karyotype construction, and meiotic analyses. Plants raised from those seeds had ovate leaves, dense racemose inflorescences, pale-blue flowers, and were identified from her-barium specimens as Salvia hispanica L. Mitotic analyses of root tips from 50 plants showed 2n = 12—the lowest chromosome number in the genus. Chromosomes were small, ranging from 2 to 3.5 pm . One pair of chromosomes was metacentric (with the long arm : short arm ratio, r = 1.5), four pairs were submetacentric (r = 2.6 to 3.6), and one pair was telocentric (r = 12). Meiosis was regular and six bivalents were observed at metaphase I. Ring and rod bivalents averaged 1.53 ± 1.05 and 4.47 ± 1.05, respectively; Chia is the common name for any of sev-eral species of Salvia found in Guatemala, Mexico, and the southwestern United States that produce edible oil seeds. Species iden-tified as chia include S. hispanica, S. col-umbariae Benth., S. carduaceae L., S . tiliifolia Vahl., S. polystachya Ort, and S. lanceofolia Poir. Chia was one of the major crops of the Aztec Empire, and in colonial Mexico, it was considered an important oilseed crop (Ortiz de Montellano, 1978; Sanders, 1971).
... In this study, we assembled a high-quality chia genome using accurate consensus long reads (PacBio HiFi reads) and genomewide chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C). The chia genome is known to have 6 chromosomes (2n = 12) (Estilai et al., 1990), which in our study are composed of 21 main contigs, with telomere repeats at 8 ends of the chromosomes. Utilizing this highly accurate and complete genome, we annotated transposable elements and protein-coding genes in the chia genome. ...
... Orthofinder (version 2.5.4) (Emms and Kelly, 2019) was used for the construction of orthologous groups. The STAG algorithm (Emms and Kelly, 2018) implemented in Orthofinder was used to estimate the species tree. ...
Chia is an annual crop whose seeds have the highest content of α-linolenic acid (ALA) of any plant known to date. We generated a high-quality assembly of the chia genome using circular consensus sequencing (CCS) of PacBio. The assembled six chromosomes are composed of 21 contigs and have a total length of 361.7 Mb. Genome annotation revealed a 53.5% repeat content and 35,850 protein-coding genes. Chia shared a common ancestor with Salvia splendens ~6.1 million years ago. Utilizing the reference genome and two transcriptome datasets, we identified candidate fatty acid desaturases responsible for ALA biosynthesis during chia seed development. Because the seed of S. splendens contains significantly lower proportion of ALA but similar total contents of unsaturated fatty acids, we suggest that strong expression of two ShFAD3 genes are critical for the high ALA content of chia seeds. This genome assembly will serve as a valuable resource for breeding, comparative genomics, and functional genomics studies of chia.
... In the family Lamiaceae, chia (Salvia hispanica, 2n = 12) and perilla (Perilla frutescens, 2n = 40), which are annual herbaceous plants, are 2 rich sources of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Chia is native to Mexico and parts of South America, and perilla originated in Asia [1][2][3][4]. Chia and perilla seeds contain 25~40% oil, and ɑ-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3 Δ9, 12,15 ) proportion in their seed oil is the highest among crop sources (about 60~71%) [5][6][7]. ALA is known as an essential fatty acid (FA) for the human daily diet because ALA cannot be synthesized in the human body due to the absence of the ω-3 FAD gene [8]. ...
... Until now, no completed genome data from chia and perilla could be used as an important reference. Though traditional literatures report that chia is a diploid/amphiploid while perilla is an amphidiploid [1,3], the intersister identities within each of PfFAD3a/b, PfFAD7a/b, and PfFAD8a/b pairs are as high as that of ShFAD7a/b pair. This result is likely that these 4 pairs are 4 heterozygous allelic pairs other than 8 independent genes, and perilla might be originated from amphidiploidization between 2 subspecies or 2 closely related species. ...
Omega-3 fatty acid desaturase (ω-3 FAD, D15D) is a key enzyme for α-linolenic acid (ALA) biosynthesis. Both chia (Salvia hispanica) and perilla (Perilla frutescens) contain high levels of ALA in seeds. In this study, the ω-3 FAD gene family was systematically and comparatively cloned from chia and perilla. Perilla FAD3, FAD7, FAD8 and chia FAD7 are encoded by single-copy (but heterozygous) genes, while chia FAD3 is encoded by 2 distinct genes. Only 1 chia FAD8 sequence was isolated. In these genes, there are 1 to 6 transcription start sites, 1 to 8 poly(A) tailing sites, and 7 introns. The 5’UTRs of PfFAD8a/b contain 1 to 2 purine-stretches and 2 pyrimidine-stretches. An alternative splice variant of ShFAD7a/b comprises a 5’UTR intron. Their encoded proteins harbor an FA_desaturase conserved domain together with 4 trans-membrane helices and 3 histidine boxes. Phylogenetic analysis validated their identity of dicot microsomal or plastidial ω-3 FAD proteins, and revealed some important evolutionary features of plant ω-3 FAD genes such as convergent evolution across different phylums, single-copy status in algae, and duplication events in certain taxa. The qRT-PCR assay showed that the ω-3 FAD genes of two species were expressed at different levels in various organs, and they also responded to multiple stress treatments. The functionality of the ShFAD3 and PfFAD3 enzymes was confirmed by yeast expression. The systemic molecular and functional features of the ω-3 FAD gene family from chia and perilla revealed in this study will facilitate their use in future studies on genetic improvement of ALA traits in oilseed crops.
... The number of chromosomes described for Salvia hispanica is 2n ¼ 2x ¼ 12 (Estilai and Hashemi, 1990), but the genome size (Cvalue) is unknown. However in previous investigations carried out in other species of the genus, has been suggested that the mean of C value is 0.62 pg (Bennett and Leitch, 2011). ...
... To start to understand this plant at the genetic and molecular level we decide to characterize the genome content as well as genetic relationship among some provenances to unveil how close or different they are. The chromosome number 2n ¼ 2x ¼ 12 found for Salvia hispanica provenances coincides with the number reported by Estilai and Hashemi (1990). However, these authors did not provide a quantitative description of the karyotype. ...
Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is a native plant to southern Mexico and northern Guatemala although in these days also is cultivated in others South American countries such as Bolivia and Argentina. This study describes a genetic, cytological and molecular characterization of nine provenances of Salvia hispanica. The genome size was estimated to be C = 0.84 pg of DNA. Also a quantitative description of the karyotype is presented. The karyo-idiogram analysis shows that pairs 5 and 6 of the chromosomes are in the limit between submetacentric and subtelocentric types. When the nine provenances were studied using ISSR markers we were able to observe a very low genetic variability for the ISSR loci analysed (h = 0.08–0.15; I = 0.10–0.23; P = 9.3–23.5%). Selfing and reduced genetic background produced by genetic drift and human selection, might explain in part the scarce genetic differentiation found among provenances.
... Caribbean (Epling 1940; Jansen et al. 1991; Perry and Metzger 1980 ). At higher latitudes such as Choele- Choele (39°11 0 S) Argentina and Tucson (32°14 0 N), Arizona, USA, the plant cannot produce seeds since it is killed by frost before flowers set (Ayerza and Coates 2005). ...
