No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Improving Schooling for Language-Minority Children: A Research Agenda
Abstract
The TESOL Quarterly welcomes evaluative reviews of publications relevant to TESOL professionals. In addition to textbooks and reference materials, these include computer and video software, testing instruments, and other forms of nonprint materials.
... These quality language interactions are particularly important for DLLs (Castro, Espinosa, & Paez, 2014;Sprachman, Caspe, & Atkins-Burnett, 2009;Walqui, 2006) who, on average, have less exposure to the academic discourse of the classroom (Bailey, 2007(Bailey, , 2010, also referred to as Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP; Cummins, 1980), and are likely to need additional supports to facilitate their accessing new language and content demands simultaneously (August & Hakuta, 1997). For DLLs, teacher scaffolding, or language modeling, is particularly critical and must incorporate comprehensible input (Krashen, 1981). ...
... Providing opportunity for practice and quality feedback is also essential for DLLs language growth, as they need to be exposed to sophisticated language and, equally important, they must have the opportunity to produce such language (Swain, 1995). Lastly, a wealth of research documents the importance of connecting new content learning to DLLs' own realities and experiences, and accessing students' knowledge of their own communities (August & Hakuta, 1997;Moll, 1994) in order to help students integrate new knowledge into their existing knowledge schemas (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2006). Together these bodies of research with DLLs indicate that it is not only exposure to language and content that matters, but also the quality and nature of such exposure that leads to academic growth and language acquisition (Wong- Fillmore & Valadez, 1986). ...
... 34) are creating "negative zones", where learning is watered-down and development is hindered because teachers do not bring in DLLs' background knowledge and experiences to bolster more challenging academic content (Diaz & Flores, 2001, p. 33). By contrast, "positive zones", where teachers account for and build on students' existing assets, foster academic achievement (August & Hakuta, 1997;Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2006). Our finding that DLL students in classrooms with teachers that stimulated higher-level thinking through making connections to students' real-life experiences had greater gains in vocabulary at the end of kindergarten further supports the important relationship between capitalizing on existing knowledge and academic gains for these learners. ...
Research Findings: This study of kindergarten monolingual and Dual Language Learners (DLLs) (N=263; mean age = 63.40 months) and their teachers (N=27) found significant mean differences in the observed quality of language interactions in classrooms with differing proportions of DLLs. Teachers instructing in classrooms with higher numbers of DLLs had lower levels of concept development and quality of feedback. Moderation findings revealed that interactions supporting concept development were particularly beneficial for DLLs’ vocabulary growth. Practice and Policy: Study results underscore the importance of using language interaction practices that cultivate higher-order thinking with DLLs.
... If we felt that a teacher believed in us and cared for us then we put forth much more effort than if we felt that she or he did not like us or considered us not very capable. (Cummins, 2000: 40; emphasis original) August and Hakuta (1997) reviewed 33 studies of school effectiveness, and from this compiled a list of 13 attributes of effective schools. The second of these concerned the school leadership: ...
... … (12) Staff development. August and Hakuta [(1997)] note that staff development for all teachers in the school, not just language specialists, was a significant component of many of the effective schools. All teachers were expected to know how to teach ELL students … and were given the support to do so. ...
This book traces the theories underpinning second language learning programmes in international schools and delves into the complexities of teacher relationships and the influence of curriculum agencies on second language learning. Through case studies and vignettes, it argues for establishing a professional department of English as a Second Language at the centre of the academic life in each school, whose staff will build on the widely acknowledged potential of second language learners and enhance their capabilities in all their languages.
... A central question that continued to drive research was whether it was better to "teach ESL reading by beginning with native-language reading instruction, or by teaching native-language reading concurrently with ESL reading, or by solely teaching ESL reading" (Fitzgerald, 1995, p. 121). As ndings continued to accumulate, consensus began to emerge that teaching students to read in their native language rst may not be necessary to their learning to read in English (August & Hakuta, 1997;Echevarria, 1995;Lado, 1977). Alongside this, scholarship interested in promoting a "common core" of literacy practices challenged the value of culturally relevant instruction. ...
... However, the focus within policy and instruction remained on English language literacy couched within dominant discourses, which held a "limited vision of students" and led to "the reductionist instruction" in the classroom (Moll, 1992, p. 21). This singular focus disregarded accumulating research demonstrating that learning two languages simultaneously does not cause confusion or language delays in young children, that teaching both languages facilitates English language learning, and that students possess valuable funds of knowledge originated in their heritage communities (e.g., August & Hakuta, 1997;Diaz et al., 1986;Lucas et al., 1990;Moll, 1992). Thus, although positive instructional changes resulted from research that emphasized bi/multilingual students' capacity to develop literacy in English without delay, the introduction of English literacy earlier into students' instruction simultaneously encouraged a shift away from developing students' native language literacy as part of the project of schooling. ...
The histories of language policies and literacy policies have several parallels and places of intersection in the United States. From movements focused on assimilation and immersion to the emergence of an asset-based vision of bilingual education, approaches to instruction for students whose native language is not English reflect political and philosophical shifts in the understanding of language and culture over time. Moreover, the speed and degree to which students develop literacy in the language of instruction has always been directly related to academic success. This chapter examines themes of remediation, opportunities to learn, and the impact of teachers’ knowledge, skills, and dispositions as it examines the integrated histories of language and literacy policies from the 1960s to the present.
... Hakuta, 1997;NCES, 2017). According to Goldernberg (2013) and Ovando, Combs, and Collier (2006), ELs have lagged behind because of the difficulties they face in attaining a second language (L2; i.e., English in our context) and the subsequent learning of content in that language. ...
... Most of the studies in EL education field had focused on which instructional language or language combination is more effective for ELs (August & Hakuta, 1997;Cheung & Slavin, 2005;. The impact of teachers' native language on improving ELs' English language proficiency has not been fully investigated. ...
... English learners (ELs) represent the fastest growing segment of the school-aged population in public educational institutions in the United States with an increase from 4.3 million (9.1%) in 2004-05 to 4.6 million (9.4%) in 2014-15 (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2017). School performance for these ELs reportedly has been below their monolingual English peers in content areas including reading, math, and science (August & Hakuta, 1997;NCES, 2017). According to Ovando, Combs, and Collier (2006), ELs have lagged behind because of the difficulties they face in attaining a second language (L2; i.e., English in our context) and the subsequent learning of content in that language. ...
... Findings are supported by previous research on the importance of content-area integration into ELs' language learning at elementary grades (Tong et al. 2014). Unfortunately, the sheer volume of current studies have failed to address this critical theme of quality of instruction because most of the studies have been characterized by a persistent search to address the issue of which language of instruction is more effective (August & Hakuta, 1997;Goldenberg, 1996). ...
... Attempts to teach language before content ignore research on instruction for multilingual learners (August & Hakuta, 1997;August & Shanahan, 2006;García & Kleifgen, 2018). Trends reveal that such approaches often place new immigrant students into lower ability groups simply on the basis of emergent English proficiency (Callahan, 2005;Olsen, 2010) and limit English learners' opportunities to catch up to their peers by restricting access to the classes and content required for graduation from high school and for post-secondary access (Callahan, 2013;Callahan et al., 2010). ...
... In one network-based wholeschool approach, 6 interdisciplinary teacher teams take part in ongoing professional training as part of their regular weekly assignments (Kessler, Wentworth, & Darling-Hammond, 2018;Klein, Jaffe-Walter, & Riordan, 2016;Lee & Walsh, 2017). Professional collaboration among teachers of ELs, particularly those with knowledge of language development and disciplinary knowledge, has been shown to improve ELs' academic performance (August & Hakuta, 1997;Gándara, Rumberger, Maxwell-Jolly, & Callahan, 2003;Varghese & Jenkins, 2005). Rather than English as a Second Language teachers being solely responsible for academic language development, in a collaborative approach, teams of teachers work together to design instruction to maximize academic language development for all students, not only new immigrants or ELs. ...
This chapter applies Critical Race Theory (CRT) to an analysis of racism in contemporary education. I explore the ‘business-as-usual’ forms of racism that saturate the everyday world of schools; and show how so-called colour-blindness closes down critical discussion and denies the significance of racism. Finally, the chapter reflects on the nature of White supremacy in contemporary European societies.
... Attempts to teach language before content ignore research on instruction for multilingual learners (August & Hakuta, 1997;August & Shanahan, 2006;García & Kleifgen, 2018). Trends reveal that such approaches often place new immigrant students into lower ability groups simply on the basis of emergent English proficiency (Callahan, 2005;Olsen, 2010) and limit English learners' opportunities to catch up to their peers by restricting access to the classes and content required for graduation from high school and for post-secondary access (Callahan, 2013;Callahan et al., 2010). ...
... In one network-based wholeschool approach, 6 interdisciplinary teacher teams take part in ongoing professional training as part of their regular weekly assignments (Kessler, Wentworth, & Darling-Hammond, 2018;Klein, Jaffe-Walter, & Riordan, 2016;Lee & Walsh, 2017). Professional collaboration among teachers of ELs, particularly those with knowledge of language development and disciplinary knowledge, has been shown to improve ELs' academic performance (August & Hakuta, 1997;Gándara, Rumberger, Maxwell-Jolly, & Callahan, 2003;Varghese & Jenkins, 2005). Rather than English as a Second Language teachers being solely responsible for academic language development, in a collaborative approach, teams of teachers work together to design instruction to maximize academic language development for all students, not only new immigrants or ELs. ...
At the heart of teachers’ professionalism is their competence in reflecting about their own pedagogical practices and the discourses these practices are embedded in. Teachers’ understanding of the complexities of their pupils’ migration experience and its impact on their educational participation is an important theme for reflective processes. This chapter presents results of my study on pupils involved in multiple and multidirectional migration during their schooling years. Their experiences are discussed with regard to their potential to challenge current pedagogical practices and discourses related to migrant pupils.
... Attempts to teach language before content ignore research on instruction for multilingual learners (August & Hakuta, 1997;August & Shanahan, 2006;García & Kleifgen, 2018). Trends reveal that such approaches often place new immigrant students into lower ability groups simply on the basis of emergent English proficiency (Callahan, 2005;Olsen, 2010) and limit English learners' opportunities to catch up to their peers by restricting access to the classes and content required for graduation from high school and for post-secondary access (Callahan, 2013;Callahan et al., 2010). ...
... In one network-based wholeschool approach, 6 interdisciplinary teacher teams take part in ongoing professional training as part of their regular weekly assignments (Kessler, Wentworth, & Darling-Hammond, 2018;Klein, Jaffe-Walter, & Riordan, 2016;Lee & Walsh, 2017). Professional collaboration among teachers of ELs, particularly those with knowledge of language development and disciplinary knowledge, has been shown to improve ELs' academic performance (August & Hakuta, 1997;Gándara, Rumberger, Maxwell-Jolly, & Callahan, 2003;Varghese & Jenkins, 2005). Rather than English as a Second Language teachers being solely responsible for academic language development, in a collaborative approach, teams of teachers work together to design instruction to maximize academic language development for all students, not only new immigrants or ELs. ...
