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© Kamla-Raj 2006 Anthropologist, 8(3): 157-160 (2006)
The Anthropomorphic Attributes of African Musical
Instruments: History and Use in Esan, Nigeria
Charles O. Aluede
Department of Threatre and Media Arts, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria
KEYWORDS Anthropomorphism. Consecration. Evil Hands. Healing. Society
ABSTRACT This paper reviewed the anthropomorphic attributes of musical instruments in Africa. It proceeded to discuss
the concepts and historical origin. In the course of this research, the instrumental resources, and ritual consecration
of the instruments were seen to be strong factors for their attributes. The paper concludes by revealing the use of the
anthropomorphism in the traditional Esan society.
INTRODUCTION
It is impossible to know all the facts about
the music of the past in West Africa because of
the lack of indigenous written records. We can
learn a great deal, however, from two major
sources of historical information; the oral tra-
ditions of the land and the books written by Euro-
pean travelers and traders (Southern, 1983: 4).
The study of African music is deeply
contingent on reports by non-Africans who are
traders and travelers without ethnomusicological
background. Such works have allowed copious
generalizations that lacked in-depth study. If the
musical past of Africans are not too known, does
it appear credible to rely on the accounts of people
who are primarily concerned about economic
exploits? And if we have recognized oral tra-
ditions of the land as repository of the peoples
past then how long should a non-African stay in
a place before discussing their arts? This myriad
of questions have become necessary because the
answers that may be given to the questions asked
by inquisitive non-Africans on flying visits may
not be authentic.
In a world of human rights protection and wild
life preservation, and even the presence of white
men who were then seen as semi- gods, it could
not have been said that certain drums are made
of human, leopard, hyena, lion, Indian python,
Alligator and boa hides with human skulls, human
bones and elephant bones as frames. The answer
due such strangers was that the drums are made
of Snakes, Goats, Antelope and deer hides. Where
the frames are of wood, emphasis was obviously
not on how the wood are cut in the bush or the
kind of consecration required before such drums
are used for ritual purposes. Researches in
African musical arts should not be by question
and answer. Besides, Africans who served as
informants to these Western travelers and traders
were oblivious of their intentions. It will therefore
not be an over statement should it be said that
certain pictures, obscure but still held as the
gospel truth need re-imaging. Just a note to end
this segment, Roger Kamien (1988: 591) says:
“Non Western music (including African Music)
is most often transmitted orally from parent to
child or from teacher to student”. If an investigator
is not within this category, information gathering
may be difficult and spurious.
SOME FALLACIOUS VIEWS OF
AFRICAN MUSIC AND MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS
From available records, there appears to be
overwhelming misconceptions about what
African Music stands for. Little wonder! That
Tracey (1963: 36) remarks that “of all the arts in
Africa, music is perhaps the most highly
misinterpreted”. Greatly disturbed about certain
treatises that African musical studies have been
vitiated by theories of evolution and diffusion and
the concept of the primitive, Nketia (1967: 29)
warns that “It is important that we do not follow
these disciplines blindly”. On theories of the
evolution of music in the world, what we find is:
exactly how music began is a mystery but an idea
of its origin can be reconstructed from the music
of the primitive tribes of Africa. In this direction
Mitchell (1960: 3) says that “the study of
primitive tribes of today likewise provides some
information about music’s past.” African music
158 CHARLES O. ALUEDE
is very dynamic and functional and so is not and
should not be seen as primitive and static as to
provide strong basis of world music’s reconstruc-
tion. A look at world history of music portrays
individual stories of their music’s origin. In this
light, Polin (1954) posits:
It is doubtful that we shall ever know when or
under what circumstances the first musical
utterance was made, yet every culture developed
some form of musical tradition and many of them
possessed legends that pertain to the origin of
music.
If it is doubtful to ever know how music ori-
ginated, why deceive and delude the world into
thinking that Africa could provide any form of
clue? After Mesopotamia (Asia) the next conti-
nent that witnessed early civilization is Africa and
given that every culture is dynamic, it may be
erroneous to suppose that the instruments in use
now, songs and dances, are true replica of those
of several centuries ago in the continent.
Definition of Anthropomorphism
The Cambridge international dictionary of
English (1995) defines Anthropomorphism as
“the showing or treating of animals, gods and
objects as if they are human in appearance,
character and behaviours” While this opinion is
good enough for the purpose of this treatise, the
chambers dictionary throws a better light into this
subject by defining it as “the ascription of human
characteristics to what is not human” (2001: 63).
African societies are autochthonous in nature.
This situation is discernable in their diversity in
language spoken, music and dance performances,
cultural and religious beliefs. In spite of these
obvious diversities, there is a point of agreement
– some African musical instruments are
anthropomorphous. Such instruments are mainly
wooden and membrane drums.