... Further studies are needed on the genetic control of flowering in chia and the genetic basis of the long-day flowering lines reported here. Chia is a diploid with only 12 chromosomes (n = 6) which will facilitate rapid genetic improvement of this new crop (Estilai et al. 1990). ...
Chia, Salvia hispanica L., was well developed into a cultivated crop and an important component of Mesoamerican cultures and nutrition. Early Mesoamerican
breeders produced lines with well developed agronomic characteristics including good, uniform seed yield and retention. Seed
retention in particular is disadvantageous for survival in the wild. Maize, beans and squash were developed into important
crops concomitant with chia in Mesoamerica but unlike these other crops lack of photoperiodic variability in floral induction
limited the spread of chia cultivation into North America. There has been renewed interest in chia as an excellent source
of ω3 fatty acids and dietary fiber for healthy diets. Such highly unsaturated oils also are useful starting materials for
many renewable chemicals. Further we find chia grows very well in Midwestern and Eastern USA but flowers too late in the season
for seeds to mature before killing frosts. We set out to develop the genetic diversity in floral induction to provide germplasm
for production in the US and other temperate areas of the world. We demonstrate that new early flowering lines are able to
flower under a photoperiod of 15 h under greenhouse conditions. In field conditions, some selected new lines flowered at a
photoperiod of 14 h and 41 min during the 2009 growing season in Kentucky and can produce seeds in a range of environments
in temperate areas.
... Early research determined chia's somatic chromosome number and DNA content (2n = 2x = 12, C-value = 0.93 ± 0.016 pg, genome size = ∼460 Mb) (Estilai et al., 1990;Haque, 1980;Maynard & Ruter, 2022). In recent years, several studies have provided multi-tissue transcriptomes for S. hispanica in order to identify genes involved in secondary metabolite and oil biosynthesis (Gupta et al., 2021;Peláez et al., 2019;Sreedhar et al., 2015;Wimberley et al., 2020). ...
Salvia hispanica L. (chia) is a source of abundant ω‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω‐3‐PUFAs) that are highly beneficial to human health. The genomic basis for this accrued ω‐3‐PUFA content in this emerging crop was investigated through the assembly and comparative analysis of a chromosome‐level reference genome for S. hispanica. The highly contiguous 321.5‐Mbp genome assembly covering all six chromosomes enabled the identification of 32,922 protein‐coding genes. Two whole‐genome duplications (WGD) events were identified in the S. hispanica lineage. However, these WGD events could not be linked to the high α‐linolenic acid (ALA, ω‐3) accumulation in S. hispanica seeds based on phylogenomics. Instead, our analysis supports the hypothesis that evolutionary expansion through tandem duplications of specific lipid gene families, particularly the stearoyl‐acyl carrier protein desaturase (ShSAD) gene family, is the main driver of the abundance of ω‐3‐PUFAs in S. hispanica seeds. The insights gained from the genomic analysis of S. hispanica will help establish a molecular breeding target that can be leveraged through genome editing techniques to increase ω‐3 content in oil crops.
... The availability of closely related sequenced genomes aids in understanding the conserved regions among the members of the same taxonomic clade and the accessory genetic content and sequence variations associated with important agronomic and evolutionary traits. Here we report a chromosome-scale genome assembly of chia (dicotyledonous, diploid plant 2n=2x=12 with six pairs of chromosomes (Estilai et al., 1990;Ranjbar et al., 2015)) by integrating Illumina and Dovetail's Hi-C and Hi-Rise technologies. This assembled chia genome is~303.6 ...
Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is one of the most popular nutrition-rich foods and pseudocereal crops of the family Lamiaceae. Chia seeds are a rich source of proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), dietary fibers, and antioxidants. In this study, we present the assembly of the chia reference genome, which spans 303.6 Mb and encodes 48,090 annotated protein-coding genes. Our analysis revealed that ~42% of the chia genome harbors repetitive content, and identified ~3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and 15,380 simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker sites. By investigating the chia transcriptome, we discovered that ~44% of the genes undergo alternative splicing with a higher frequency of intron retention events. Additionally, we identified chia genes associated with important nutrient content and quality traits, such as the biosynthesis of PUFAs and seed mucilage fiber (dietary fiber) polysaccharides. Notably, this is the first report of in-silico annotation of a plant genome for protein-derived small bioactive peptides (biopeptides) associated with improving human health. To facilitate further research and translational applications of this valuable orphan crop, we have developed the Salvia genomics database (SalviaGDB), accessible at https://salviagdb.org.
... Representatives of the genus are herbaceous, annual and perennial plants, distributed mainly in the Iranian-Turanian and Mediterranean phytogeographical region (Hedge, 1992). Some of them have medicinal properties and are used as spices, and others are grown as ornamental plants (Meyre-Silva & Cechinel-Filho, 2010;Estilai & Hatemi, 1990;Büyükkartal et al., 2016). The genus Marrubium is represented with the greatest diversity in Turkey (Akgül & Ketenoğlu, 2014), where 21 taxa are found, 12 of which are endemic (Cullen, 1982;Ekim et al., 2000;Aytaç et al., 2012). ...
The present study presents data on the anatomical characteristics of the leaf and stem in Marrubium friwaldskyanum and Marrubium peregrinum. The leaves in both species are amphistomatic with diacytic and anomocytic stomata. The leaf lamina shows differentiation of palisade and spongy tissue, and collateral vascular bundles. Non-glandular and glandular trichomes have been found on the epidermis of the leaves and stem. The non-glandular trichomes are unicellular linear and multicellular branched. Glandular trichomes are peltate, with a single-celled or two-celled structure. There is a difference between the two species in terms of the width of the epidermal cells of the stem, the thickness of the cortex, the thickness of the xylem and the phloem in the stem. The established differences in the anatomical features can be useful in future taxonomic studies within the genus Marrubium.
... For example, S. macrophylla 'Purple Leaf' (2n = 2x = 18) had a genome size of 0.93 ± 0.008 pg (Bolkhovskikh, 1969). In comparison, S. hispanica (2n = 2x = 12) had the same genome size (0.93 ± 0.016 pg) despite having a different base chromosome number (Estilai et al., 1990). Contrary to these findings, flow cytometry has been used to estimate chromosome number within the species Lychnis senno and among species in the genera Scrophularia, Verbascum, and Veronica (Castro et al., 2012;Hoshino et al., 2019). ...
Salvia is a genetically diverse genus in the Lamiaceae family, with hundreds of species distributed globally. With base chromosome numbers ranging from 6 to 19 and ploidy levels ranging from diploid to octoploid, the genus has been proposed to be subdivided based on molecular data rather than morphology. However, little is known about total DNA content across the genus. The DNA content of 141 Salvia genotypes were analyzed using flow cytometry. Samples of Salvia were stained with propidium iodide and compared with the internal standards Pisum sativum ‘Ctirad’ and Solanum lycopersicum ‘Stupické’ to generate estimations of DNA content. Holoploid 2C genome sizes of the analyzed Salvia ranged from 0.63 pg to 6.12 pg. DNA content showed a wide distribution across chromosome number, ploidy, and clade. The wide distribution of DNA content across the genus further indicates the diversity of Salvia and may be useful for future breeding efforts.
... Chia (Salvia hispanica L., 2n = 12) that belongs to the Salvia genus in the Lamiaceae family is a strict short-day single-year plant (Estilai et al. 1990;Hildebrand et al. 2013;Win et al. 2018). It is a newly discovered plant resource rich in ALA and is originated in Mexico and South America (Munoz et al. 2013). ...