This article discusses how symbolic orders of the migration society shape the negotiation of social practices in school and lead to the (re-)production of racism in the context of pre-service teacher training, called ‘the second phase of teacher training’ in Germany. It presents selected results of interviews with teacher educators from a broader research project on pre-service teacher training in the migration society. The results show that symbolic orders inscribed as migration patterns in the tacit knowledge of these most significant professionals are relevant to racism, particularly because of pre-service teachers’ binary differentiation between the categories ‘German’ and ‘migration background’, the latter being equivalent to ‘not German’. This becomes clear in their reconstructed conceptualization of an imagined ‘ideal teacher’ as well as ‘good teaching’ and leads to the relevant question of which pre-service teachers are identified as suitable for the teaching profession according to teacher educators and why. In this imagination, the binary differentiation takes place in connection with attributes especially linked to the habitual dimensions of language and behaviour.
... Unlike SEI programs, bilingual education programs are proven effective in increasing academic gains for bilingual learners (August & Hakuta, 1997;Ramírez, Pasta, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991;Thomas & Collier, 1997). In circumstances of quality bilingual instruction, students who are able to use both their languages are found to perform on par, or above, monolingual peers across content areas (August & Hakuta, 1997;Bialystok, 2001;Bialystok, Craik, Green, & Gollan, 2009). ...
... Unlike SEI programs, bilingual education programs are proven effective in increasing academic gains for bilingual learners (August & Hakuta, 1997;Ramírez, Pasta, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991;Thomas & Collier, 1997). In circumstances of quality bilingual instruction, students who are able to use both their languages are found to perform on par, or above, monolingual peers across content areas (August & Hakuta, 1997;Bialystok, 2001;Bialystok, Craik, Green, & Gollan, 2009). In their meta-analysis of studies pertaining to program effectiveness for bilingual learners, Rolstad, Mahoney, and Glass (2005) found positive effects for bilingual education in both the home language and English. ...
This qualitative study examines students’ perceptions of their bilingualism in a school that is attempting to disrupt inequalities through the promotion of social justice through bilingual/bicultural education. In order to understand students’ perspectives of their bilingualism in Arizona’s restrictive policy context, the researchers apply Bourdieu’s conceptions of habitus, field, and capital. Findings indicate that students view their bilingualism as an asset that provides them with various forms of capital. Additionally, despite the English-hegemonic context of Arizona, this school plays an essential role in promoting students’ bilingualism/biculturalism as an avenue to greater possibilities in their lives.
... Often, Hispanic, Spanish-speaking parents are made to believe they must switch to nonnative English as a result of fear-based rhetoric, English-only policies, assimilation pressure, and/or misinformed advice, which affects their children's early language environments (Baralt et al., 2017;Fermoso, 2018). Encouraging parents to abandon their heritage, or home language with their children runs counter to science, as empirical evidence consistently shows that encouraging and maintaining the parent's heritage language during parent-child interactions leads to better early language environments and resultantly, better child language and academic outcomes (August and Hakuta, 1997;Castro et al., 2011;Farver et al., 2006). Parents who use their heritage language with their children are able to convey more lexically and syntactically complex language during interactions with their children (e.g. ...
... Parents who use their heritage language with their children are able to convey more lexically and syntactically complex language during interactions with their children (e.g. August and Hakuta, 1997;Castro et al., 2011). Studies have found that native Spanish-speaking mothers who also are fluent in English use a larger and more diverse vocabulary when talking with their children in their native Spanish (e.g. ...
The early language environments of low-income Hispanic children can be negatively affected when their Spanish-speaking caregivers face racism, assimilation pressure, and/or misinformed advice based on English-only ideologies. This article reports on the design and efficacy of Háblame Bebé, a language-promoting phone application that encourages low-income Hispanic mothers to talk more to their children in their native Spanish with the goals of (1) improving their children’s early language environment, (2) promoting bilingualism, and (3) monitoring developmental milestones. The app was designed and tested across three phases as mandated by the US HRSA Bridging the Word Gap Challenge. In Phase I, we developed a curriculum that promotes high-quality language interactions in Spanish and designed the app components. In Phase II, we tested the app with 20 Hispanic mothers (half high school-educated, half college-educated) in a pretest–posttest design in which we examined their language interactions before and after two months of using the app. Preliminary results indicated that mother–child verbal interactions increased, but not always in their native Spanish, and the difference was not statistically significant. Focus group data revealed that many of the mothers had experienced linguistic racism and that tropes surrounding Spanish-speaking identity in the USA needed to be explicitly addressed within the intervention. In Phase III, a sociolinguistic pride component was added and the app was again tested with 12 additional Hispanic mothers (all high school-educated only). This time, a statistically significant increase in mother–child verbal interactions was found. Mothers also reported feeling prouder to use Spanish with their children. These results suggest that Háblame Bebé may be a viable means to reach low-income Hispanic caregivers who face obstacles in accessing health information and/or home-visiting programs for their children.
... Preschool teachers of bi-and multi-lingual children can support the bilingual development of children by inviting the native languages of these children into their class culture and curriculum, as documented by August and Hakuta (1997). If the teacher is in a bilingual preschool that teaches the child's native language, the children may learn both English and their native language. ...
In recent years, Family Language Policy (FLP) researchers have demonstrated the importance and necessity of revealing the language policies of immigrant families to investigate the language learning and maintenance processes of immigrant families and communities. This article contributes to a growing conversation of family language policies by presenting a multiple case study of three Korean American families, which conducted audio and video recorded participant observation and semi-structured interviews of family members. It examined the policies that families develop and employ in order to nurture and maintain their native language in monolingual contexts. Analyses of observations and interviews show that families developed family language policies that are resourceful and effective for language maintenance despite larger social institutions that favored monolingualism. The parents of all families pursued and maintained relationships with other Korean speakers in their extended families and church communities and created a home environment that invited and prioritized their heritage language. The article concludes with implications for immigrant families, communities, and teachers of immigrant-origin children.
... Although primary language instruction has been found effective for typically developing ELLs (August & Hakuta, 1997;Greene, 1997;Slavin & Cheung, 2005), there is a paucity of research addressing effective linguistic and instructional practices for students with ID. As indicated previously, Rohena et al. (2002) argue that the language of instruction may not be an infl uential factor in the acquisition of sight vocabulary words by ELLs with ID whereas Spooner et al. (2009) suggest that incorporating and infusing primary language may be an integral component of literacy development. ...
Schools across the country are inadequately prepared to meet the educational needs of English language learners (ELLs), much less the needs of ELLs who also have an intellectual disability (ID). In this exploratory study, three Mexican American elementary students with moderate ID were given vocabulary word instruction in English and Spanish using an alternating treatments design, and the effects of the number of words correctly identified per instructional strategy were measured. Two of the students acquired a greater number of English vocabulary words in the Spanish model-lead test intervention. Vocabulary scores increased for the third student under both conditions, but there was no differential advantage by language. Implications for future research and practice related to instructional strategies for this population are discussed.
... Son olarak İngilizce öğretmenlerinin mesleki gelişimini sağlamada eğitim programlarının aynı zamanda öğretmenlerin İngilizce yeterliğini artırmaya yönelik amaçlarının olması gerektiği bulunmuştur (August & Hakuta, 1997;Olsen, 2000;Fillmore & Snow, 2002;Gandara, vd., 2003;Igawa, 2008;Kabilan & Veratharaju, 2013;Arıkan, vd., 2008;Zein, 2017 (Uysal, 2012;Koç, 2016). Materyal, araç ve gereç, altyapı ve öğrenme ortamı açısından güçlü eğitimlerin İngilizce öğretmenlerine cesaret vereceği ve onları motive edeceği söylenebilir (Young & Lewis, 2008;England, 2012;Bonadeo;Stockwell;Altan, 2016; (Xiao, 2012;Nunan, 2012;Murphy vd., 2011). ...
Kaliteli bir eğitim sunmayı ve onu sürdürülebilir kılmayı etkileyen pek çok faktör bulunmaktadır. Bu faktörlerden biri ise şüphesiz eğitim veren personelin mesleki gelişiminin sağlanmasıdır. Mesleki gelişimi sağlamanın önemli bir yolu da eğitim programlarınıngeliştirilmesinden geçmektedir. Program geliştirme esaslı ihtiyaç analizinin yapılmasını, eğitim programınıntasarlanmasını,uygulanmasını, değerlendirilmesini ve bu durumu sürdürülebilir kılmayı gerektirmektedir. Bu
doğrultuda bu araştırmanın temel amacı yükseköğretimde İngilizce hazırlık okulu öğretim görevlilerinin geliştirmeye ihtiyaç duydukları mesleki becerilere yönelik bir eğitim programı geliştirmek olarak belirlenmiştir. Karma yöntem yaklaşımının benimsendiği araştırmada program geliştirme ile adeta özdeşleşen ve sıklıkla
başvurulan çok aşamalı desen kullanılmıştır. Katılımcılar arasında İngilizce hazırlık okulu öğretim görevlileri, öğrencileri, yöneticileri, öğretim üyeleri ve öğretmen eğitmenleri gibi paydaşlar yer almıştır. Veri toplama aracı olarak ‘‘Mesleki Becerilere Yönelik Görüşme Formu, İhtiyaç Analizi Formu, Eğitim Programını Değerlendirmeye
Yönelik Görüşme Formu, Anket ve Alan Notları Formu’’ kullanılmıştır. Veri toplama araçlarının geçerliğini ve güvenirliğini sağlamada araştırmanın amacı kapsamında nitel ve nicel araştırma yöntemleri süreçlerine ve doğasına uygun hareket edilmiştir.
Araştırmada nitel ve nicel veriler aşamalı olarak beş farklı zaman diliminde toplanmıştır. Veri toplama süreci 2018-2019, 2019 – 2020 ve 2020-2021 akademik yılları güz ve bahar dönemlerini kapsamıştır. Veri analizinde betimsel analiz, içerik
analizi ve betimsel istatistik teknikleri kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın bulguları arasında İngilizce hazırlık okulu öğretim görevlilerinin mesleki becerilere yönelik ihtiyaçlarının analizi, ilgili ihtiyaçların değerlendirmesi, bir eğitim programı tasarısı, ilgili programın uygulaması ve değerlendirmesi yer almıştır. Araştırmanın sonucunda İngilizce hazırlık okulu öğretim görevlilerinin mesleki gelişimine katkıda bulunmak amacıyla ‘‘Mesleki Becerileri Geliştirme Programı’’ geliştirilmiştir. Son olarak uygulayıcılara ve araştırmacılara yönelik önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
Anahtar Kelimeler: İngilizce Hazırlık Okulu, Öğretim Görevlileri, Mesleki Beceriler, Program Geliştirme.
