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Volume 11(2)
Folk medicinal knowledge and conservation status of some
economically valued medicinal plants of District Swat,
Pakistan
English
Muhammad Hamayun*, Sumera Afzal Khan**, Eun Young Sohn* and In-Jung Lee*
*College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Korea
**Centre of Biotechnology, University of Peshawar, Pakistan
December 2006
Download at: http://www.lyonia.org/downloadPDF.php?pdfID=262.497.1
Folk medicinal knowledge and conservation status of some
economically valued medicinal plants of District Swat, Pakistan
Abstract
This paper is based on an ethnobotanical project, carried out in the remote Hindu Kush mountain
region of District Swat, Pakistan. The prime objectives of the project were to explore the
conservation status, folk medicinal knowledge and traditional pre and post harvesting techniques
of some economically important medicinal plants of the area. It was observed that 49 medicinal
plants belonging to 32 families were collected and traded in the herb markets of Swat. Most of
these plants are used by local population for curing different ailments, while some are exported to
other parts of Pakistan. The traditional plant collection techniques have resulted in huge losses of
these valuable plant resources. The conservation assessment of these plants revealed that due
to increased exploitation and un-sustainable harvesting, 49% of these economically valued
medicinal plant species are threatened.
Key Words: Folk medicinal uses; Conservation; District Swat; HinduKush-Himalayas
Introduction
Plant containing active chemical constituents in any of its part or parts like root, stem, leaves,
bark, fruit and seed which produces a definite curing physiological response in the treatment of
various ailments in humans and other animals is termed as medicinal plant. The various
chemicals work together to reach equilibrium in the body as they do in the plant, and so produce
gentle progressive healing within the body tissues.
From the earliest times mankind has used medicinal plants in an attempt to cure diseases and
relieve physical suffering. Medicinal plant knowledge has usually resulted from trial and error, and
was based on speculation and superstition. Medicinal plants remain the prime source of primary
health care throughout the world for thousands of years. However, in the middle of 20th century,
the contribution of medicinal plants was reduced by approximately one fourth as researchers
favored the use of synthetic chemicals for curing diseases. Now this trend is reversing in favor of
medicinal plants as they contain natural products that are chemically balanced, effective and
least injurious with none or much reduced side effects as compared to synthetic chemicals.
Herbal medicine is thus experiencing a revival in Western society, along with other
complementary therapies such as Traditional Chinese Medicine, Osteopathy, and Homeopathy.
In general, people are becoming more aware of the harmful side effects of artificial commodities
and are realizing the benefits of a more natural way of life.
It has been estimated that about 20,000 plant species are used for medicinal purposes
throughout the world. According to World Health Organization report (2002), 70% of the world
population use medicinal plants for curing diseases through their traditional practitioners. In
sub-continent, plant oriented drugs are used extensively and from a very long time. According to
a survey conducted by W.H.O., traditional healers treat 65% patients in Srilanka, 60% in
Indonesia, 75% in Nepal, 85% in Mayanmar, 80% in India and 90% in Bangladesh. In Pakistan,
60% of the population, especially in villages is getting health care by traditional practitioners
(Hakims), who prescribe herbal preparations (Haq, 1983).
Developed countries, are turning to the use of traditional medicinal systems that involve the use
of herbal drugs and remedies. About 1400 herbal preparations are used widely, according to a
recent survey in Member States of the European Union. Herbal preparations are popular and are
of significance in primary healthcare in Belgium, France, Germany and the Netherlands. Such
popularity of healthcare plant-derived products has been traced to their increasing acceptance
and use in the cosmetic industry as well as to increasing public costs in the daily maintenance of
personal health and well being. Examples of such beauty-oriented therapeuticals are skin tissue
regenerators, anti-wrinkling agents and anti-age creams. Most dermaceuticals are derived from
algal extracts that are rich in minerals and the vitamin B group. Skincare products such as skin
creams, skin tonics, etc. derived from medicinal plants are grouped together as dermaceuticals.