Plastidial Δ12 fatty acid desaturase (FAD6) is a key enzyme for linoleic acid (LA) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) biosynthesis. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is a revived omega-3 plant source that is richest in ALA level. In this study, based on the RACE method, one full-length cDNA sequence encoding FAD6, named ShFAD6, was isolated from chia. There exist three alternative transcription start sites and five alternative poly(A) tailing sites in ShFAD6. The 5′UTR of ShFAD6 contains a purine-stretch of 44 bp. ShFAD6 has an ORF of 1335 bp encoding a 444 aa protein of 51.33 kDa. ShFAD6 contains a conserved Delta12-FADS-like domain together with three strong trans-membrane helices and three histidine motifs. There also exists a chloroplast transmit peptide in ShFAD6 N-terminal. Phylogenetic analyses validated its identity of dicot FAD6 protein and suggested some critical evolutionary features of plant FAD6 genes. Heterologous yeast expression confirmed the catalytic activity of ShFAD6. The qRT-PCR assay showed that ShFAD6 is mainly expressed in leaves, stems, flowers, buds and early-stage seeds, and also responded to various stresses and hormone treatments. Under Sclerotinia infection, qRT-PCR and fluorescence imaging illustrated the possible correlation of ShFAD6 expression and photosynthesis. This study provides insight for further function study of ShFAD6 in oil quality improvement in staple oilseed crops as well as stress response and adaptation in plants.
... Estos resultados coinciden con los valores de ganancia y h 2 , reportados por Cahill y Edahie (2005) para esta variable (0.75 y 16% de h 2 y ganancia genética, respectivamente). De acuerdo con Cahill (2005), los cultivares de chía actuales se derivaron de especies silvestres en las que el hombre usó el peso de la semilla como uno de los criterios de selección principales; en ese tiempo no se conocían las leyes de la herencia, de ahí que alta h 2 que exhibe el P1000S, el mecanismo de polinización autógamo (Haque y Ghoshal, 1981) y el bajo número cromosómico (12 cromosomas) de la chía (Estilai et al., 1990) fueron clave para mejorar de manera muy práctica y sin mucha ciencia a la chía hasta llegar a los tamaños de semilla actuales (entre 1,200 y 1,400 mg 1000 semillas -1 ). En chía al igual que en otros cultivos no es recomendable realizar selección solo para RS, de ahí que para generar cultivares rendidores de forma efectiva es necesario utilizar parámetros indirectos que estén asociados con el RS. ...
Resumen
Actualmente, la chía (Salvia hispanica L.) es la fuente vegetal más importante de ácidos grasos poliinsaturados Omega-3 para la nutrición del hombre. Por esta razón, en los últimos años su producción mundial ha aumentado a un ritmo de 239% anual, y se estima que para 2020 sus ventas serán de 1.1 billones de dólares. La integración de la chía a la agricultura moderna está en marcha, y una causa de su bajo rendimiento de semilla (RS) es que no existen variedades mejoradas disponibles. Considerando este problema, desde el año 2009, Nutrilite-Amway implementó un proyecto de investigación para generar cultivares de alto RS, y después de siete años de trabajo de mejoramiento genético, el primer resultado es la variedad de chía Rehnborg. Este cultivar se obtuvo a través de dos ciclos de selección masal y cuatro ciclos de selección individual; se usó como fuente genética inicial la variedad Mexicana Pinta Acatic; y el color de la semilla, el peso de 1000 semillas y el RS fueron los criterios de selección. Entre 2016 y 2017 se condujeron varios ensayos de campo para evaluar el comportamiento agronómico de la variedad Rehnborg y el de tres variedades cultivadas por agricultores en México (Pinta Acatic, Negra Puebla and Blanca Acatic). En promedio, el RS de tres localidades con el cultivar Rehnborg fue 1,415 kg ha-1, este valor es 26, 17 y 11% mayor que el que presentaron las variedades Negra Puebla, Blanca Acatic, y Pinta Acatic (1,053, 1,175 y 1,254 kg ha-1, respectivamente). El alto RS de la variedad Rehnborg se asoció a que esta presenta mayor uniformidad en su madurez fisiológica y tiene semillas más pesadas que las variedades actualmente cultivadas. La patente de esta variedad fue obtenida el 22 de Julio de 2019, y hoy Nutrilite Amway posee el derecho obtentor de variedad.
... 37 The seeds of Salvia species form mucilages, due to their high content in polysaccharides, which swell in the presence of water and form a gel that is used to produce pleasant drinks and deserts. 38 Otherwise, in Eastern countries, these same mucilages are used to treat eye diseases. 39 In Algeria, herbalists recommend S. argentea leaves with different preparation methods for the treatment of respiratory tract diseases. ...
Salvia argentea of the family Lamiaceae, is a perennial plant, native to Mediterranean region, which spontaneously grows in Algerian highlands regions. The bioactive substances obtained from S. argentea have promising prospects and make it possible to propose different solutions, due to their great heterogeneity and bioactivity for such diverse applications. This article reviews the botanical characteristics, phytochemical composition and uses in traditional medicine of S. argentea. This study is a useful synthesis for further research and improvement of various properties of S. argentea secondary metabolites.
... • Lamiaceae familyası ekonomik yönden büyük öneme sahiptir. Sahip oldukları aromatik bileşikler ve temel yağlar sayesinde parfümeri, gıda sanayi gibi çeşitli alanlarda kullanılmaktadır [6,7]. ...
ESSE Herbaryumu, Anadolu Üniversitesi Eczacılık Fakültesi içinde yer alan ve özellikle Lamiaceae, Apiaceae ve Asteraceae gibi tıbbi önemi olan büyük familyalarca zengin bir kolleksiyona sahiptir. “Ballıbabagiller” olarak bilinen Lamiaceae familyası Türkiye Florasında 46 cins, 755 taksonla temsil edilirken, ESSE Herbaryumu’nda 45 cins ve 513 taksona ait örnekler ile Yerel Herbaryumlar içinde Lamiaceae üyeleri açısından en zengin herbaryumlardan birisidir. Familya içinde yer alan Salvia L., Satureja L., Sideritis L., Stachys L. ve Thymus L. gibi cinsler çok sayıda örnekler ile dikkat çekicidir.
... Experimental evidences suggest that most members of the Lamiaceae family possess a wide range of genoprotective and pharmacological activities that may lower the risk of human chronic diseases [3,4,5] . The genus Salvia is the largest genera of Lamiaceae, with nearly 1,000 species [6] , largely cultivated for ornamental, aromatic and culinary usage. Many species of Salvia possess antimutagenic activity [7,5,8] . ...
The antimutagenic activity of the methanol extract of
Salvia coccinea Buc’hoz ex Etl. ‘White’ occurring in South
India was investigated. The activity was assayed by
micronucleus test and chromosome aberration assay using
bone marrow cells of Swiss albino mice. The prior
administration of the extract markedly inhibited mutagenicity
induced by methyl parathion, an organophosphorous
insecticide. In vivo exposure to 25, 50, 75 and 100 mg/kg b.w.
of Salvia coccinea ‘White’ did not cause any genomic
damage. Pre-treatment with Salvia coccinea ‘White’
suppressed the effects of methyl parathion significantly. The
concentration 100 mg/kg b.w. produced maximum decrease in
the frequency of micronuclei (P<0.001) and chromosomal
aberrations (P<0.001) induced by methyl parathion. This
study, therefore, confirmed the therapeutic potentials of
Salvia coccinea ‘White’ to improve health and prevent
genotoxic effects of mutagens.