... Standardized tests have consistently shown that students who speak an academic language at home tend to have higher reading literacy than students who speak a heritage language at home (August & Hakuta, 1997). The Program of the International Student Assessment (PISA) compared the literacy performance of 15-year-old native children who speak the assessment language at home and immigrant children who speak a heritage language (Chinen & Tucker, 2005;Haynes, n.d.; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OCED [OECD], 2010). ...
Home language (HL) effects on academic language literacy have been extensively discussed. However, previous research has mostly focused on Indo–European languages. This study extends the literature by using data ( n = 17,600) collected in a diversified language area: Guangxi, China. We examined the effects of four HLs and four socioeconomic factors by using modern standard written Chinese literacy as an outcome across three developmental levels (ages 10.45, 12.31, and 14.72). School clustering effect existed and adding the predictors of HL and socioeconomic status did not change the variance proportion in literacy performance accounted for by the school groupings. The findings indicate that (a) Putonghua-only speakers performed poorest in school Grades 5 to 6 and 7 to 8, (b) dominant Putonghua speakers performed best in Grades 7 to 8, (c) heritage-only speakers performed best in Grades 5 to 6, and (d) the contribution of the parents’ socioeconomic factors depended on the participants’ developmental levels. Our study supports the bilingual literacy advantage and explains why a heritage-only acts as a type of bilingualism.
... This benefit emerged earlier for the majority-language group (approximately in third grade) than for the minority-language group (approximately in fifth grade). The authors argue that this difference could be explained by lower English proficiency for minority-language students, limiting these students' performance on English-based tests (see also August & Hakuta, 1997). Moreover, the authors report a gap in socioeconomic status (SES) between majority-language students (higher SES) and minority-language students (lower SES), suggesting that minority-language students may not have had the same amount and/or quality of resources that majority-language students had to support their learning in two-way immersion. ...
Aims and Objectives
The benefits of dual-language immersion (DLI) versus English-only classrooms for minority-language speakers’ acquisition of English have been well documented. However, less is known about the effect(s) of DLI on majority-language speakers’ native English skills. Prior studies largely used accuracy-focused measures to index children’s language skills; it is possible that processing-based tasks are more sensitive to the effects of DLI experience.
Methodology
Thirty-three monolingual native English-speaking children attending English-only classrooms and thirty-three English-speaking children attending English-Spanish DLI matched in age, gender, nonverbal IQ, and socio-economic status were tested twice, 1 year apart, on standardized and processing-based measures of English vocabulary and morphosyntax.
Analysis
We ran linear mixed-effects models to examine the extent to which group and time would predict scores on knowledge-based measures of vocabulary and morphosyntactic knowledge, as well as accuracy and reaction times on processing-based measures of English vocabulary and morphosyntax.
Findings
Results revealed comparable levels of growth in English for both groups. A subtle effect of DLI was observed on a lexical-decision task: bilinguals were slower in Year 1 but both groups were equally efficient in Year 2. These results indicate that DLI programs have minimal impact on majority-language speakers’ native-language skills in the age-range tested.
Originality
This study is the first to longitudinally examine processing-based native language outcomes in bilingual children in DLI classrooms.
Significance
We do not find evidence that DLI exposure carries a cost to native language development, even when indexed by processing measures. This should reassure parents, educators, and policymakers in that there are no downsides to DLI.
... They struggle to cultivate the same type of peer support systems that non-ML students develop to help them better understand their classes (Sharkey & Layzer, 2000). No matter how good an academic program is, the social environments within educational settings can undercut student success (August & Hakuta, 1997). ...
The Multilingual learner (ML) population is steadily increasing in U.S. schools. Navigating new educational environments can be challenging for MLs, especially on the first day. This study draws upon data collected during two improvement-focused evaluations and is guided theoretically by the extant ML literature as well as Bronfenbrenner’s (2005) bioecological model of human development and Bandura’s (2018) concept of human agency in social cognitive theory. Mixed methods were used to identify the strengths and opportunities for improvement for two school districts’ ML programs. This article draws mainly from the data collected through student focus groups. Through the high school MLs’ stories of resilience, we learn the first days of school are the most challenging for newcomers. In addition to sharing their initial encounters, the MLs provided their recommendations for U.S. educators. By understanding MLs’ initial experiences in U.S. schools, educators can create more welcoming environments for such students.
... The fact that 54% of Haitian caregivers reported that they had been told their child had a speech or language delay, and that many parents shared they had been advised to switch to English only with their child, illustrates the prevalence of this problem. Not only do these kinds of recommendations negatively impact children's early language environments, they also run counter to science (August and Hakuta, 1997;Castro et al., 2011;Farver et al., 2006). ...
... Ayrıca Amerika' da bulunan hispanik çocuklar açısından da durum aynıdır. Hispanik çocukların okula başladıklarında, evde kullanılan dilin eğitim dilinden farklı olmasından dolayı akranlarına göre daha düşük okuryazarlık becerilerine sahip oldukları söylenebilir (August ve Hakuta, 1997). Bican ve Demir (2018)' in Danimarka' da yaşayan göçmen çocukların dil becerilerine yönelik yaptıkları araştırma da bu araştırmanın sonuçlarını desteklemektedir. ...
Bu araştırmanın amacı Türkiye’ de yaşayan 4-6 yaş grubu Suriyeli göçmen çocukların Türkçe erken okuryazarlık becerilerine yönelik ihtiyaçlarını belirlemektir. Çalışma grubunun belirlenmesinde Türk Kızılay Gaziantep Toplum Merkezi’nde kayıtlı 40 Suriyeli göçmen çocuğun ailelerine ulaşılarak araştırma ile ilgili bilgi verilmiş, araştırmaya katılmak isteyenler seçilmiştir. Veri toplama ve verilerin analizi süreçleri nitel ve nicel araştırma yöntemleri kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Veriler araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen göçmen çocukların Türkçe erken okuryazarlık becerilerini değerlendirme aracı ve uygulama sırasında kullanılacak bir gözlem formu kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Değerlendirme aracı ifade edici dil becerileri, alıcı dil becerileri, ses bilgisel farkındalık, yazı farkındalığı, görselleri eşleştirme, yazma öncesi becerileri boyutlarını içermektedir. Değerlendirme aracından elde edilen nicel veriler ve uygulayıcıların gözlem notlarına dayalı nitel verilerin analiz aşamasında, nicel ve nitel analiz yöntemleri birbiriyle ilişkilendirilerek bütüncül analizler yapılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgular çocukların Türkçe dilsel farkındalık düzeylerinin genel olarak %70’ in altında olduğunu göstermektedir. Buna göre geliştirilecek bir öğretim programında ifade edici dil becerileri, alıcı dil becerileri, ses bilgisel farkındalık, yazı farkındalığı, görselleri eşleştirme, yazma öncesi becerilerine yönelik kazanımlara yer verilmesi gerektiği düşünülmektedir.
... However, if schools do not provide bilingual development, ELs are in danger of losing their native language and with that loss, the benefits of bilingualism. As a result of public schools not being able to provide bilingual development, research has found that EL's academic skills are not as stable as other minorities and White children (e.g., August & Hakuta, 1997;Lesaux et al., 2010;Swanson et al., 2017). In particular, several studies (e.g., McCardle et al., 2008;Swanson et al., 2017) showed that these children were more likely to have difficulty in obtaining grade level reading (e.g., English word identification and comprehension) and writing skills than other children. ...
Proficient writing performance in English requires multiple cognitive skills, which can be particularly challenging for English Learners (ELs). However, compared with reading and mathematics, there have been fewer scientific inquiries that explore the relationship between cognitive components and writing. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of three cognitive components (phonological aware-ness [PA], oral language development [OLD], and working memory [WM]), on writing development in Spanish-speaking EL children. To achieve this goal, 374 children in Grades 3 to 5 were administered a battery of cognitive measures in both Spanish as well as English, and a narrative writing task in English. Using structural equation modeling, three important findings emerged. First, the results showed that PA in both Spanish and English positively predicted English writing performance. Second, English OLD had a positive effect on writing, but Spanish OLD was a negative predictor of writing. Third, WM in both languages had large positive effects on writing in English. Taken together, the findings from this study highlight the important roles first- and second-language PA, OLD, and WM play in upper elemen-tary ELs’ English writing.
... Content-related texts (e.g., multiple texts coherently related to animal habitats) may support knowledge of content-related words (e.g., burrow and den in relation to animal habitats) because, while interacting with content-related texts, students are likely to encounter content-related words repeatedly, a facilitative condition to enhance vocabulary (August & Hakuta, 1997;Eller, Pappas, & Brown, 1988). When content-related words are explicitly taught, semantic networks among words and ideas are likely to be strengthened in long-term memory because students are provided with content knowledge to explain the reasons for these relations (Pritchard, 2019). ...
This study synthesized impacts of integrated literacy and content-area instruction (i.e., science, social studies) on vocabulary and comprehension outcomes in the elementary years (i.e., kindergarten through fifth grade). A systematic search of the extant literature identified 35 (quasi)experimental studies. Random-effects models were used to combine effect sizes across studies. Results of meta-analysis revealed that the overall effects were positive and significant for vocabulary (effect size [ES] = 0.91) and comprehension (ES = 0.40). Moreover, a significant positive effect was observed for standardized comprehension outcomes (ES = 0.25), but not for standardized vocabulary outcomes. Supplementary analysis including studies with content knowledge outcomes demonstrated the positive and significant overall effect for content knowledge (ES = 0.89). In addition, no significant moderators of the effect sizes were found among features of research design and characteristics of interventions, perhaps partly due to the small number of studies. The results of our meta-analysis indicate that integrated literacy and content-area instruction has potential to enhance vocabulary words taught to students and comprehension in the elementary years, with the additional benefit of simultaneously cultivating science and social studies knowledge.
... Öğrenciler, öğrenme sürecinde veya öğrendiklerini sözlü veya yazılı olarak aktarırlarken akademik dil becerisine ihtiyaç duyarlar . Akademik dilde başarı veya akademik okuryazarlık ileri seviyede düşünme becerilerine sahip olmayı gerektirmektedir (August ve Hakuta, 1997). Akademik dil tek bir alana yönelik olmamalı, tam aksine alana yönelik dil yerine akademik söylem ve akademik okuryazarlık öğretilmelidir. ...
... It focuses on the pedagogy of Spanish reading and writing instruction and details the methods of instruction for Spanish language literacy when Spanish is taught as the primary language a child learns to read initially. Research supports that when Spanish is taught as a first language literacy experience; there are specific elements that must be taught and basic instructional sequences to support this process (August & Hakuta, 1997;Greene, 1997Slavin & Cheung, 2003Willig, 1985). Salgado described the process of Spanish language acquisition and literacy learning as requiring understandings about concepts about print, the alphabetic principle, comprehension, phonics and phonemic awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and writing. ...