Anthropomorphic Attributes of African
Instruments: A History
After a long study of global percussion
market, the drum maker Remo Belli in Hart (1990:
29) opines that “One percent of the world’s
population are drummers”. Hart (1990) concludes
that there are probably a lot more drummers in
the world than pianists, trombonists and flautists.
In Africa drums form the major bed rock of the
ensembles. This is so because they are given
eminent positions in social, religious and political
settings. Although Africa has records of the use
of other instruments from aerophone chordo-
phone and idiophone families, drums are very
common. In spite of its profuse usage and involve-
ment in musical performances, certain drums in
Africa are highly respected. The source of this
respect is contingent on the attributes drums share
in Africa. Bebey (1975: 14) observes that:
Because the drum in certain circumstances,
is equated with a man (and a rather exceptional
man, at that, whose powerful voice is capable of
sending messages far and wide), women must
consequently treat it with the same respect that
they show towards their men folk… in some
African societies, women are not even permitted
to touch a drum under any circumstance.
There is a central reason why drums are
respected in Africa and all over the world. Kamien
(1988) asserts that in Tibet, trumpets and drums
are made from human bones and skulls. This view
is further supported by Hart (1990: 15) when he
says specifically of Tibetan musical instruments
that “The most distinctive damarus are made from
human skulls”.
In Africa, there are records of drums construc-
tion and consecration procedures. It is these
exercises that give African drums their status of
human equivalence. In Ghana, the sacrificial
drums of the Ashanti are covered with the
membrane of human skin and decorated with
human skulls. Similarly, in East Africa, it is said
that coronation drums were only played by sticks
made from human tibias. To think of how old this
practice is and where exactly it first started
remains an unattainable goal. However, this
practice may have been in existence ever since
the origin of African nation.
Esan nationality broke out of the Benin
Kingdom in the 14th Century. Till date, they are
generally believed to be of Edoid extraction. In
this area, Royal drums were said to have been
made of palace Slaves’ hides and skin. Later as a
result of abrogation of certain repugnant practi-
ces, tiger skin was then introduced. In most Esan
palaces, there are till today, drums made of tiger
skin. Another important factor which aided
anthropomorphism is the choice of wood for drum
construction and its associated consecra-tion by
cult chief priests. Certain ritual/cult drums are
made of drum frames from trees like Ohankin and
Akwobisi and Asoli. These are mystical plants
revered for their unique powers. Such frames are
covered with the skin of Indian python or Boa as
in the case of Native doctor’s drums, tiger skin as
159
THE ANTHROPOMORPHIC ATTRIBUTES OF AFRICAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
in palace drums and leopard or hyena as in some
other cults. When duly consecrated, the drums
remain very powerful in the societies they serve.
This shall be extensively discussed under use of
anthropomorphic drums. The products of such
drum construction are Okede’bo Native doctor’s
drums, Okede Owegbe drums used in Owegbe
cult, Okede Azenu drums used in Azenu cult etc.
Another major source from which anthro-
pomorphism evolved is the practice of spiritism,
there is ardent belief in ancestor and ancestral
spirits in Africa. This view is supported wholly
when Hindley (1982: 24) observes that “where as
some instruments have become completely
profane in their use, certain others have powerful
religious or magical powers and women or non
initiates who see them may be punished by death”
In Esan, one of such religio-mystical instruments
is Alimin-Otor – land spirits. This instrument is
actually the bull roarer which is a carved bob of
wood attached to a cord which, when whirled
through the air produces a terrifying roar. This
instrument is usually played around midnight with
strong warning that women and children should
lock themselves inside only initiates usually old
men take part in the procession of land spirits,
consequently, the sounding of the instrument (bull
roarer) in Esan conveys the presence of spirits in
the midst of men.
In Esan nationality is a dance called
Igbabonelimhin; this means clapping for the
ancestors. The ensemble’s masquerade is
obviously not expected to talk but on rare occa-
sions, he utters some telegraphic messages in the
spirit language which very few elders can inter-
pret. The tone of the message is usually shrill and
high pitched. The instrument with which such
tones are produced is made of wood with a hole
in the middle while one end is open the other is
loosely sealed with polythene substance of 2mm
thickness when sang or spoken into from the open
end, the sound rattles. Till date the associated
sound that comes from this instrument is believed
to be the voice of the ancestors therefore the
instrument is the mouth piece of their ancestors.