... In general, extensive cytological studies exist in the genus Salvia from different parts of the world (for example, Patudin et al. 1975, Lee 1967, Afzal-Rafii 1976, Mizianti et al. 1981, Haque 1981, Borgen 1980, Díaz-Lifante et al. 1992, Palomino et al. 1986, Özdemir and Senel 1999, Yildiz and Güccel 2006, Bahattacharya 1978, Foley et al. 2008. However, cytological reports from Salvia species of Iran are very limited (Ghaffari and Chariat-Panahi 1985, Estilai and Hashemi 1990, Sheidai et al. 2010. The present study considers the karyptype analysis of 10 Salvia species growing wild in Iran for the first time. ...
Abstract The genus Salvia L.(Lamiaceae) contains about 900 species distributed throughout
the Old and New world growing in temperate and subtropical areas, with about 70 species
reported in Flora Iranica. Cytological studies of the Salvia have been mainly focused on
chromosome number reports and karyotype analysis, while study of the chromosomes
behavior in meiosis is very limited. Meiotic studies were performed in ten Salvia species of
S. spinosa, S. reuterana, S. sclarea, S. ceratophylla, S. xanthocheiala, S. limbata, S.
hypoleuca, S. staminea, S. nemorosa and S. verticillata showing 2n= 14, 20, 22 and 32
chromosome numbers indicating the role played by polyploidy and aneuploidy in Salvia
species diversification. Among Salvia species, the highest value of relative total, terminal
and intercalary chiasmata occurred in S. verticellata while the lowest value of relative total
... (2015) analyzed a global transcriptome in chia seed development, and found genes involved in the lipid metabolism and oil accumulation in chia seeds. However, chia is a diploid plant with only 12 chromosomes (Estilai, Hashemi, and Truman 1990), which facilitates rapid genetic improvement and the plant breeding (Araki and Ishii 2015) by new molecular generation technologies. This genomic information may be useful to improve the quality and quantity of proteins, peptides and oil from chia seeds. ...
This review reported an updated survey on the molecular functional properties of bioactive peptides derived from different Latin American ancient grains such as Maize, common Bean, Amaranth, Quinoa and Chia seeds. Seed storage proteins encrypted in their sequences diverse peptides associated with a wide range of benefit effects on the human health and the most studied are antihypertensive, anti-cholesterolemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties, additionally, in the last decades molecular properties have been also used for their characterization to understand their activities and it makes it highly attractive to be incorporated into food formulations and to complement or replace some conventional cereal grains. Due to the nutraceutical effects, today, these seeds are one of the main gastronomic trends of consumption worldwide due to its nutritional benefits and are part of the shopping lists of many people, among them vegetarians, vegans, celiacs or lovers of raw food. These seeds are a legacy of pre-Columbian civilizations reason why in our time they are considered as “Superfoods of the Gods”, “The pre-hispanic superfoods of the future” and “The new golden seeds of the XXI century”.
... Apesar das sementes de chia serem con sumidas há muitos anos no México e nos Estados Unidos da América (ESTILAI; HASHEMI, 1990), seu ingresso no cardápio alimentar brasileiro depende de informações sobre a importância da sua utilização como agentes protetores de doenças e fonte de nu trientes (COELHO; SALAS-MELLADO, 2014). ...
O objetivo deste estudo foi desenvolver e avaliar a aceitação sensorial de formulações de iogurte com sementes de chia. Após a elaboração das formulações (A - controle, B - iogurte adicionado de 2% de sementes de chia, C - iogurte adicionado de 3% de sementes de chia) realizou-se análises microbiológicas e físico-químicas. Utilizou-se escalas hedônicas para verificar a aceitação e a intenção de compra das formulações elaboradas, bem como o Índice de Aceitabilidade. Os dados dos testes de aceitação e intenção de compra foram avaliados por meio de Análise de Variância (ANOVA) e, posteriormente, aplicou-se Teste de Tukey a 5% de probabilidade. As formulações de iogurte estavam dentro dos padrões exigidos pela Legislação Brasileira quanto às análises microbiológicas e físico-químicas. Não houve diferença significativa (p > 0,05) entre as 3 formulações de iogurte para os atributos sabor, textura e impressão global. Entretanto, quanto ao atributo aparência, a formulação com 3% de sementes de chia (C) foi menos apreciada (p < 0,05) que a formulação controle (A). As formulações com sementes de chia (B e C) tiveram uma boa aceitação sensorial pelos avaliadores e o atributo sabor foi o de maior destaque. Dentre as formulações com sementes de chia, a formulação B apresentou o melhor Índice de Aceitabilidade. Não houve diferença significativa (p > 0,05) quanto à média das notas na intenção de compra para as 3 formulações de iogurte. Conclui-se que as formulações de iogurtes com sementes de chia apresentaram-se adequadas quanto aos parâmetros microbiológicos e físico-químicos ao longo do período de armazenamento, além de obter uma boa aceitação sensorial, apresentando-se como uma alternativa láctea mais saudável para os consumidores.
... Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is a member of the Lamiaceae family, with Mesoamerica and Western Mexico being recognized as its center of genetic diversity (Cahill, 2004). Salvia hispanica is a diploid species with 2n=12 chromosomes, which is the lowest chromosomes number among the species of Salvia genus (Estilai et al., 1990). It is an annual herb with opposite leaves which is usually cultivated for its nutritious seeds (Ali et al., 2012;Jamboonsri et al., 2012;Porras-Loaiza et al., 2014) and aromatic leaves (Ahmed et al., 1994). ...
In the present study, the selectivity and efficacy of several post and pre-emergence herbicides in chia (Salvia hispanica L.) were examined. Field experiments were conducted at two locations with different soil types and environmental conditions. Our results showed that the pre-emergence application of pendimethalin, oxyfluorfen and linuron reduced total weed density by 71-74%, 74-82% and 53-55%, respectively. Despite their high effectiveness, the above-mentioned herbicides had a negative effect on plant density and biomass yield. In addition, herbicides bentazon and fluazifop-p-butyl which applied post-emergence did not affect significantly plant height and biomass yield. In conclusion, the herbicides linuron, pendimethalin and oyxfluorfen do not seem to be a viable option for weed control in chia crop, whereas the post-emergence applied herbicides did not affect significantly plants’ growth. Further evaluation of chia tolerance to herbicides is needed under different application rates in order to make safe suggestions for chemical control of weeds.
... Salvia, commonly known as sage, has multiple uses such as condiment, food additive, spice and herbal tea [5]. The seeds of Salvia species often produce mucilage on wetting which is used to produce pleasant drinks and in the treatment of eye diseases [6,7]. In addition to this, Salvia species have been used for memory-enhancing purposes in European folk medicine [8,9]. ...
... Mentholated leaves of the plant are used as spice and tea. Additionally, alcohol-free drinks, puddings, jellies and chewing gums contain small amounts of Marrubium extracts (Leung, 1980;Clive and Stace, 1980;Estilai and Hatemi, 1990). Marrubium is also used for relieving dry cough as it promotes expectoration and mucus secretion by relaxing bronchial muscles. ...