... Children with Spanish as a first language in the United States have been found to yield low achievement scores in reading and mathematics when compared to other English learners (EL) on national assessments across several years (e.g., August & Hakuta, 1997;Hemphill & Vanneman, 2011;National Assessment of Ed-ucation Progress, 2011. Although closing achievement gaps has been a goal in national and state education policies, achievement scores in reading and math for non-EL students in Grades 4 and 8 have been higher than the scores of then EL student whose first language is Spanish since 1996 (e.g., August & Ha-kuta, 1997;Bumgarner et al., 2013). ...
This study investigated the prevalence and stability of latent classes among elementary-aged English learning (EL) children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, EL children (N = 267) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 (Year 1) were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures (short-term memory, working memory, rapid naming, inhibition) in both Spanish and English. These same measures were also administered one year later (Wave 2). Four important findings occurred. First, four latent classes (balanced bilinguals-average achievers, unbalanced bilinguals-average achievers, children at risk for learning disabilities, English dominant) at both testing waves emerged. Second, probability estimates indicated that 20% of the total sample was at risk for learning disabilities at Wave 1, with late-emerging academic difficulties increasing the learning disabilities latent class by 5% at Wave 2. Third, the incidence of late-emerging children at risk for learning disabilities was higher among balanced bilingual average achievers, especially for those children transitioning to or from Grade 3. Finally, the cognitive measures for predicting the odds of children being correctly classified in the final wave of testing included measures of naming speed and working memory. The results support the notion that statistically distinct latent classes emerge under the umbrella of language and academic performance and that children at risk for learning disabilities can be separated among a heterogeneous sample of children who are English language learners. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)
... This problem is especially compounded in children learning English as a second language (L2), who are the most rapidly growing demographic in U.S. public schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). English learners whose first language (L1) is Spanish and L2 is English make up a large percentage of emergent bilinguals (e.g., August & Hakuta, 1997;National Center for Education Statistics, 2020) and represent a substantial number of students who do not demonstrate proficiency in mathematics (National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2011, 2019. ...
An area of mathematics found to be difficult for emergent bilingual children whose first language (L1) is Spanish in the United States is solving mathematical word problems. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between growth in the executive component of working memory (WM) and growth in mathematical word-problem solving in children whose L1 is Spanish. Elementary school children (Grades 1, 2, and 3) were administered a battery of mathematical, vocabulary, reading, and cognitive measures (short-term memory [STM], inhibition, and WM) in both Spanish (L1) and English (second language [L2]) in Year 1 and again 1 year later. Multilevel growth modeling showed that growth in WM significantly predicted growth in L1 and L2 mathematical word-problem solving. Furthermore, the contributions of WM to mathematical word-problem-solving growth in both L1 and L2 were independent of language skills in vocabulary, reading, estimation , naming speed, inhibition, STM, and calculation. Overall, the results suggest that the mental activities that underlie WM play a significant role in predictions of L1 and L2 mathematical word-problem-solving accuracy.
... Les partisans de l'enseignement bilingue pensent que les élèves apprennent à lire dans la langue où ils sont plus à l'aise puis transfèrent leurs compétences à d'autres langues. Ils peuvent ainsi développer des compétences plus solides à long terme (August & Hakuta, 1997). De plus, ils estiment que dans le monde globalisé dans lequel nous vivons, l'école doit aider les élèves à développer toutes leurs capacités linguistiques même s'il n'y a qu'une seule langue officielle d'enseignement. ...
... As a result of bilingualism research pointing to the advantages of speaking two languages, bilingual education has been widely offered at schools in countries with high populations of immigrants such as Australia (August & Hakuta, 1997;De Courcy, 2005;Dutcher, 1995;Elder, 2000Elder, , 2005Elder & Davies, 1998). In the Australian school context, heritage language education and immersion are two main forms of bilingual education that promote full bilingualism, because in these contexts learning an additional language does not threaten or replace the first or home languages. ...
The phenomenon of whether cognitive advantages are associated with bilingualism has been widely debated. This paper reviews both research on the cognitive effects of bilingualism and research on the cognitive effects of biliteracy. Definitions of bilingualism, biliteracy, and the explicit definitive characteristics of a bilingual and a biliterate are provided. Findings from bilingualism research, although mixed, have generally pointed towards advantages being associated with speaking two languages, such as cognitive flexibility (Cummins, 1976), and the ability to reflect on aspects of language known as metalinguistic awareness (Adesope, Lavin, Thompson & Ungerleider, 2010). However, some research did report negative effects of bilingualism such as poorer lexical access and receptive vocabulary (Bialystok, Craik & Luk, 2008; Ivanova & Costa, 2008). Fewer studies have examined the effects of biliteracy, particularly the effects of biliteracy in terms of writing.
... In the United States, school achievement is lower for English language learners (ELLs) who speak Spanish as their first language than for other minorities and Caucasian children (e.g., August & Hakuta, 1997;Hemphill & Vanneman, 2011;National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2011. In addition, cross-sectional studies have shown that ELs disproportionately experience reading and math difficulties across various age levels (e.g., Kieffer, 2011;Martiniello, 2009). ...
This study investigated the prevalence of latent classes at risk for reading or math disabilities in elementary-age children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, children ( N = 394) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures in both Spanish and English. Three important findings occurred. First, five latent classes emerged (average achievers, poor achievers, reading disabled, English language learners, Spanish-dominant achievers) that varied in language and achievement scores. Second, probability estimates indicated that 10% of the total sample was at risk for learning disabilities (below cutoff score), and approximately 40% of the sample reflected a language acquisition group not at risk for academic difficulties. Finally, the best model for correctly predicting the odds of latent classes differing from average achievers included English measures of short-term memory, naming speed, and the executive component of working memory. The results support the notion that statistically distinct latent classes emerge under the umbrella of children identified as English learners and that children at risk for specific learning disabilities can be separated among a heterogeneous sample of children who are acquiring English as a second language.
... Zappert and Cruz (1977), Troike (1978) and Dulay and Burt (1974) concluded that migrant children and parents in the United States prefer bilingual education programmes to monolingual ones. Dutcher (1998), August &Hakuta (1997 also analyzed the problems of bilingual education. ...
The authors consider key concepts in the system of language education in both Russia and the USA and analyze the language education programmes for secondary school students. In our research, we identify the factors that caused the reforms in the system of school education in the United States. These factors include the process of globalization associated with the change to the information society; the demography of the country; social demand; as well as variety of university associations, which set standards for professional teachers training programmes in higher educational institutions. These factors become popular in other countries as well as in Russia. The research reveals the main issues of effective implementation of bilingual and multilingual programmes in US schools from different perspectives. At a personal level, we do agree with the point of view of prominent American educators, that the activity, and, as a result, academic success vary from student to student. In a class, groups of students can differ significantly from each other, despite the existence of a single multilingual programme. In a school, the effectiveness of some schools in training multilingual and multicultural students with almost the same cultural background in identical learning environment is worth studying. Finally, in a broader sense, the effectiveness of the implementation of the bilingual and multilingual program is measured at the level of the municipal administrative body of education. Researchers are also interested in the content of the language studied. It is obvious that the basis of the content of education in the multilingual class is the study of language and culture. The main problem is the interaction of these two basic concepts in education.
... Early childhood teachers of DLLs may believe that DLLs must master English before learning content (August & Hakuta, 1997). However, this approach contradicts a view of early childhood education as a means of preventing later academic gaps. ...
Dual language learners are a steadily growing student population in several countries, including the United States – and especially in early childhood. Consequently, any efforts to develop strong early childhood programming must include practices which support multiple areas of DLLs’ development. From a domain-specific lens, I synthesize the empirical literature on instructional practices for supporting young DLLs’ learning and development in four areas: language and literacy, social-emotional, science, and mathematics. Through this synthesis, I identify practices such as drawing upon DLLs’ home languages during language and literacy instruction. I also offer ideas for next steps in the research, including developing lines of research for supporting DLLs’ learning in math and science.
Many children living in linguistically diverse low- and middle-income countries learn to read and write in multiple languages. Recent research provides implications for effective reading instruction with multilingual learners (e.g., Hall et al. in New Dir Child Adolesc Dev 166:145–189, 2019). However, there is limited empirical evidence on effective instructional practices for multilingual early grade learners who are at-risk of reading failure. The goal of our research was to examine the effect of a structured literacy intervention on literacy skills for a cohort of first grade children at-risk of reading failure as they learned to read in Kiswahili and English. Data were drawn from a larger longitudinal randomized control trial of the Primary Math and Reading Initiative in four counties in Kenya (Kiambu, Nakuru, Nairobi, and Kisumu, with 165 at-risk children identified (71 control; 94 treatment). Children in the treatment condition received daily structured instruction in letter knowledge, phonological awareness, decoding, word reading, and reading comprehension in Kiswahili and English. Children in the control condition continued with the business-as-usual approach, typically whole word instruction. Path analysis was used to examine the intervention effect of the PRIMR program through second grade. The path models further explored the within- and cross-language relationships of variables that predict oral reading fluency over time. Our analyses revealed that children in the treatment condition exhibited significantly higher growth in letter-sound knowledge for both Kiswahili and English. While growth was also observed for non-word fluency in Kiswahili and English for both treatment and control groups, there were no significant findings for this skill that can be attributed to the PRIMR intervention. Our analysis revealed that cross-linguistic elements of English reading skills contribute to oral reading fluency skills in Kiswahili. We discuss implications for aspects of structured literacy instruction essential for multilingual learners at-risk of reading failure.
This exploratory study reports on the implementation of a novel web-based multilingual learning platform. This tool allows content to be delivered in different languages simultaneously, including languages of the students. In addition, it creates access to content knowledge aligned to the local curriculum, and in doing so, responds to an emerging need of both teachers and learners, in particular in light of an increasing linguistically and culturally diverse context. Our pilot research aimed to examine implementation elements and the perceived potential impact of the platform in mathematics. We conducted our study in an elementary school in the region of Toronto, Canada, attended by a significant number of students with a refugee background. A language biographical approach allowed us to highlight the role of the multilingual access to content knowledge, particularly on learning autonomy. Our results suggest that the use of this multilingual web-based platform may stimulate the learning autonomy of students and a positive attitude towards maths. In addition, our results suggest that additional strategies may be needed to improve the teachers’ ability to implement digital as well as language friendly strategies in their classrooms.
Significant growth in the US of the population of secondary school students who are new immigrants or children of immigrants and have transnational, multilingual and mixed-status families has not prompted shifts in secondary-teacher training, pedagogy or school design. As a result, the traditional factory model of US secondary schools has become a site of the reproduction of exclusion and of educational failure, a true “dropout factory” for immigrant youth. This chapter explores current data on high school achievement among immigrants; presents central dilemmas of traditional high schools for educating immigrant adolescents effectively; and offers a brief analysis of innovations and promising alternatives. Close examination of effective research-based approaches in high schools is used as the basis to interrogate the pervasive positioning of failure as a student characteristic rather than the consequence of a rigid and perpetually unsuccessful educational design and to offer approaches for linguistically heterogeneous and culturally diverse student populations.