Also, amongst the poor, cures and drugs, derived from plants, constitute the main source of
healthcare products (Hoareau and Da Silva, 1999).
The practice of traditional medicine is widespread in China, India, Japan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and
Thailand. In China about 40% of the total medicinal consumption is attributed to traditional tribal
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
medicines. In Thailand, herbal medicines make use of legumes encountered in the
Caesalpiniaceae, the Fabaceae, and the Mimosaceae. In the mid 90s, it is estimated that receipts of
more than US$ 2.5 billion have resulted from the sales of herbal medicines. In Japan, herbal
medicinal preparations are more in demand than mainstream pharmaceutical products.
The development and commercialization of medicinal plant based bio-industries in the developing
countries is dependent upon the availability of facilities and information concerning upstream and
downstream bio-processing, extraction, purification, and marketing of the industrial potential of
medicinal plants. Absence of such infrastructure compounded by lack of governmental interest and
financial support restricts the evolution of traditional herbal extracts into authenticated market
products. Furthermore the absence of modernized socio-economic and public healthcare systems
reinforces reliance of rural and low income urban populations on the use of traditional medicinal herbs
and plants as complementary aids to routine pharmaceutical market products.
Materials and Methods
Study Area: SWAT
The valley of Swat is located in the remote Hindu-Kush mountains of Pakistan. The valley of
Swat is one of the most scenic places of sub-continent and is called Switzerland of the sub-continent.
Swat has large number of beautiful valleys and also innumerable monuments of ancient Ghandhara
civilization.
Swat is situated at the northwest corner of Pakistan. It lies from 34° 34’ to 35° 55’ north latitudes
and 72° 08’ to 72° 50’ east longitudes. It is bounded by Chitral and Ghizer on the north, Indus
Kohistan and Shangla on the east, Buner and Malakand protected area on the south and Dir on the
west (Anonymous, 1998). The total area of the Swat is 5337 Km-2 and population of about 1.3 million.
Swat is part of the Malakand Division.
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
Figure 1: Map of District Swat
Swat can be divided into two regions i.e., Swat-Kohistan and Swat Proper. Swat-Kohistan is the
mountainous country on the upper reaches of the Swat river up to Ain in the south. The whole area
south of Ain is Swat proper, which can be further divided into:
Ethnicity and Tribes
Swat has predominantly rural population. It is inhabited by Yousafzai Pathans, Mians, Kohistanis,
Gujars and Pirachas. The Pashto speaking Yousafzai Pathans are the direct descendants of Afghan
of Ghazni. The Gujars and Kohistanis, who speak their own dialects of Gujri, Garwi, Torwali and
Kohistanis inhabit the mountainous areas up north. The Kohistanis are settled in and around Kalam,
Ushu, Utror and Gabral valleys. The nomadic Gujars also form a substantial part of the population in
the northern parts of Swat valley.
Ghandhara Civilization
Swat, has been home to Buddhism from about 6th century BC to 7th century AD. Buddhism
flourished in Swat and spread to other parts of Asia from here. This great progress became possible
due to personal dedication of King Ashoka to Buddhism. During his reign, Buddhism spread to Tibet,
China, Bhutan, Korea and Japan. Many monasteries have been found, where monks were used to
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
live. Some historians consider Swat as the center of Ghandhara civilization.
Figure 2: Buddha carved on a mountain rock near TindoDog, Swat
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
Figure 3: Statue of Buddha (Swat Museum)
Flora of Swat
District Swat contains about 1550 taxa of flowering plants and 55 Pteridophytes. There are seven
types of forests from tropical dry deciduous to alpine. There are various reports about
ethnobotanically important medicinal plants; the number varies from 55 to 345 species in Swat
(Ahmad & Sirajuddin, 1996). The flora of swat is very diverse and unique as the area is a nexus of
three big mountain ranges namely Karakorum, Hindu-kush and Himalayas.