Marrubium genus is represented by 19 taxa in Flora of Turkey (19 species, 3 subspecies). 11 out of 22 taxa are endemic for Turkey and rate of endemism is 52%. Anatomical, histological and cytological features of the leaf, stem and root in Marrubium bourgaei and M. heterodon taxa of genus Marrubium L. from Lamiaceae family were studied and taxonomic significances were identified. The leaves were amphistomatic and hypostomatic. Stomata were amaryllis type and anomocytic as indicated by neighbouring cells. The leaves of the examined Marrubium species were bifacial (dorsiventral) and a high number of prismatic crystals were observed in the leaf mesophyll tissue. The stems were angular and stomata were observed in local areas of epidermis. The underneath of stem epidermis were a few layers of collenchyma cells. In leaf cross sections, protective tissue was comprised of periderm and a nucleus at the center consisting of tracheids.
... Chia is a diploid plant with only 12 chromosomes (n 5 6) (Estilai, Hashemi, & Truman, 1990), a small genome, which will facilitate the rapid genetic improvement and consequent plant breeding (Araki & Ishii, 2015;Jamboonsri et al., 2012) by genome-editing modification. Gene editing will facilitate agronomic traits such as abiotic and biotic adaptation, yield components, plant architecture, vigor, seed maturation, and flowering time to facilitate the crosses for plant breeding (Hu & Lübberstedt, 2015;Jamboonsri et al., 2012). ...
Salvia hispanica L. commonly known as chia is an ancient food that provides a balanced amount of nutrients composed of insoluble fiber, high ω-3/-6 fatty acids, proteins with an excellent quality of amino acids, high content of antioxidants, and minerals. In first instance, chia seeds contain a coat mucilage that covers completely all seed nutrients and is involved in water retention in consumers. The seed is a valuable source of one of the most important ω-3 fatty acids, α-linoleic, the storage proteins are composed mainly by globulin, followed by albumin, prolamin and glutelin fractions; and they are encrypted in their primary sequences of essential amino acids. Rosmarinic, caffeic and gallic acids are the main phenolic compounds. Nutritionists, researchers and industry have paid attention to chia for its outstanding benefits. Chia is now recognized as a “seed for the first 21st century” that confers invaluable nutraceutical benefits such as antihypertensive and antioxidant functions. The seed compounds may be improved and modified by genome edition technologies to obtain better nutraceutical attributes for health and food industry. Chia can be crowned as the new golden and super seed with excellent benefits for human health.
... This clear mucilage that the [15] seeds give off on wetting is used for lacquerware and is mixed with fruit juices to produce pleasant drinks . [12] In the East countries, that mucilage is used for the treatment of eye diseases . Beside Salvia species have [3] medicinal value, they are also grown in parks and gardens as ornamental plants . ...
... Salvia S. albimaculata Hedge & Hub.-Mor. Mercado et al. 1988; Mercado et al. 1989 Mexico Bernardello et al. 1990; Alberto et al. 2003 Argentina Palomino et al. 1986; Mercado et al. 1989 Mexico Mercado et al. 1989; Estilai et al. 1990 Mexico Hemisphace S. judaica Boiss. Patudin et al. 1975 Russia Palomino et al. 1986; Mercado et al. 1989 Mexico Iran ...
Previous records of chromosome number for species belonging to the genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae) are summarized and the frequency of different chromosome base numbers, the number of taxa having a particular base number, and the occurrence of aneuploidy and polyploidy in the genus are discussed. In addition, chromosome numbers and meiotic behaviour in 12 species of Salvia from Iran, S. syriaca (2n = 2x = 20), S. leriifolia (2n = 2x = 20), S. macrosiphon (2n = 2x = 20), S. reuteriana (2n = 2x = 20), S. persepolitana (2n = 2x = 20), S. palaestina (2n = 2x = 20), S. ceratophylla (2n = 2x = 22), S. atropatana (2n = 2x = 22), S. chloroleuca (2n = 2x = 22), S. hypoleuca (2n = 2x = 22), S. aethiopis (2n = 2x = 22) and S. indica (2n = 2x = 22), are presented here. Comparison of the data in the literature revealed that the variation in base numbers supports the reported polyphyletic status of the genus. The relationships between geographical distribution, chromosome numbers and ploidy levels indicate that both aneuploidy and polyploidy have played an important role in the speciation processes in Salvia.
... It is stated that there is mucilage on the seed coat of Lamiaceae family, including Salvia seeds, which may help to germinate easily, keeping the seeds wet (Fahn 1977, Davis 1982. This clear mucilage that the seeds give off on wetting is used for lacquerware and is mixed with fruit juices to produce pleasant drinks in Mexico (Estilai et al. 1990). In the Eastern Turkey the mucilage is used for the treatment of eye diseases (Baytop 1999). ...
The morphological and anatomical characters of Salvia napifolia Jacq. of the family Lamiaceae have been investigated. The plant has a perennial taproot, the stem is erect and quadrangular. Leaves are simple, occasionally lyrate, inflorescence is its verticillate cyme, corolla is lilac-white. Stems, leaves, petioles and flowers have glandular and eglandular hairs. In the anatomical research, cross-sections of root, stem, leaf and petiole have been examined. Roots with thick pariderns, cortex multilayered sclerenchyma groups above pholoam, cambium not clear, no pith as center of root filled with xylem, distinct pith rays. Stem with collenchymatous hypodermis, sclerenchyma group above vascular bundles, vascular bundles at corners large and lobed, large pith with interrupted pith rays. Leaves with diacytic stomata both on abaxial and adaxial epidermis. Anatomy of petiole, calyx, corolla has also been investigated.
... The Lamiaceae family is a large group of plant species that contain substantial amounts of phenolic compounds 2 , so it is considered to be a promising source of natural genoprotectants. The genus Salvia is the largest genera of Lamiaceae, with nearly 1,000 species 3 . Many species of Salvia possess antimutagenic activity 4,5,6,7 . ...
The human population is continuously exposed to a plethora of diverse chemicals with established mutagenic activity. Dietary interactions that decrease the mutagenic load appear to be one of the plausible approaches for preventing mutations. This study aimed to investigate the genoprotective efficacy of methanol extracts of Salvia farinacea Benth., Salvia microphylla Kunth and Salvia splendens Sellow ex J. A. Schult. 'Blue Ribbon' (Lamiaceae) against the methyl parathion-induced toxicity on bone marrow cells and spermatocytes of Swiss albino mice by chromosomal aberration assay and micronucleus test. Swiss albino mice pretreated with methanol extracts of all the three species of Salvia exhibited significant inhibition of chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei formation (p<0.001) induced by methyl parathion. The maximum inhibition of chromosomal aberrations in bone marrow cells and spermatocytes was observed with S. microphylla extract (2.33±0.19 and 3.33±0.19) followed by S. farinacea (4.33±0.39 and 3.67±0.58) and S. splendens 'Blue Ribbon' (3.67±0.19 and 4.33±0.39) extracts. Similarly, the highest inhibition of micronuclei was observed in S. microphylla (0.27±0.09) pretreated mice followed by S. farinacea (0.33±0.09) and S. splendens 'Blue Ribbon' (0.37±0.07) pretreated mice. The bioactive phytochemicals; rosmarinic acid, betulinic acid, myricetin, ascorbic acid and asiatic acid present in these Salvias might be the reason for the high genoprotective efficacy. The outcome of the present work ascertains the role of these Salvia species as potential nutraceuticals against the non-intentional exposure to methyl parathion and suggests a new avenue in the prophylaxis therapy.