Research Findings: Although crucial in early childhood, social and emotional learning (SEL) was seldom integrated in preschool classrooms until recently. This study reports the implementation and evaluation of an SEL program devised to assist Chinese preschoolers, a population that has been understudied. With cultural values/practices impacting social and emotional development, cross-cultural studies are needed to understand the transferability and efficacy of early SEL. As one of the first SEL cluster-randomized studies with Chinese preschoolers, emotion knowledge and social awareness (i.e., theory of mind understanding) were examined – two areas which have shown lower competencies among Chinese children. Further, differential training effects between children with lower and higher baseline skills were investigated. A group of 33 children were given the Global Classroom SEL training over 2 weeks while 38 children remained in “usual practice” classrooms. Pre- and posttests were conducted for both SEL training and control groups. A significant increase in emotion knowledge and a trend toward significance in theory of mind was found for children with lower baseline skills. No such increase was observed for children with higher baseline skills. Practice or Policy: This study suggests the positive impact of early SEL for low-performing Chinese children. Further, the findings shed light on advancing research in early SEL programming across cultures.
This article reports the results of a small-scale study examining the role of English language proficiency in the adaptation of Ukrainian immigrant children and youth to life in Saskatchewan, Canada. The main objective of the study was to describe issues related to English as a Second Language (ESL) proficiency as they are perceived by Ukrainian children and youth and by their parents. The second objective of the study was to explore the following factors in the adaptation process: age, gender, duration of stay in Canada, age upon arrival in Canada, ESL class attendance, school type (English as the language of instruction or bilingual), and level of English proficiency. A total of 60 participants (30 children/youth and 30 parents) took part in the study. The methodology (mixed quantitative/qualitative) involved semi-structured interviews with the children/youth participants, an evaluation of their ESL proficiency, and a questionnaire survey of parents’ views on ESL-related adaptation difficulties experienced by children/youth. The results demonstrated that most Ukrainian immigrant children/youth reported that limited English proficiency was a major problem for them when they moved to Canada. The results of the study suggest that the difficulties experienced by a child who immigrates to Canada depend on the child’s ESL speaking proficiency, general ESL proficiency, duration of stay in Canada, and age upon arrival in Canada.
This qualitative case study examined the interactions between four Mexican parents from immigrant backgrounds and their children during the process of creating two biliteracy family projects that centered on their experiential knowledge. Informed by a theoretical lens of sociocultural linguistics and community cultural wealth, this study examined the kinds of linguistic capital in parent-child interactions that present a contrastive micro analysis within the macro context of a school district with a history of linguistic oppression and discrimination. The main data sources were the recorded interactions between parents and children that took place in their homes and classroom workshops. Findings demonstrate the ways that children’s agentive roles were produced through discursive patterns, and how parents and children engaged in metalinguistic negotiations and co-constructions from oral to written descriptions that followed a gradual increase in complexity. Findings revealed how these linguistic resources supported children’s learning, literacy and identities, a dire contradiction to the oppressive and racist structures and policies in the school district.
A growing number of American students are English language learners (ELLs) who speak another language other than English. By 2030, the percentage of students who speak a language other than English is expected to increase substantially. Unfortunately, general education teachers often do not feel prepared to teach ELLs in their classrooms or even hold negative attitudes toward ELLs included in their classrooms. As a result, ELLs are being underserved and continually experience lower achievement. This chapter summarizes several important misconceptions related to the teaching practices of general education teachers for ELLs based on the current literature. The authors then make recommendations for practicing teachers about culturally responsive strategies for ELLs in classrooms. Finally, they conclude with remarks regarding the mindset school communities should offer ELLs.
The study examined the introduction of morphological instruction in the studies of class one students at Mizpah Vine Ark Schol to enhance their reading and comprehension ability. The study sort to find out if children in class I are aware of morphology and also of what benefits its introduction will be in their English Language lessons. The study obtained information from three students from class one mainly through participatory observation and interventions. The results indicated that class one students are unaware of morphology nor its benefits in their studies. It was also realized that the English teachers do not introduce morphology in the studies of such young children up until class five, and even with that, only some aspects of morphology is being treated. It was concluded after the intervention that, the introduction of morphological instruction in the studies of the class one students
The study examined the introduction of morphological instruction in the studies of class one students at Mizpah Vine Ark Schol to enhance their reading and comprehension ability. The study sort to find out if children in class I are aware of morphology and also of what benefits its introductiion will be in their English Language lessons. The study obtained nformation from three students from class one mainly through participatory observation and interventions. The results indicated that class one students are unaware of morphology nor its benefits in their studies. It was also realized that, the English teachers do not introduce morphology in the studies of such young children up until class five, and even with that, only some aspects of morphology is being treated. It was concluded after the intervention that, the introduction of morphological instruction in the studies of the class one students
With the 2015 passage of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), the oversight of language policy in U.S. schools shifted from federal to state governance. Although the education of students officially designated as English learners (ELs) has historically been grounded in federal law, we argue that ELs’ educational experiences are also largely influenced by societal attitudes toward immigrants and immigration. Using a critical policy analysis (CPA) approach, we examine how 12 states’ immigrant policy contexts are associated with the EL educational policies articulated in their ESSA implementation plans. We find that states’ demographic and immigrant policy contexts combine to produce four distinct approaches toward EL education, from departing to approaching equity.
We present case studies of elementary school leaders in an Arizona district with a large enrollment of Latinx Spanish-speaking students who qualify for English language development services. The Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Leadership dimensions are used as a lens to examine how school leaders navigate Arizona’s restrictive language policies to support dual language learners’ (DLLs’) academic achievement and integration. Our analysis revealed the school leaders exhibited equity and excellence for DLLs in their leadership practices, working in opposition to the restrictive policy context through educator collaboration and curriculum design, valuing bilingualism, and integrating DLLs’ culture and language into the school community.
Given the role of the state as the primary governing level tasked with U.S. public education, combined with the rapid rise in the proportion of students who are identified as English learners (ELs), this manuscript puts forth a framework for state EL education policy. The framework is organized around three core principles of understanding students, providing high quality instruction, and supporting effective systems. Drawing on recent decades of policy research, the framework identifies nine key areas for comprehensive state policy action: (1) addressing diversity in EL skills and needs, (2) EL assessment, (3) classification and reclassification, (4) core content access, (5) English language development instruction, (6) bilingual education, (7) EL funding, (8) teacher preparation and skills, and (9) pre-K through postsecondary alignment. Along with synthesizing policy research in each of the nine areas, we present relevant policy implications. We outline how this framework can be used – and adapted – by policymakers and scholars to examine state EL education policy contexts and to guide future research and policymaking.
Effective storytelling relies on engagement and interaction. This work develops an automated software platform for telling stories to children and investigates the impact of two design choices on children’s engagement and willingness to interact with the system: story distribution and the use of complex gesture. A storyteller condition compares stories told in a third person, narrator voice with those distributed between a narrator and first-person story characters. Basic gestures are used in all our storytellings, but, in a second factor, some are augmented with gestures that indicate conversational turn changes, references to other characters and prompt children to ask questions. An analysis of eye gaze indicates that children attend more to the story when a distributed storytelling model is used. Gesture prompts appear to encourage children to ask questions, something that children did, but at a relatively low rate. Interestingly, the children most frequently asked “why” questions. Gaze switching happened more quickly when the story characters began to speak than for narrator turns. These results have implications for future agent-based storytelling system research.
This study identified cognitive processes that underlie individual differences in working memory (WM) and mathematical problem-solving accuracy in emerging bilingual children (English learners). A battery of tests was administered in both English and Spanish that assessed problem solving, achievement, and cognitive processing in children in first grade (n = 155), second grade (n = 129), and third grade (n = 110). The results were that (a) the executive component of WM predicted solution accuracy of word problems independent of first language and second language measures of vocabulary, reading, domain-specific knowledge (e.g., calculation, estimation), and short-term memory and (b) first language (Spanish) measures of the executive component of WM and magnitude comparisons were major predictors of math problem-solving accuracy in both languages. The results support the notion that the executive system of WM is a unique predictor of emerging bilingual children’s math problem-solving accuracy in both languages.
Children coming from homes where English is not their first language constitute a significant and increasing proportion of classrooms worldwide. Providing these English‐language learners (ELLs) with equitable assessment opportunities is a challenge. We analyze the performance of 485 students, both English‐native‐speakers (ENSs) and ELLs, across five schools within the United Kingdom in the 7–11‐year age group on standardized summative Science assessment tasks. Logistic regression with random effects assesses the impact of English‐language proficiency, and its interactions with question traits, on performance. Traits investigated were: question focus; need for active language production; presence/absence of visuals; and question difficulty. Results demonstrated that, while ELLs persistently performed more poorly, the gap to their ENS peers depended significantly upon assessment traits. ELLs were particularly disadvantaged when responses required active language production and/or when assessed on specific scientific vocabulary. Presence of visual prompts did not help ELL performance. There was no evidence of an interaction between topic difficulty and language ability suggesting lower ELL performance is not related to capacity to understand advanced topics. We propose assessment should permit flexibility in language choice and production type for ELLs with low English language proficiency; while simultaneously recommend subject‐specific teaching of scientific language begins at lower stages of schooling.
Emphasis on tracking and ability grouping as sources of inequality and as goals for reform ignores processes of stratification within heterogeneous classrooms. Research literature on effects of classroom status inequality is reviewed. The article presents a test of two interventions derived from expectation states theory and designed to counteract the process of stratification in classrooms using academically heterogeneous small groups. The design focuses on variation in the frequency with which teachers carried out status treatments in 13 elementary school classrooms, all of which were using the same curriculum and the same system of classroom management. There was good support for the hypotheses that the use of status treatments would be associated with higher rates of participation of low-status students and would have no effect on the participation of high-status students. Analysis at the classroom level revealed that more frequent use of these treatments was associated with more equal-status interaction.
Teachers of language-minority students face the daunting task of simultaneously building literacy, developing written expression ability, and enhancing English language growth. This task can be increasingly complicated during the years that language-minority students make the transition from instruction that has been provided primarily in their native language, to instruction that is provided primarily in English. In this article I discuss results from a research project in which my colleagues and I examined language arts and literacy instruction for language minority students in 18 urban classrooms for 2 years. As a result of this research, I delineate a framework for identifying critical instructional practices that appeared to facilitate both learning and language development for language-minority students. Several examples of these practices, as observed in classrooms, are presented within the discussion of this framework.