Methods
The field work includes interviews, observations and guided field walks/ transects walks. Two
methods i.e. observations and interviews were frequently used during the field work. Observations
were made while visiting different villages. During this process, local methods of medicinal plants
collection, storage, drying, harvesting time, processing and utilization were observed. During field
work, interviews were conducted with the local inhabitants, selected informants, the herbalists
’hakims’ (local physicians of eastern system of medicine), pansaries (medicinal plants sellers in the
local markets). Questionnaire method was adopted during the surveys in order to get qualitative and
participatory approach about the plant resources and their utilization by the local people. Questions
concerning the utility of different plants, quantity of plants used, rate of consumption, availability,
economics/market value was asked.
Conservation status of medicinal plants
Local people especially plant collectors got valuable information about plants abundance,
distribution and localities of their maximum availability. These information’s were confirmed through
field visits. Personal observations were made in the field keeping several parameters in consideration.
These observations include, Range extent and area of occupancy; Exploitation level; Plants
availability; Habitat alternation; Conservation efforts; Plant collection techniques; Part collected;
Invasive plants; Threats (Pollution, Urbanization, Lack of awareness, Deforestation etc.).The species
were then categorized into Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Rare, Near Threatened
and Secure.
[[Results and Discussion]]
During the present study, it was observed that 49 medicinal plants species belonging to 32
different families were sold in local markets and thus these play a role in uplifting the socioeconomic
conditions of the area. Some of these medicinal plants are traded to national herb markets of Lahore,
Karachi and Peshawar. It was observed that out of these 49 medicinal plants 24 plant species are
threatened (9 Endangered, 7 Vulnerable and 8 Rare) due to excessive collection from the wild. These
plants are also used locally for curing different ailments. In most cases, the market availability status
of these medicinal plants have increased, showing an increased inclination of local people towards
medicinal plants collection and increased dependency of local population on medicinal plants trade. A
brief set of information about these plants is given below.
Table 1: Folk medicinal uses, market availability status, conservation status of some important
medicinal plants of Swat, Pakistan
Plant Material Part Used Market
Status Conserv.
Status Folk Medicinal Uses
Araceae
Acorus calamus L.
[Skha waja ] Whole plant Persistent Endangered Cough, dyspepsia, flatulence,
colic and diarrhea
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthus aspera
L. [Gishkay] Rhizome/ fruit Increased Secure Diuretic, laxative, stomachic
and for removing kidney
stones
Adiantaceae
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
Adiantum
capillus-veneris L.
[Sumbal]
Fronds Increased Vulnerable Skin diseases, fever, cough
and diabetes Expectorant,
emetic and diuretic
Adiantum incisum
Forssk [Sumbal] Fronds Increased Secure Skin diseases, fever, cough
and diabetes Expectorant,
emetic and diuretic
Alliaceae
Allium sativum L.
[Ooga] Bulbs/ leaves Increased Secure Heart diseases, diaphoretic,
diuretic, expectorant,
antiseptic, flatulence, asthma,
whooping cough and epilepsy
Anacardiaceae
Pistacia integerrima
Stew.ex Brand
[Shanai]
Leaves Increased Vulnerable Jaundice and chronic wounds
Apiaceae
Bunium persicum B.
Fedtsch
[Tora Zeera ]
Fruit Increased Rare Carminative, stomachic and
stimulant
Coriandrum sativum
L.
[Dhanyal]
Leaves/
seeds Increase Secure Piles, gastric juice secretion
and colic
Foeniculum vulgare
Mill [Kaga] Leaves/
seeds Increased Secure Diuretic, digestive, laxative,
aphrodisiac and improve
eyesight
Araliaceae
Hedera nepalensis
K.Koch
[Da Wano Kalay]
Leaves Increased Secure Anticancer
Artemisia brevifolia
Wall
[Jaukay]
Flower head Increased Secure Respiratory stimulant,
intestinal worms, purgative
and ear ache
Artemisia vulgaris L
[Tarkha]] Leaves/ shoot Increased Secure Intestinal worms and skin
diseases
Calendula arvensis
L.