... Besides, the seeds of Salvia species often produce mucilage on wetting [18]. This mucilage is used for lacquerware [19]. In eastern countries, the mucilage is used for the treatment of eye diseases [20]. ...
The essential oils of seeds of Salvia verbenaca, Salvia officinalis, and Salvia sclarea were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and GC-mass spectrometry. The oil yields (w/w) were 0.050, 0.047, and 0.045% in S. verbenaca, S. sclarea, and S. officinalis, respectively. Seventy-five compounds were identified. The essential oil composition of S. verbenaca seeds showed that over 57% of the detected compounds were oxygenated monoterpenes followed by sesquiterpenes (24.04%) and labdane type diterpenes (5.61%). The main essential oil constituents were camphor (38.94%), caryophyllene oxide (7.28%), and 13-epi-manool (5.61%), while those of essential oil of S. officinalis were α-thujone (14.77%), camphor (13.08%), and 1,8-cineole (6.66%). In samples of S. sclarea, essential oil consists mainly of linalool (24.25%), α-thujene (7.48%), linalyl acetate (6.90%), germacrene-D (5.88%), bicyclogermacrene (4.29%), and α-copaene (4.08%). This variability leads to a large range of naturally occurring volatile compounds with valuable industrial and pharmaceutical outlets.
... In general, extensive cytological studies exist in the genus Salvia from different parts of the world (for example, Patudin et al. 1975, Lee 1967, Afzal-Rafii 1976, Mizianti et al. 1981, Haque 1981, Borgen 1980, Díaz-Lifante et al. 1992, Palomino et al. 1986, Özdemir and Senel 1999, Yildiz and Güccel 2006, Bahattacharya 1978, Foley et al. 2008. However, cytological reports from Salvia species of Iran are very limited (Ghaffari and Chariat-Panahi 1985, Estilai and Hashemi 1990, Sheidai et al. 2010. The present study considers the karyptype analysis of 10 Salvia species growing wild in Iran for the first time. ...
Karyotype analysis was performed in 10 Salvia species (Lamiaceae) of Iran, S. spinosa, S. reuterana, S. sclarea, S. ceratophylla, S. xanthocheiala, S. limbata, S. hypoleuca, S. staminea, S. nemorosa and S. verticillata showing 2n=14, 20, 22 and 32 chromosome numbers indicating the role played by polyploidy and aneuploidy in Salvia species diversification. Some of the species differed significantly in the size of chromosomes but occupied 1A and 1B classes of Stebbins system indicating them to have primitive karyotype.
... Cytological studies of the Salvia have been mainly focused on chromosome number reports and karyotype analysis (for example ÖZDEMIR and SENEL 1999;YILDIZ and GÜCEL 2006;PALO-MINO et al. 1986;AL-TURKY et al. 2000;FOLEY et al. 2008;AFZAL-RAFII 1976;1981;PATUDIN et al. 1975;MIZIANTI et al. 1981;HAQUE 1981;BORGEN 1980;DÍAZ-LIFANTE et al. 1992;LEE 1967), while study of the chromosomes behavior in meiosis is very scare (BAHATTACHARYA 1978;GHAFFARI and CHARIAT-PANAHI 1985;ESTILAI and HASHEMI 1990). We hope by studying meiotic peculiarities of Salvia species, a better understanding of species relationships would be obtained in future. ...
The genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae) contains about 900 species distributed throughout the Old and New world growing in temperate and subtropical areas, with about 70 species reported in Flora Iranica. Cytological studies of the Salvia have been mainly focused on chromosome number reports and karyotype analysis, while study of the chromosomes behavior in meiosis is very limited. Meiotic studies were performed in ten Salvia species of S. spinosa, S. reuterana, S. sclarea, S. ceratophylla, S. xanthocheiala, S. limbata, S. hypoleuca, S. staminea, S. nemorosa and S. verticillata showing 2n = 14, 20, 22 and 32 chromosome numbers indicating the role played by polyploidy and aneuploidy in Salvia species diversification. Among Salvia species, the highest value of relative total, terminal and intercalary chiasmata occurred in S. verticellata while the lowest value of relative total and terminal chiasmata occurred in S. spinosa. Laggard chromosomes and chromosomes stickiness as well as frequent tripolar and multipolar cell formation due to anaphase I and II failure were observed. Potential unreduced (2n pollen) pollen grains were formed due to meiotic irregularities. B-chromosomes of 0–2 were observed in the species of S. sclarea, S. nemorosa and S. reuterana.
... The seeds of Salvia species often produce mucilage on wetting (Hedge, 1982). This clear mucilage that the seeds give off on wetting is used for lacquerware and is mixed with fruit juices to produce pleasant drinks (Estilai et al., 1990). In the Eastern countries, that mucilage is used for the treatment of eye diseases (Baytop, 1999). ...
In this study, the morphological and anatomical properties of Salvia tchihatcheffii (Fisch. & Mey.) Boiss. (Lamiaceae) which is endemic to Turkey was investigated. S. tchihatcheffii has a perennial taproot. In contrast to the other Salvia species that was investigated before the plant has two different stem as fertile and sterile stem with round in shape. Sterile stem is prostrate, leafy, fertile stem is procumbent-ascending, unbranched. The stamen type of the plant is A. We observed that in cross-section sterile stem three different cortex layer, with one of them is formed as crescent shape. In addition, the glandular hairs of the investigated species are classified. Other anatomical features are discussed too. The results are presented with photographs, drawings and tables. INTRODUCTON Many species of Lamiaceae are aromatic and often used as herbs, spices, folk medicines and a source of fra-grance (Werker et al., 1985). Salvia, the largest genus of the family Lamiaceae, represents an enormous and cos-mopolitan assemblage of nearly 1000 species displaying a remarkable range of variation. The genus comprises 500 specie. in Central and South America, 250 species in Central Asia/Mediterranean and 90 species in Eastern Asia (Walker et al., 2004). Turkey is a major diversity centre for Salvia in Asia (Vural and Adıguzel, 1996). Since the most recent works of the genus in Turkey, four new species have been described; the total has now reached 90. Forty seven of these Salvia species in Turkey are endemic (Hedge, 1982; Davis et al., 1988; Dönmez, 2001; Hamzaoglu et al., 2005). Salvia species are important group of useful plants which have not lose their importance since ancient times.
... The near loss of the crop undoubtedly contributed to the paucity of scientific research and knowledge associated with the species today, despite the great future economic potential of S. hispanica. Crop development efforts with S. hispanica have focused on selection from domesticated plants, utilizing only a small portion of the total genetic variability, as is the case in most crop species (Coates and Ayerza 1996; Estilai et al. 1990). A breeding program has been established to incorporate genetic material from wild populations, since wild material had not been readily available from germplasm banks (Cahill and Provance 2002). ...