This article describes a longitudinal evaluation of 2 approaches to the education of language-minority students-transitional bilingual education and a new approach, bilingual immersion-in El Paso, Texas. Rationales for both programs are provided along with a brief description of the factors that led to the development of the bilingual immersion approach. Students' (N = 228) achievement on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills was traced from grades 4 through 7. Results indicated significant effects favoring bilingual immersion in language and reading in grades 4-6, but not in the seventh grade. Students taught with bilingual immersion entered the mainstream more rapidly, as designed. Questionnaire responses (N = 307) also indicated that teachers appeared to be much more satisfied with the rapid but systematic introduction of English in the bilingual immersion program than the relatively slow introduction in the transitional program. 60 students' reactions to the 2 programs in interviews were not significantly different on any variable.
We report a study of the effects of a collaborative inquiry approach to science on language minority students' (middle and high school) learning. The emphasis in this approach is on involving the students, most of whom have never studied science before and some of whom have had very little schooling of any kind, in "doing science" in ways that practicing scientists do. The question addressed in this study is, To what extent do students appropriate scientific ways of knowing and reasoning as a result of their participation in collaborative scientific inquiry? The focus of our analysis was on changes in students' conceptual knowledge and use of hypotheses, experiments, and explanations to organize their reasoning in the context of two think aloud problems. In September the students' reasoning was nonanalytic and bound to personal experience. They responded as if they were being asked to answer questions in a reading comprehension task. In contrast, by June they reasoned in terms of a larger explanatory system, used hypotheses to organize and give direction to their reasoning, and demonstrated an awareness of the function of experimentation in producing evidence to evaluate hypotheses.
This study utilizing a group of monolingual and a group of bilingual 10-year old children obtained from 6 Montreal French schools were given verbal and nonverbal intelligence tests as well as measures of attitudes to the English and French communities. It is interesting to note that this study contrary to others found that bilinguals performed significantly better than their monolingual controls both on the verbal and the nonverbal intelligence tests. Factor analysis supported the hypothesis that the structures of intellect for the 2 groups differed with the bilingual group possessing a more diversified set of mental abilities. Attitude studies also appear to give the bilinguals a more favorable attitude, than their monolingual comparable peers, toward the English-Canadians and less toward the French-Canadians. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Some psychocultural teaching and learning processes—developed in the culture of the home and community—are deeply implicated in the teaching and learning of the literate and cognitive capacities that are central to the purposes of schooling. There are sharp differences in school achievement by members of different cultures; accounting for the psychocultural contributions to this social problem has been the task of several theories and a growing body of research and educational development. At least four classes of variables—social organization, sociolinguistics, cognition, and motivation—vary by culture in ways that are differentially compatible with the expectations and routines of schools. The evidence for the effectiveness of culturally compatible education is reviewed and found to be generally positive. Cultural compatibility produces somewhat different classrooms for different cultures. In addition, language development and contextualized instruction are recommendations for classrooms of all cultures whose students underachieve in school. Implications for general educational reform are discussed as well as recommendations for future research directions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the factors influencing the English word identification performance of Spanish-speaking beginning readers. Beginning readers were administered tests of letter naming, Spanish phonological awareness, Spanish and English word recognition, and Spanish and English oral proficiency. Multiple-regression analyses revealed that the readers' performance on English word and pseudoword recognition tests was predicted by the levels of both Spanish phonological awareness and Spanish word recognition, thus indicating cross-language transfer. In contrast, neither English nor Spanish oral proficiency affected word-identification performance. Results suggest a specific way in which 1st-language learning and experience can aid children in the beginning stages of reading. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The following article1 attempts to account for empirical findings (Doughty and Pica 1986; Long and Sato 1983; Pica and Doughty 1985a, b, in press; Pica and Long, 1986) regarding the relative absence in classroom discourse of interactional moves through which learners and their teachers seek clarification or check comprehension of each other's message meaning. Data are presented to illustrate how these interactional features, i.e., confirmation and comprehension checks and clarification requests, assist language comprehension and production, and current theoretical claims are reviewed to emphasize their proposed importance to the second-language acquisition process. Absence of these interactional features in the classroom, it is argued, is a reflection of the unequal participant relationships which shape and are shaped by classroom activities. In support of this argument, examples of discourse from a variety of classroom activities are given. Finally, results are reported from research on two activities believed to promote more equalized relationships among classroom participants-a decision-making discussion, and an information-exchange task. Results on the latter are used as a basis for suggesting ways in which the classroom can serve as a social and linguistic environment more favourable to second-language acquisition.
This paper describes a research and development project in teaching designed to examine whether and how it might be possible to bring the practice of knowing mathematics in school closer too what it means to know mathematics within the discipline by deliberately altering the roles and responsibilities of teacher and students in classroom discourse. The project was carried out as a regular feature of lessons in fifth-grade mathematics in a public school. A case of teaching and learning about exponents derived from lessons taught in the project is described and interpreted from mathematical, pedagogical, and sociolinguistic perspectives. To change the meaning of knowing and learning in school, the teacher initiated and supported social interactions appropriate to making mathematical arguments in response to students’ conjectures. The activities students engaged in as they asserted and examined hypotheses about the mathematical structures that underlie their solutions to problems are contrasted with the conventional activities that characterize school mathematics.
Successful reading comprehension depends not only on readers' ability to access appropriate content and formal schemata. It also depends on their ability to monitor what they understand and to take appropriate strategic action. L2 reading research and pedagogy might fruitfully be expanded to explore how different kinds of L2 students can be helped to monitor their reading comprehension. Suggestions in this article include how to introduce students to the concept and language of routine monitoring and, from L1 training studies, how to teach specific monitoring and repair strategies to individuals with special reading problems (reciprocal teaching—Palincsar & Brown, 1984) and to larger, more “average” groups (a think-aloud procedure—Bereiter & Bird, 1985). Our underlying knowledge about such monitoring behaviors might be viewed as strategy schemata, which, in addition to schemata for content and form, influence how we understand what we read. Learning to articulate this knowledge is thought to enhance learning, at least in the classroom context. Applications to the many L2 contexts remain to be explored.
This article reports on a study of the language use practices and beliefs of bilingual students enrolled in a fourth-grade class taught by a teacher who is only minimally proficient in their native language, Spanish. Combining an ethnographic and a quantitative perspective, the study is based on two major data sources: extensive field observations of the classroom and interviews with the students and teacher. In addition to drawing upon interview data that describe the language choices and attitudes of the students as a whole, this article focuses on the language use of three case-study children who were observed longitudinally in the classroom at regular intervals over 14 months. The results depict a classroom where students and teacher are committed to the maintenance and further development of Spanish. Spanish-speaking students, particularly girls, used considerable amounts of Spanish in the classroom despite their teacher's reliance on English. Children in the classroom consistently held very positive attitudes toward Spanish and bilingualism regardless of their language practices at home or school. However, our data reveal that a substantial shift toward English over the school year characterized the sociolinguistic environment of this classroom. Most children in the class reported using greater amounts of English as they progressed through the grades, and the case-study children's use of. English in the classroom increased considerably over the course of the school year. In addition to addressing the different factors at work in the way students use and develop their native languages in school settings, we describe ways English-medium teachers can foster the maintenance and development of their students' native languages.
Survey research on academic skills that ESL students need to function effectively at English-speaking universities has, for the most part, focused extensively on reading and writing skills. Complementary research on subject-matter instructors' perceptions of linguistic/academic problems of ESL students has similarly emphasized literacy tasks. The present study therefore investigates college/university professors' views on ESL students' difficulties with listening/speaking tasks.Content-area instructors at four different institutions and in a variety of academic disciplines responded to questions and provided comments about their ESL students' aural/oral skills. Respondents felt that their ESL students have great difficulty with class participation, asking and responding to questions, and general listening comprehension (as opposed to lecture comprehension). They also suggested strongly that ESL instructors strive for authenticity in their EAP activities, specifically that they give students opportunities to practice listening to real lectures by a variety of speakers, interact with native speakers, and cope with genre-specific vocabulary, reading materials, and writing tasks.
With increased emphasis on integration of language and content-area instruction, the roles of bilingual and ESL teachers are becoming increasingly interrelated—a situation that calls for development of common training experiences in the preparation of ESL and bilingual personnel. This article describes a teacher training course designed to meet both the differing language proficiency needs of bilingual and ESL teachers, as well as the common needs of teachers learning to implement content-based strategies for teaching language. Specifically, (a) ESL specialists receive an immersion experience in Spanish, (b) bilingual specialists are provided opportunities to enhance their proficiency in academic Spanish, and (c) both ESL and bilingual specialists receive intensive simulated classroom experiences in small-group, content-based instruction following a cooperative learning approach. A rationale for following an integrated approach in the preparation of language educators for limited English proficient (LEP) children is presented, and data collected from participants in the course are discussed in relation to the potential effectiveness of this type of teacher training format as a vehicle for attaining important teacher preparation goals.
This article reports on findings from the first phase of an ongoing research project that is investigating English language learners in middle school social studies classrooms. This phase examined the academic language of American history classes and implemented a series of lessons designed to integrate language and content objectives with the development of critical-thinking skills and information about the cultural diversity of colonial America. The article analyzes features of social studies academic language from text and classroom discourse and reviews cultural diversity as it is represented in popular textbooks. Also highlighted are successful strategies teachers used to facilitate students' comprehension of the subject matter and improve their academic language skills. Many of these strategies are adaptations of ESL techniques that have been applied to content-area lessons. The conclusion is that an integrated language and social studies course may be an appropriate placement for English language learners who are preparing to enter mainstream classes.
This ethnographic report “thickly describes” (Geertz, 1973) the participation of ESL children in the daily classroom events of a mainstream first-grade classroom. Data for this paper come from a yearlong study of one classroom in an international school on a college campus in the U.S. Using a language socialization and micropolitical orientation, the report describes how, through socially significant interfactional routines, the children and other members of the classroom jointly constructed the ESL children's identities, social relations, and ideologies as well as their communicative competence in that setting. The sociocultural ecology of the community, school, and classroom shaped the kinds of microinteractions that occurred and thus the nature of their language learning over the course of the year.
The issue of completeness in adult second language acquisition is critical in the development of a theory of second language acquisition. Assuming the Chomskyan definition of core grammar as being those aspects of the language determined by the interaction of the innately specified Universal Grammar and the input to which the learner is exposed, we need to ask if it is possible for an adult learner of a second language to attain native-speaker competence in the core aspects of the grammar of the second language. This paper examines evidence for presence or absence of one principle of UG, Subjacency, in the grammars of groups of proficient nonnative speakers of English. There are three groups whose native languages - Korean, Chinese, Indonesian - differ from English with regard to Subjacency, Korean showing no evidence of it, Chinese and Indonesian showing partial evidence of it. There is one group whose native language, Dutch, shows the full range of Subjacency effects that English does. If all groups show the same Subjacency effects in English that native speakers do, then it must be the case UG is still available for adult second language learning and completeness in second language grammars is possible; if not, then completeness cannot be included as a possible characteristic of adult second language acquisition. Proficient nonnative university students with the above native languages were given grammaticality judgement tests on a set of sentences containing a variety of structures (islands) and Subjacency violations involving those structures. Analysis showed that though all groups were able to correctly judge grammatical sentences (containing islands) as grammatical, only the Dutch group was able to correctly judge ungrammatical sentences (containing Subjacency violations) as ungrammatical; the Korean subjects performed randomly on this task. This native language effect was shown not to be due to attribute variables, such as age of first exposure to English, number of months in an English-speaking country, number of years of English study, etc. The results support the conclusion that completeness is not a possible property of adult-acquired grammars since adults no longer have access to UG for the second language learning process.