[Zair Gulae]
Leaves/
flowers Increased Secure Scrofula, diaphoretic,
antihelminthic and tonic
Berberidaceae
Berberis lycium
Royle
[Speen Kwaray]
Whole plant Increased Vulnerable Stomachic, intestinal colic,
expectorant, diuretic,
diarrhea, piles, jaundice and
internal wounds
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
Berberis vulgaris
Linn
[Tor Kwaray]
Whole plant Persistent Endangered Stomachic, intestinal colic,
expectorant, diuretic,
diarrhea, piles, jaundice and
internal wounds
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea deltoidea
Wall. [Kanees] Tubers Decreased Endangered Uterine sedative,
haemostatic, diuretic,
expectorant, antihelminthic
Ebenaceae
Diospyos lotus L.
[Tor Amlook] Fruits/ leaves Increased Secure Carminative, purgative and
flatulence
Ephedraceae
Ephedra gerardiana
Wall. ex Stapf
[Asmani Bootai]
Fruit/ leaves Increased Vulnerable Asthmatic bronchitis,
rheumatism and cardiac
circulatory stimulant
Fumariaceae
Fumaria indica
Pugsley
[Papra]
Shoot Increased Secure Blood purifier, diaphoretic
and antipyretic
Helveliaceae
Morchella conica
Fries [Gujai] Whole plant Persistent Rare General body tonic, joins
aches or potency, insomnia,
enterogastritis, indigestion
and poor appetite
Morchella esculenta
(L.) Pers. [Gujai] Whole plant Persistent Rare General body tonic, joins
aches or potency, insomnia,
enterogastritis, indigestion
and poor appetite
Juglandaceae
Juglans regia L.
[Ghuz] Bark/ leaves Increased Secure Bark (Dandasa) is used for
cleaning and sparkling teeth.
Decoction of leaves is given
in eczema and intestinal
worms.
Lamiaceae
Ajuga bracteosa
Wall. ex. Benth
[Khwaga Bootei]
Whole plant Increased Secure Internal colic, pimples,
jaundice, hypertension and
sore throat
Mentha longifolia
(L.) Huds.
[Villanay]
Whole plant Increased Rare Anti-rheumatic, stomachic,
carminative, tonsillitis,
diarrhea and dysentery
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
Mentha spicata L.
[Podian] Leaves Increased Secure Dyspepsia and carminative
Salvia
moorcroftiana
Wall.ex Benth
[Khur Dug]
Leaves/
seeds Increased Secure Wound healing
Thymus linearis
Benth.
[Kaneesh]
Fruits Increased Rare Cold, cough and digestive
trouble
Liliaceae
Colchicum luteum
Baker.
[Suranjan-e-talkh]
Rhizome/
seeds Increased Vulnerable Blood purifier, laxative and
aphrodisiac
Polygonatum
verticillatum All.
[Peramole]
Rhizome Persistent Endangered Rheumatism and aphrodisiac
Myrsinaceae
Myrsine africana L.
[Maru Rang] Leaves Increased Secure Carminative, appetizer,
flavoring agent
Paeoniaceae
Paeoniaceae
Paeonia emodi
Wall. ex Hk.f.
[Mamaikh]
Rhizome/
seeds Persistent Endangered Backbone ache, dropsy,
epilepsy, emetic, cathartic,
blood purifier, colic, purgative
and tonic
Plantaginaceae
Plantaginaceae
Plantago
lanceolatum L.
[Jabai]
Leaves/
seeds Increased Rare Sores, wounds and
inflammation healing,
laxative, mouth diseases and
dysentery
Podophyllaceae
Podophyllum
hexandrum Royle
[Kakorra]
Rhizome Persistent Endangered Hepatic stimulant, purgative
and emetic
Polygonaceae
Bistorta
amplexicaulis (D.