Chia, Salvia hispanica L., was a staple crop in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Despite the great potential of the species as an oilseed crop, little research related to domesticated and wild varieties exists. A study was undertaken to assess genetic diversity among 38 wild and domesticated accessions of S. hispanica collected throughout Mesoamerica by using RAPD markers. Genetic diversity was higher among wild varieties (H
G= 0.15) than all domesticated varieties (H
G= 0.10) and modern commercial domesticated varieties (H
G= 0.02), suggesting a slight loss of diversity accompanying domestication and a near lack of diversity in modern commercial varieties. In addition, the preliminary results indicate that the center of genetic diversity is in the highlands of western Mexico.
... The genus Salvia (Lamiaceae) is one of the largest genera of flowering plants, with nearly 1000 species (Estilai et al., 1990), largely cultivated for ornamental, aromatic, and culinary usage (Clebsh, 2003). The name traditional medicine for their medicinal properties such as antidiabetic (Bailey & Day, 1989), diuretic (Darias et al., 1989), hemostatic, hypoglycemic (Eidi et al., 2005), diaphoretic (Leporatti et al., 1985), anti-inflammatory (Baricevic et al., 2001), antioxidative (Wang et al., 1999), cytotoxic, and antibacterial activities (Shin et al., 2001). ...
Vector control is facing a threat due to the emergence of resistance to synthetic insecticides. In this context, essential oils have received much attention as potentially useful bioactive compounds against insects. Therefore, our present study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of essential oils from the aerial parts of Salvia elegans Vahl, Salvia dorisiana Standl., Salvia splendens Sello ex J.A. Schult Blue Ribbon, and S. splendens Sello ex J.A. Schult Scarlet Sage Red (Lamiaceae) against the fourth instar larvae of Aedes albopictus Skuse (Diptera: Culicidae).
The mosquito larvicidal activities of the essential oils and chemical composition of four taxa of Salvia are investigated in this article for the first time.
Chemical compositions of essential oils obtained from four taxa of Salvia were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), GC-FID, and the effects of essential oils on fourth instar larvae of A. albopictus were investigated.
The main components identified from each Salvia essential oils were as follows: spathulenol (38.73%) and caryophyllene (10.32%) from S. elegans; ledol (45.8%) and 4,4'-[(p-phenylene)diisopropylidene]diphenol (17.38%) from S. dorisiana; β-cubebene (22.9%), and caryophyllene (12.99%) from S. splendens Blue Ribbon; phytol (41.46%) and cyclooctasulfur (24.88%) from S. splendens Scarlet Sage Red. The essential oils of S. elegans and S. splendens Blue Ribbon had excellent inhibitory larvicidal effect against A. albopictus larvae, and their LC(50) values in 24 h were 46.4 ppm (LC(90) = 121.8 ppm) and 59.2 ppm (LC(90) = 133.0 ppm), respectively.
These findings demonstrate that the essential oils of these Salvia species could be considered as the powerful candidates to bring about useful botanicals so as to prevent the resurgence of mosquito vectors.
... Applied research has focused on seed oil (Ayerza 1995), seed polysaccharide mucilage ( Lin et al. 1994), leaf essential oil ( Ting et al. 1996), and nutritional composition for human and animal food (Weber et al. 1991). Recent development of the crop has involved selection from domesticated varieties (Coates and Ayerza 1996;Estilai et al. 1990), but has not included breeding efforts. Comparative morphological analyses of flowers of Salvia species indicate that the small flowers (3-4 mm) of S. hispanica are reflective of a highly self-pollinated breeding system ( Haque and Ghoshal 1981). ...
In Salvia hispanica L., several changes in qualitative characters, including seed coat color, stem pigmentation, and shattering, have evolved with cultivation and domestication. Three F(2) segregating generations from crosses between wild and domesticated parents were scored for three qualitative traits. A single recessive gene, designated scc, was found to govern the white seed characteristic. A single dominant gene, designated SSP, was found to control striated stem pigmentation. A complete dominance of open calyx over closed calyx was observed in F(1) generations and small numbers of plants with closed calyxes were observed in F(2) generations, not conforming to Mendelian ratios. For this non-shattering trait, a complementation test was conducted between two lines representative of geographically and morphologically divergent domesticated varieties. Complementary gene action was not observed in any F(1) plants, and all F(2) plants were homogeneous with respect to the trait, suggesting the same genetic control for non-shattering among domesticated varieties. An analysis of limited data for linkage of SSP and scc indicated that the two loci segregate independently.
Bu çalışmada, Marrubium astracanicum subsp. astracanicum’un anatomik, ekolojik ve tüy özelliklerinin taksonomik önemi belirlenmiştir. Anatomik incelemelerde, kök, gövde, petiyol ve yapraktan enine kesitler ve yaprakların alt ve üst yüzeylerinden yüzeysel kesitler alınmıştır. Anatomik sonuçlar incelendiğinde, taksonun sekonder kök yapısına ve dörtgen şekilli bir gövde yapısına sahip olduğu görülmüştür. Gövdenin köşelerinde belirgin lamellar kollenkima tabakasına rastlanmıştır. Takson, mezofil yapı bakımından bifasiyal yapraklara sahiptir. Yaprakların hem alt hemde üst yüzeylerinde anomositik stomalar görülmüştür. Stoma komşu hücrelerinin kenarları kıvrımlıdır. Bu taksonun vejetatif organlar üzerinde yıldızsı, dendroid, marrubioid ve basit örtü tüylerine, sap ve baş hücre sayıları farklı kapitat salgı tüyleri ve peltat salgı tüyleri gözlenmiştir. Toprak örnekleri taksonun çiçeklenme periyotlarında alınmış, fiziksel ve kimyasal özellikleri tespit edilmiştir. Toprak örneklerinin fiziksel ve kimyasal analiz sonuçlarına bakıldığında, takson hafif asidik ve hafif bazik, orta derecede tuzlu ve çok tuzlu, orta derecede kireçli, zengin ve çok zengin organik madde içeren, azot bakımından orta ve azotça zengin, potasyum ve fosfor bakımından zengin, kumlu ve kumlu-tuzlu topraklarda yayılış göstermektedir. Kökteki periderma tabaka sayısı, gövdenin köşelerindeki kollenkima tabaka sayısı, korteks tabakasındaki kollenkima, parankima ve sklerenkima tabaka sayısı, gövde de kristallerin oluşu, stoma komşu hücrelerinin margin yapısı, mezofil yapısı, petiyolün uç kısımlarının düz ve kıvrık olması, petiyoldeki kollenkima ve parankima tabaka sayısı, vejetatif organlar üzerindeki yıldızsı tüylerin yoğunluğu, kapitat ve peltat salgı tüylerinin varlığı, tipi ve yoğun olup olamaması, dendroid tüylerinin olması ve yoğunluğu taksonun ayırt edilmesinde önemli anatomik karakterler olarak belirlenmiştir.
Karyotypes of 16 species and two varieties of Chinese Salvia were determined in this study.
Of the 18 Salvia taxa, chromosome numbers of eight taxa and karyotypic analyses of 13 taxa
were reported for the first time. The basic chromosome number of all taxa in this study was
x = 8. With the exception of tetraploids S. campanulata var. codonantha and S. przewalskii, the
taxa were diploid. One B chromosome was found in part of the mitosis metaphase cells of
S. aerea. The present results were compared with previous cytological studies. The population
of S. castanea having x = 11 from India may be misidentified. Consequently, all Salvia taxa from
China may have the same basic chromosome number of x = 8. The population of S. przewalskii
reported as tetraploid from Russia and populations of S. evansiana reported as tetraploid from
Yunnan and Sichuan of China were very likely to be misidentified. Therefore, S. przewalskii may
be tetraploid without diploid representatives, and S. evansiana diploid without any tetraploids.