The use of languages other than English in schooling is a subject of great controversy in the U.S., pitting those who hold assimilationist views (favoring English-only) against those who hold cultural pluralist views (favoring inclusion of the native language) (Secada & Lightfoot, 1993). A study of nine exemplary K-12 programs for language minority students in which English was the primary language of instruction showed that the incorporation of students' native languages in instruction need not be an all- or-nothing phenomenon. The use of the native language appears so compelling that it emerges even when policies and assumptions mitigate against it. Teachers who are monolingual English speakers or who do not speak the languages of all their students can incorporate students' native languages into instruction in many ways to serve a variety of educationally desirable functions. This article explores the complexities of the use of students' native languages in schooling, describes and illustrates various ways these languages were used in the English-based but multilingual programs, and argues that programs for language minority students should be reconceptualized to move beyond the emotional and politically heated debate that opposes English-only instruction to native language instruction.
This study used questionnaire data collected by the Educational Testing Service in 51 high schools to discover which school practices improved racial attitudes and behaviors in desegregated schools. Data were analyzed at school and individual levels using multiple regressions. Results for whites indicated strong, positive effects on racial attitudes and behaviors of assigning students of different races to work together and through individual participation on a sports team with students of another race. Weaker effects were found for class discussions of race. For blacks, assignment of students of different races to work together and teacher workshops on race relations had effects on one behavioral variable, and individual participation in biracial work groups or sports teams had strong, positive effects on racial behaviors and attitudes. Few effects for either race were found for teacher workshops, use of multiethnic texts, or tracking. Results were interpreted to indicate that programs involving cooperative interaction between students of different races are most likely to improve race relations in desegregated schools.
The questions and issues that underlie bilingual education are constrained by deficit views about the abilities and experiences of language-minority students. In general, most research has emphasized how well students acquire English, assimilate into mainstream culture, and perform on tests of basic skills. Employing a sociocultural perspective that acknowledges the many resources that are available to children outside of the school, the author describes how research about children's communities can be used to enhance instruction. For this to work, researchers and teachers must redefine their roles so that they enter into collaborative working relationships that focus on ways of bringing about educational change.
Several recent studies have suggested that to involve parents, the most successful schools reach out to the community. In a recent ethnographic study of parents whose children attend a dual-language school, it was found that volunteering in the school was an important mechanism to build and maintain close relationships between parents and the school. This article reports on the patterns of volunteering in the school and the ways that parents used these opportunities, not only to benefit the school and the community, but to improve their own lives.
This article discusses a way of evaluating communicative performance in a second language. Rather than focusing on correctness, intelligibility, or style, it suggests that attention should be paid to communication strategies. The article goes on to describe a study in which an attempt was made to assess communicative performance from this point of view.
The course of mother-tongue diversity is abstracted from longitudinal data gathered for 35 nations. The Greenberg A index is used to measure diversity in each nation, and the magnitude of change is determined through a procedure proposed by Coleman. Diversity declines over time in the majority of cases, but there is considerable variation between nations and in 14 cases diversity has increased. Accordingly, various national characteristics are considered to see whether they help account for the magnitude and direction of change observed among nations. Two factors, the spatial isolation of language groups and official educational policies, have fairly high correlations with changes in diversity. In addition, several geopolitical factors have affected diversity change in the past: age of nation, boundary changes, forced population movements, and World War II. Two specially puzzling results are the comparatively rapid rate of mother-tongue change in the United States and the failure of national development to have much bearing on the course of mother-tongue diversity. A theoreticl approach accounting for these events is described.
The article discusses the need educators have for measures of linguistic competence for limited-English-proficient (LEP) students. Traditional measurement procedures do not meet these needs because of mismatches between educational experiences and test content, cultural experiences and test con- tent, and linguistic experience and test content. A new type of test -Sentence Verification Technique (SVT) test - that may meet some of the measurement needs of LEP students is described, and the results of a study that examines the reliability and validity of the new tests as measures of the listening and reading comprehension performance in both the native language and English are reported. The results indicate that the tests are reliable and that SVT performance varies as functions of placement in a transitional bilingual education program, teacher judgments of competence, and difficulty of the material. These results are consistent with the interpretation that SVT tests are valid measures of the linguistic competence of LEP students. The article concludes with a discussion of some of the advantages of using SVT tests with LEP populations.
Tracking is a ubiquitous practice in American high schools, whereby students are sorted according to perceived academic ability and then instructed separately with different curricula. In recent years, numerous educational inequities have been identified in association with this practice, including the concentration of language minority students in the lowest status rungs of the system. This article addresses linguistic features associated with the differentiated curricula of high school classrooms, and consequences for learners of the school language. The article also explores processes by which language minority students are placed in tracked classrooms, and the means by which some of them negotiate the system in order to change tracks after they ore placed.
Classical Piagetian theory had much to offer education, which could not be derived from the learning theory of its day. Since the cognitive revolution, learning theory has accepted most of Piaget's basic constructivist premises and outstripped his theory in its ability to model the details of children's cognitive structures. Thus, an important question is whether Piagetian theory still has anything distinctive to offer. To support the claim that it does, the notion of a central conceptual structure is introduced. These structures have several features that make their discovery in the context of learning theory unlikely, most notably their generality, the wide range of content domains that they span and their susceptibility to general developmental as well as specific experiential influence. Educational areas in which analysis of central conceptual structures has proven useful include (a) assessment, (b) early childhood education, (c) curriculum design, and (d) remedial instruction.
This experiment attempted to produce equal-status interaction among four-person interracial groups of junior high school boys by assigning a high level of competence to the black subjects on two related tasks. Each treated group played a criterion game where the probabilities of whites and blacks being active and influential could be measured. Previous research has shown that in untreated groups the racial status characteristic becomes activitated, i.e., whites are much more likely than blacks to be active and influential. Results: unless the expectations for black competence held by both whites and blacks are treated, whites will dominate the interaction in the criterion game. When expectations of the whites are treated by having the whites serve as students of the black teacher, behavior on the game approximates an equal status pattern. The strongest treatment involves spelling out the relevance of the training tasks to the criterion game. Implications for school desegration are discussed.
A meta-analysis of selected studies on the efficacy of bilingual education was conducted and the results were compared with a traditional review of the same literature. When statistical controls for methodological inadequacies were employed, participation in bilingual education programs consistently produced small to moderate differences favoring bilingual education for tests of reading, language skills, mathematics, and total achievement when the tests were in English, and for reading, language, mathematics, writing, social studies, listening comprehension, and attitudes toward school or self when tests were in other languages. The magnitude of effect sizes was influenced by the types of programs compared, language of the criterion instruments, academic domain of the criterion instruments, random versus nonrandom assignment of students to programs, formula used to calculate effect sizes, and types of scores reported in the studies. Programs characterized by instability and/or hostile environments were associated with lower effect sizes. The synthesized studies contained a variety of methodological weaknesses which affected the magnitude of the effect sizes. Initial group differences—in language dominance, in environmental language exposure, in need for the bilingual program—were not uncommon. In some cases, comparison groups contained bilingual program “graduates.” In others, experimental groups changed in composition during the study through the exiting of successful students and their replacement with newcomers subsequent to pretesting and prior to posttesting. Although the technique of meta-analysis allows for statistical control of methodological inadequacies, the methodological inadequacies in the synthesized studies render the results less than definitive and highlight the need for quality research in the area of bilingual education. Problems inherent in conducting research on bilingual programs are discussed in relation to the outcomes of this synthesis, and guidelines for future research are proposed.
This study examined the ways in which Mexican-American students construct meaning when reading school materials. It focused on the strategies they use when reading English and Spanish, the knowledge sources they call upon, and the ways in which these relate to understanding.
Twelve fifth-grade students, all who come from bilingual homes, were asked to read both Spanish and English stories and informational pieces. Interspersed questions, post reading probes, and oral and written recalls were designed to tap their text understanding over time, as well as what they recalled after reading each piece. Interviews and school records provided background information about the students’ personal and school histories both in the United States and in Mexico.
Transcripts, fieldnotes, and student writing samples were analyzed for patterns in the students’ approaches to the construction of meaning and in their differential uses of language and genre.
Findings indicate that: (a) beyond a necessary basic, but limited knowledge of English, the students’ abilities to use good meaning-making strategies made the major difference in how well they comprehended in both Spanish and English; (b) the students’ language competence in Spanish helped them understand and respond to questions in both languages; (c) the students’ familiarity with genre affected their ability to build meanings in both languages; and (d) the kinds of questions the students were asked affected their ability to communicate what they understood.