Don) Greene
[Tarva Panra]
Rhizome Persistent Endangered Ulcer
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
Rheum australe D.
Don
[Chotial]
Rhizome/
Leaves Increased Secure Purgative, astringent tonic,
alexiterix, emmenagogue,
diuretic, biliousness,
lumbago, sore eyes, piles,
chronic bronchitis, fever,
asthma, pain, bruises, blood
purifier, stomachic, dyspepsia
and laxative
Portulacaceae
Portulaca olearacea
L.
[Warkharay]
Seeds/leaves Increased Secure Kidney, liver, urinary bladder
and lungs diseases
Punicaceae
Punica granatum L.
[Anar] Fruit/ bark/
leaves Increased Secure Skin diseases, dysentery,
blood purifier, whooping
cough, laxative,
antihelminthic, antipyretic and
expectorant
Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Zizyphus sativa
Gaert [Markhanaey]
Fruits Increased Secure Astringent, cooling effect
Ranunculaceae
Aconitum violaceum
Jacq. ex Stapf
[Zahar mora]
Rhizome Persistent Vulnerable Gout and Rheumatism
Saxifragaceae
Bergenia ciliata
(Haw) Sternb.
[Qamar Panra]
Leaves;
Rhizome Increased Endangered Muscular pain, pus discharge
and tonic
Solanaceae
Capsicum annuum
L.
[Marchakay]
Fruits Increased Secure Common cold, dyspepsia and
diarrhea Nervous disorders,
asthma, whooping cough,
antispasmodics, sedative and
astringent to bowels
Hyoscyamus niger
L. [Dewana Bhang] Fruits Increased Secure Common cold, dyspepsia and
diarrhea Nervous disorders,
asthma, whooping cough,
antispasmodics, sedative and
astringent to bowels
Solanum surratense
Burm. f.
[Manraghonay]
Fruits Increased Secure Expectorant, stomachic,
diuretic, anti-asthmatic,
anti-gonorrhea, cough and
fever pain in chest
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
Withania somnifera
(L.) Dunal [Kutilal] Leaves/ fruits/
roots Increased Secure Poultice to swellings, ulcers
and carbuncles, diuretic,
rheumatism and aphrodisiac
tonic
Thymeleaceae
Daphne mucronata
Royle [Laighonai] Fruits Increased Vulnerable Rheumatism
Valerianaceae
Valeriana jatamansi
Jones
[Mushk-e-Bala]
Rhizome Decreased Endangered Cholera, dysentery, hysteria
and antispasmodic
Violaceae
Viola biflora L.
[Banafsha] Flower Increased Rare Diaphoretic, antipyretic,
febrifuge, cancer, epilepsy
and nervous disorders
Viola canescens
Wall. ex Roxb
[Banafsha]
Whole plant Increased Rare Astringent, demulcent,
purgative, diaphoretic,
antipyretic, febrifuge and anti
cancerous
Verbenaceae
Vitex negundo L.
[Marvandaey] Leaves / roots
/ seeds Increased Secure Febrifuge, diuretic,
antihelminthic, headache and
tonic
Medicinal Plants Collectors and Collection
Medicinal plant collectors are usually poor villagers. Plant collection is there part time activity
besides farming and live stock rearing. They collect medicinal plants during spring and summer
season which starts from April to September and sell it in the local market to earn some money. One
can see a person coming from a hilltop with a bundle of fuel wood of his head and a bag of medicinal
plants in his hands. He handover his bag of medicinal plants to local Pansaris and put in his pocket
whatever money he gets. According to Choudhary et al. (2000) about 500 families are involved in
medicinal plant collection in Swat and they collect 5000 tons of medicinal plants annually. However,
no economic analysis exists to date for the marketing chain from collection to consumption systems. It
is also necessary to know that how much plant material is collected and passing through the whole
process of refinements how much quantity reaches to the market. It will give us the rough picture of
the whole system from collection to consumption. It may also be the one reason of overexploitation of
highly valuable and endangered medicinal plants. All available data is related to quantities traded in
markets at a specific time and their approximate values.