Salvia campanulata is both diploid and tetraploid. The B chromosome is rather unsteady among
populations of the same species, even within the same tissues.
A survey of precollege biology education materials revealed that fundamental plant mineral nutrition concepts typically received minimal coverage. The information provided was also often outdated and contained misconception's or errors, e.g. a description of plant hydrogen deficiency symptoms, a statement that plants absorb nitrogen only as nitrate, and a complete nutrient solution recipe with boron at a toxic 15 mg/liter. Despite these problems, plant mineral nutrition could and should become an essential part of precollege curricula because of its relevance to everyday life, e.g. fertilizer use in home gardening and commercial agriculture; the public fascination with hydroponics, e.g. Walt Disney World EPCOT Center's Land exhibit; the excellent hands‐on aspects of plant solution culture in the classroom; and the interdisciplinary nature of plant mineral nutrition, which links biology, chemistry, math, history and agriculture. Plant mineral nutritionists could play an important role in precollege education by assisting precollege teachers with classroom solution culture on a one‐to‐one basis, providing preservice and inservice workshops on solution culture and developing accurate plant mineral nutrition teaching materials, especially simple and inexpensive hands‐on classroom activities.
Variation and heritability of seed mass in the Mesoamerican crop chia, Salvia hispanica L. was studied to examine the feasibility of selection for the trait. Genotypic variation in seed mass in wild/cultivated and domesticated accessions of chia from different origins was assessed. Broadsense heritability of seed mass was estimated using variances associated with parental and F2 generations derived from two crosses and from the response to one cycle of selection. Significant (P . 0.0001) genotypic variation was observed among accessions. Mean seed mass for domesticated accessions (14.84 mg/100 seeds) was greater than that of the wild accessions (11.29 mg/100 seeds) by 31%. The heritability of seed mass was relatively high in chia (0.75), suggesting that this trait is under strong genetic control. This conclusion was supported by a single selection cycle from the F2 to F3 generation that produced a 16% increase in mean seed mass. The realized heritability estimated based on this one cycle of selection also was 0.75. These observations indicate that gains from selection in chia seed mass are possible when mass selection is conducted in early generations. Basic information is thus provided for future breeding efforts in a species for which little or no knowledge of inheritance currently exists.
The outlook for adequate global supply of renewable oils during the next decade is encouraging. Current rates of oil supply
should be maintained. Demand is expected to be strong, and equilibrium will be reached between the relative levels of oil
demand for food and industrial applications. Indeed, a robust biofuel market may be necessary to balance gains in productivity.
However, total renewable oil supply will become more dependent on crops that have sufficient production systems to sustain
continued growth. Impact on the environment will be a major factor in determining the sustainability of biodiesel. The main
problems with oxidative stability, poor cold-flow properties and NOx emissions can be mitigated through genetic enhancement of oleic acid concentration and other changes to the fatty acid composition
of biofuel feedstocks. All major edible oil crops now have a high-oleic option; many are entering commercial production. Looking
forward, research must continue to develop new sources of edible and industrial oils as a necessary step in meeting the consumer-driven
demands of twenty-first century markets. Many new plant and algal oil sources are being investigated for biodiesel and specific
industrial applications. Genetic engineering of commercial oilseeds for biosynthesis and selective accumulation of specific
fatty acids with unique chemical properties is progressing.
It has been proposed that Aztec human sacrifice and cannibalism can best be explained as a response to population pressure
and famine. The greatest amount of cannibalism, however, coincided with times of harvest, not with periods of scarcity, and
is better explained as a thanksgiving. Tenochtitlan recevied large quantities of food tribute and engaged in intensive (chinampa) agriculture. These two sources alone would have provided enough to feed practically the entire population of the city. The
Aztecs also consumed various animals and insects that were good protein sources. The amount of protein available from human
sacrifice would not have made a significant contribution to the diet. Cannibalism was not motivated by starvation but by a
belief that this was a way to commune with the gods.
Cytological investigations were carried out in 18 species belonging to 13 genera. Teucrium quadrifarium (n=15) represents the first chromosome count for the species. New cytological types were observed in Ocimum canum (n=32+0-4B), O. sanctum (n=16+0-3B), Perilla ocimoides (n=14+0-2B) and in Calamintha clinopodium (n=20). For the remaining taxa, one or all the earlier chromosome reports were confirmed. Meiosis was normal in most of the taxa. The discordant chromosome numbers known in the family make it difficult to consider it as monobasic. Ocimum canum (8x) and Pogostemon plectranthoides (8x) represent the highest grade of ploidy. Intra-specific polyploidy is evident in Ocimum sanctum (2n=32, 64), O. canum (2n=24, 64, 128) and Ajuga macrosperma (2n=16, 32). Aneuploidy is equally common in the family at both the generic and specific levels.
Works on the chromosomes of the genus Salvia in relation to karyotypes and chromosome morphology are very little. Whatever has been done is limited to chromosome counts only. Many authors (Sheel 1931, Yakovleva 1933, Stewart 1939, Felfoldy 1947, Delestaing 1954, Epling et al. 1962, Raman and Kesavin 1963, Faverger and Huynh 1965, Gadella et al. 1966, Harvey 1966, Lee 1967, Mehra and Gill 1968b, Bjorkqvist et al. 1969, Afzal 1971, 1972; Von Bothmer 1970, Sz. Borsos 1971, Chuksanova and Kaplanbekova 1971, Bhattacharya et al. 1971, Van Loon et al. 1971, Gill 1971, Markova and Ivanova 1971, 1974; Bhat et al. 1972, Markova and Thi Thu 1974, Vij and Kashyap 1976) have mentioned the chromosome numbers of different species of Salvia. However, no detailed work on the karyotype of any species is available. This may be due to the very small size of the chromosomes. In some species they are too small to be seen clearly (Wu and Hunag 1975). Owing to their very small size it is very difficult to distinguish the different pairs of chromosomes, especially when a large number is present, as not even the centromeres are discernible (Hruby 1948). Present paper deals with a greater detail the karyotypic studies, as well as studies on the morphology of the chromosomes of the genus Salvia as a whole. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the inter-specific relationships as well as evolution among them. © 1980, Japan Mendel Society, International Society of Cytology. All rights reserved.
Dtermination de nombres chromosomiques dans des Sauges(Salvia) encore non tudis du Himalaya.
The California salvias. A review of Salvia, section Audibertia
- C Epling
Epling, C. 1938. The California salvias. A review
of Salvia, section Audibertia. Ann. Missouri Bet.
Gard. 25:95-188.
Chromosome number in the genus Salvia
- Md S Haque
Haque, Md.S. 1981. Chromosome number in the
genus Salvia. Proc. Indian Acad. Plant Sci.
47:419-426.
Settlement patterns in Central Mexico
- W T Sanders
Sanders, W.T. 1971. Settlement patterns in Central Mexico, p. 343. In: R. Wauchope (ed.).
Handbook of Middle American Indians. vol. 10.
Univ. of Texas Press, Austin.
Chromosome number of California salvias
- W S Stewart
Stewart, W.S. 1939. Chromosome number of California salvias. Amer. J. Bet. 26:730-732.