Five critical differences between first and second language learning were identified and discussed. It was hypothesized that the effect of these differences in formal education could be virtually eliminated by means of a reading program based on the use of an abundance of high-interest illustrated story books. A sample of 380 Class 4 and 5 pupils from eight rural Fijian schools with very few books was selected, and each class was provided with 250 high-interest story books in English. The 16 participating teachers were given directions in two different methods of encouraging the pupils to read the books. Pre- and posttests were given to all pupils and to matched control groups of 234 pupils who followed the normal structured English language program, which puts little emphasis on reading. Posttest results after eight months showed that pupils exposed to many stories progressed in reading and listening comprehension at twice the normal rate, and confirmed the hypothesis that high-interest story reading has an important role to play in second language learning. After 20 months, the gains had increased further and spread to related language skills./// [French] On a identifié et discuté cinq différences critiques entre l'étude d'une première et deuxième langue. On a posé comme hypothèse que l'effet de ces différences en éducation formelle pourrait être pratiquement éliminé au moyen d'un programme de lecture basée sur l'usage de nombreux livres d'histoires illustrées à grand intérêt. On a selectionné un échantillon de 380 élèves de classe de huitième et septième à partir de huit écoles fidjiennes de zone rurale avec très peu de livres, on a donc donné à chaque classe 250 livres d'histoires à grand intérêt en anglais. On a fourni aux seize enseignants participant des directions avec deux méthodes différentes pour encourager les élèves à lire les livres. On a donné des pre- et post-tests à tous les élèves et à des groupes de contrôle de valeur égale conprennant 234 élèves qui ont suivi le programme normal et structuré de langue anglaise lequel accentue peu la lecture. Les résultats des post-tests après huit mois ont montré que les élèves mis en contact avec de nombreuses histoires ont progressé en lecture et en compréhension d'écoute à un taux double du taux normal, et ont confirmé l'hypothèse que la lecture d'histoires à grand intérêt joue un rôle important dans l'étude d'une deuxième langue. Après 20 mois, les bénéfices avaient augmenté davantage et s'étaient eténdus à des compétences ayant rapport à la langue./// [Spanish] Se identificaron y se discuten 5 diferencias críticas entre el aprendizaje del primer y segundo lenguaje. Se planteó la hipótesis que el efecto de estas diferencias en el proceso de instrucción formal podía virtualmente ser eliminado por medio de un programa de lectura, basado en el uso de una abundancia de libros de cuentos ilustrados y de gran interés. Se seleccionó una muestra de 380 alumnos de las cuartas y quintas clases de 8 escuelas rurales de las Islas Fiyi que tenían muy poco libros, y se proveyó a cada clase 250 libros de cuentos de gran interés en inglés. Los 16 maestros participantes recibieron instrucción en dos métodos, para estimular a los alumnos a leer los libros. Se dieron tests de comprobación experimental y final a todos los alumnos y a grupos apareados de control, compuestos por 234 alumnos que seguían el curso regular de idioma inglés, que pone poco énfasis en la lectura. Los resultados de comprobación final después de 8 meses mostraron que los alumnos que fueron expuestos a muchos cuentos progresaron a un nivel doble del normal en lectura y comprensión auditiva, y confirmó la hipótesis de que la lectura de cuentos de mucho interés juega un importante papel en el aprendizaje de un segundo lenguaje. Después de 20 meses, el incremento en el aprendizaje fue todavía mayor y se había extendido a otras destrezas relacionadas con el aprendizaje de un lenguaje.
The present study investigated the effects of the complexity of the English language and the cultural origin of prose on the reading comprehension of 46 Iranian intermediate/advanced ESL students at the university level. Half of the subjects read the unadapted English texts of two stories, one from Iranian folklore and one from American folklore; the other half read the same stories in adapted or simplified English. The subjects were tested on reading comprehension through the use of multiple choice questions on explicit and implicit information in the texts. The recall questions on the stories were also given to 19 American subjects for comparison purposes. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the cultural origin of the story had more effect on the comprehension of the ESL students than the level of syntactic and semantic complexity, adapted vs. unadapted. For native English readers, however, both the level of syntactic and semantic complexity of the text and the cultural origin of the story affected comprehension. The native language readers were better able to understand un-adapted English and the story based on American folklore. Implications of this study for teaching and for materials selection and design are discussed.
Currently, much of the literature on school reform and renewal cites the need to look at reform from the level of the school as unit. Therefore, it is necessary to study programs such as bilingual programs in the context of the larger school environment in which they exist. The larger school context can greatly impact what goes on in bilingual classrooms within the school. This study reports the results of a case study of a school that labels itself as a “bilingual school”. The study examines and describes language use in bilingual classrooms in the school and language use in the larger school environment outside of the classroom. The study asserts that if bilingual programs are to be places where children truly become bilingual and biliterate, then the environment outside of the classroom must encourage and support the use of two languages with the same enthusiasm as the environment inside bilingual classrooms. Further, each language must have the same status outside the classroom in a bilingual school. Results of the study conclude that, while two languages are used both inside and outside bilingual classes at this school, they each serve different functions. Further, while both languages are used, they do not share equal status. Evidence for these results is provided in the study.
Properties of the maintenance and loss of Spanish/English bilingualism were investigated in 308 high-school students of Mexican background. Subjects were classified by their depth of familial establishment in the United States. The key variables investigated were their actual and self-reported proficiencies in Spanish and English, self-reported language choice behavior in various settings, and their language attitude. The largest difference in Spanish proficiency was found between the cohort who were born in the United States but whose parents were born in Mexico and the cohort whose parents were born in the United States, with maintenance of Spanish evident up to this group. Maintenance of Spanish proficiency was principally associated with adult language practice in the home, and was not predicted by the subject's language choice outside the home or their language attitude. In turn, adult language choice was found to be affected by the demographic fact of immigration, the adult's ability to use English in the home, and increasing distance in the familial social network ties to Mexico. Outside of the home domain, language choice was found to show rapid and constant shift towards English. This shift in language choice was unrelated to Spanish proficiency, but instead was predicted by the subject's language attitude. Language attitude also appeared to contaminate self-reported proficiency in both Spanish and English. Finally, a response latency task for vocabulary production and recognition in Spanish suggested that attrition of Spanish is best characterized as difficulty in retrieval rather than total loss.
A recent report by the U.S. Department of Education on the effectiveness of bilingual education programs reflects a number of issues that are at the very core of bilingual education. Clarification of these issues has implications not only for policy and research in bilingual education, but also for the interpretation of the report itself. Two of these issues and their implications are discussed: the purpose of bilingual education and the nature of bilingual education programs. Alternative interpretations of the report that arise from clarification of these issues are presented. Methodological weaknesses in the report are also discussed. These include gross over- simplification in the method of tallying the results of primary studies, and the failure to apply equally rigorous research standards to all studies when interpreting their results. Finally, an alternative review methodology is described that would enable the gleaning of all relevant information from the primary studies included in the report without ignoring the complexities inherent in the evaluation of bilingual education. This methodology is currently being utilized in a secondary review of the studies included in the initial report.
Although previous investigators have concluded that the use of Spanish is stable in the Southwest, recent survey data from Los Angeles indicate that the intergenerational loyalty to and transmission of Spanish among Chicanos is only moderately greater than ethnic language maintenance among Europeans earlier this century. (JC)
Examines the research on the central role of decoding in reading, concluding that the position that whole language proponents take in equating learning to read with learning to talk and their reduction of decoding to an incidental place in the curriculum are wrong. The authors argue for a balanced approach to reading instruction. (GR)
Suggests new bases of information that need to be considered in deciding how to handle phonics effectively in beginning reading and writing instruction. Presents a description of phonics instruction in the classroom of a teacher of a whole language kindergarten. (MG)
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is working to increase the numbers of students with disabilities (SD) or limited English proficient (LEP) students who are included in the assessment. Information is presented on the changes made to the inclusion criteria, the types of accommodations being offered, new procedures implemented in 1996, and ongoing research studies. The percentages of SD and LEP students excluded have been fairly steady over time, with about 5% excluded due to Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) and 1% excluded due to LEP. An evaluation conducted in 1994 found that many of these students were, in fact, capable of participating in the assessment. In preparation for the 1996 assessment, the NAEP field tested the new inclusionary criteria and the use of various accommodations and adaptations for the mathematics assessment. Field test results were generally encouraging, but did indicate that results for SD and LEP students may not be comparable to those of other students. A special sample design was developed for the 1996 NAEP to help clarify issues raised by the inclusion of additional SD and LEP students. Current research is examining scaling, reporting, appropriateness, construct validity, language complexity, and inclusion issues. (SLD)
In this study, the status ordering of a four-man group working on a task requiring discussion and decision was predicted on the basis of status characteristic theory. Two of the group members were white; two were black. They were matched as to age, height, and also on a combined index of socioeconomic status and attitude toward school. The difference in the value of the status characteristic of race proved to be associated with differences in rank order of the number of acts initiated, with the whites much more likely to have a higher rank in the groups than the blacks. The whites were also more likely to be influential in the making of group decisions than the blacks, expecially where the decisions were contested. In addition to some very quiet blacks who helped account for these marked overall results, there were many moderately active and influential black subjects and three black subjects who were both "high" on influence and initiation. Some groups were clearly black-dominated. Certain differences in interaction style were noted between blacks and whites; and these differences suggested different retraining techniques that might be used. [Not available in hard copy due to marginal legibility of original document.] (Author/JM)
Three sets of factors that are strongly and consistently productive of academic learning are student ability and motivation, amount and quality of instruction as well as the social-psychological morale of the classroom group, and the educationally stimulating qualities of the home environment. (Author/MLF)
Analysis of protocols from adults thinking aloud while reading identified four potentially teachable strategies. In a teaching experiment involving 80 students in Grades 7 and 8, significant advantages were found in both target strategy acquisition and reading comprehension for a treatment that combined thinking-aloud strategy modeling and practice with instruction in identification and use of the target strategies. Neither strategy modeling and practice alone, nor question-answer comprehension activities, were effective. Even in the successful group, instruction was effective with only three of the strategies. Implications for identification of teachable strategies are discussed.
This study examined the effectiveness of role playing and antiracist teaching to reduce the racial prejudice of students. Meta-analysis was used to integrate findings from studies examining those strategies. Studies were located according to predetermined criteria, summarized, and the results converted to a standardized score, or “effect size.” Twenty-six relevant studies were located, yielding 43 effect sizes. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to interpret the effect-size data. Through multiple-regression techniques, 65% of the variance was explained, and several moderating variables were found to influence the strategies' effectiveness. The results indicate that role playing and antiracist teaching significantly reduce racial prejudice, and they do not differ from each other in their effectiveness. The implications of the results for education policy and future research are discussed.
After tabulation and discussion of racial differences in intelligence found by previous workers, the author gives results of testing 2457 public school children of Tennessee, Louisiana, and California with the Goodenough Intelligence Test for Young Children, which is independent of language. A number of racial stocks were included: Orientals, Spanish-Mexican, Jews, Indians, Negroes, and Europeans of various nationalities. The distribution of IQ's shows that "the South Europeans and Negro groups rank very much below the American children and those of North European stock. The rank-order of the various nationality-groups corresponds very closely to that found by means of other intelligence tests." In order to be fair to the foreign groups, no children from schools in superior residential districts were tested. Bibliography of 46 titles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the nature of the concept of cognate (CN) held by 81 4th–6th-grade students bilingual in Spanish (SP) and English (EN) and the variation that occurs in CN recognition. The relationship between the Ss' understanding of CNs and their processing of EN text was also examined. Ss read 4 expository passages at a 4th-grade reading level containing a number of clear SP–EN CNs; vocabulary tests in both EN and SP were developed to assess knowledge of specific CNs and passage vocabulary. Results showed that the ability to recognize and utilize CN relationships in EN reading was not fully developed, nor was it an automatic consequence of the Ss being bilingual in SP and EN. There was substantial variability in the number of CNs Ss identified, and in their ability to differentiate CNs from non-CNs. While most Ss recognized CNs, their concept of CN was rudimentary. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
purpose of this chapter is to present a theoretical model of self-system processes across the life-span / this model is based on a motivational analysis of self-system functioning that features three fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness
after evaluating selected theoretical approaches to the study of self, the defining features of the new model will be presented / an application of the model within the enterprise of school will be discussed, including data from studies of self-system processes in children and adolescents / concludes with a discussion of the model's implications for institutional reform (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)