The Use of Anthropomorphic Attributes of Esan
Musical Instruments
Music in Africa is purely eclectic because its
roots can be found in traditional religion, oral
literature, history, traditional medicine, dance and
communication. This theoretical background
gives Bebey (1975) the impetus to qualify it as an
impure art form. African music cannot share the
above mentioned qualities without talking of the
instruments. Speaking generally of drums,
Akpabot (1986) opines that an African drum in a
museum could be a subject of curiosity to fine
artist, musicologist and archeologist. Akpabot’s
position takes a lead in the thought that African
musical instruments are not primarily for enter-
tainment purpose alone or can their ascription of
human characteristics be for sheer fun. Below is
a dossier of the functional use of anthropomorphic
features of some selected Esan musical instru-
ments
1. Healing Purposes: Whether music can heal
is not controvertible. Recognizing the healing
forces of music, Mcclellan (1988: 109), opines
that “the basic premise upon which healing
through music operates is that a primary cause of
disease is emotional stress and negative metal
attitudes that create energy imbalances and
blockages”. Music generally in Africa cannot be
talked of without mentioning its associated
instruments. Just as in the ancient Greek where
Theophrastus (370 – 288BC) notes that the sound
of flute will cure epilepsy and a sciatic gut”.
Certain Esan musical instruments have healing
influences on certain organs in the human body.
The bell – Agogo is thought of in Esan as an
obedient man with a sonorous voice that can never
get crack under any circumstance. Drinking the
water used in rinsing a bell is believed to cure
sore throat in Esan.
2. Cursing Any Evil Hands in the Society:
Having mentioned before in this paper that some
drums are made of special wood and membrane
and above all consecrated by blood libation, it
has become necessary to spell out its functions.
These drums are as highly respected as the deities
of the land. This is so because some of these
drums are ancestral and of unknown past. When
there is epidemic in the clan, it is believed that
the evil is brought by witches and wizards in the
community similarly, constant theft of domestic
animals and personal effects are attributed to few
insiders who are heartless. To curb such develop-
ments, these ancestral drums are assembled on a
traditional or native Sunday to curse the perpetra-
tors of such evils. The curse is said to manifest in
madness, constant stooling or open confessions.
Akin to the situation above, in times of
initiation into some to the cults in Esan and
Chieftaincy title taking, these kinds of instruments
160 CHARLES O. ALUEDE
are gathered and oath of secrecy is taken by the
initiates under the instruction of the reigning
monarchs or chief priests. The instruments are
seen as primary witnesses who will apportion
punishment should related rules be flouted.
3. For Communication: Whether African
Musical instruments are communication devices
is no longer arguable because many music
scholars have supported this assertion and are
evident in the works of Ames (1965), Hindley
(1982), Southern (1983) and Kamien (1988).
Hindley (1982: 22) specifically opines that “ the
talking drums have been used during the Civil
wars to signal the arrival of relief supplies”.
Surprisingly enough, some non African
Scholars believe that such practices are extinct,
prominent in this view are Hart (1990) and Funes
(1992). Hart posits bluntly that:
By creating drums capable of handling pitch
at the same time as rhythm, the African figured
out a way to turn rhythm and noise into speech.
Today the old societies that preserved the langua-
ges of the drum are almost completely wiped out,
overrun by telephones, cars and TV, all of which
convey information more quickly and perhaps
with greater accuracy (Hart, 1990: 200).
The above view is completely wrong of the
Esan situation in Edo State, Nigeria. Of the thirty-
two towns in Esan, five are hooked to GSM
communication service and only four out of the
five local government headquarters have tele-
phone lines which are even unreliable. Over half
of the nationality’s population live in object
poverty with out access to portable water tarred
roads, health care, good shelter, good community
schools not to talk of Television sets, telephones
and cars. In some Esan towns, movement to
neighbouring markets is impaired during rainy
season –a period between March to September
each year as a result of the slippery nature of the
roads. The above opinion is further enhanced in
an interview conducted by the Nigerian Television
Authority on the 28th January 2003. In this
interview, the president of Nigerian society of
Engineers-Engr. Somolu said that “the Nigerian
Electric Power Authority (NEPA) has reached
only 30% of the Nigerian population”. This
culture area under review remains part of the over
whelming 70% without electricity and its asso-
ciated communication net work.
In this culture area, Musical Instruments,
remain the major source of information
dissemination. There are drums and other musical
instruments of different timbres to announce the
death of a King, Chief or a Kins man; to convene
an emergency meeting; to announce that a
neighbour is missing; to announce the victorious
arrival of a Warrior and to make declarations.
Such Messages are usually sent at nights and very
early in the mornings to enable the information-
sound of the instrument cover a wide distance.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper reviewed some fallacious views
of African music and its instruments as posited
by some non African scholars, gave definition of
anthropomorphism and the history of anthro-
pomorphic attributes of traditional African instru-
ments. It went on to establish the use of anthro-
pomorphism in Esan. In the course of this study,
it was revealed that the Esan people use such
attributes in healing, cursing evil hands in the
society and for communication purposes.
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