Bulk of medicinal plants collected in the area is rhizomatous. The collectors carry with them
digging tools and dig medicinal plant wherever found. Major proportions of plants collected are sold in
fresh while some plants are stored in bags and sacks from one week to one year. Before storing,
these plants are washed and kept under the sun for drying. During storage considerable amounts of
medicinal plants are wasted due to humidity, insect attacks, inappropriate storage facilities and lack of
awareness on the part of collectors.
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
Figure 4: Chain of people involved in the medicinal plant trade in Swat
Medicinal plants are collected extensively during the summer season starting from March when
the snow has almost melted to September. The collectors include men, women and children. The
women and children collect plants while on their way to work in the fields and surrounding areas of
their work place. The women and children of nomads (Ajar) families collect medicinal plants while
grazing their livestock. This type of collection of medicinal plants is carried out on daily basis.
Drawbacks of Traditional Collections and Post Collection Processing
1. The collectors are mostly ignorant about the proper time of collection of medicinal plants. An
early or late collection of medicinal plants result in an inferior quality of drug. The ideal time of a plant
collection is that when plant contain maximum amounts of therapeutically active principles. Majority of
medicinal plants collected are rhizomatous. These plants are primarily collected in summer and during
this period the plant utilize the root chemistry and nutrition for the development of aerial parts and fruit
yield. As a result the rhizomes collected are depleted of active chemical constituents. The ideal time
for the collection of these plants is winter or early spring (November to February) when the plants are
dormant. During this period the plant converts the nutritional chemistry of aerial parts in to alkaloidal
contents and stores it in the underground parts. Thus the plant at this stage contains maximum
percentage of active ingredients in its rhizome/roots. Beside this the rhizome collection has resulted in
a drastic decrease of these medicinal plants in the area.
2. Medicinal plants degraded in terms of their active constituents if they are not properly dried.
The local collectors are also unaware of the bleaching effect of sun rays on colored or other light
sensitive drugs. The night dew and humidity also deteriorates the quality of these drugs.
3. The plants after collection are packed in bags, sacks and cotton cloths. The collectors use
same packing material again and again until fully rotten. The plants are stored in mud huts and some
times in the rooms used for dinning and sleeping as well. Large amounts of medicinal plants are thus
wasted during packing and storage process.
4. The collectors do not afford to buy vasculums, canisters and other appropriate packing
material. Medicinal plants deteriorate if the material is not properly packed and stored. The nature of
the packing material has its bearing on the conditions and quality of the stored material. Similarly, the
nature of storing place also has a significant effect on the stored material. Factors like temperature,
humidity, light can have both direct and indirect adverse effects on the stored material. Improper
storage also results in the attacks of moths, insects, beetles and ants. All these factors greatly
Lyonia, Volume 11(2), Pages [101-113], December 2006
damage the quality and quantity of the drug.
Recommendations for sustainable use of medicinal plants in Swat
Coordinated efforts are needed for conservation, documentation and sustainable use of
medicinal plants. The following recommendations may help towards this goal.
1. Conservation education including advance collection techniques, post collection processing
techniques may be extended to the local communities especially to the plant collectors
2. Sustainable use of MP and accessibility of the community towards national markets would help
to uplift socio-economic conditions of this backward area
3. Nurseries of some important MP should be established. Herbal Industries should be brought in
contact with the local communities and it will provide the collectors better economic returns and thus
better conservation environment to the flora
4. Community mobilization and involvement may be ensured in conservation. Community based
organizations should be encouraged to play their due role
5. Cultivation of the profitable medicinal plants like Colchicum luteum, Bergenia ciliata, Dioscoria
deltoidea, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Caltha alba, Valeriana jatamansi, Viola species, Berberis lycium,
Polygonatum verticilatum, Acorus calamus, Aconitum heterophyllum, Podophyllum hexandrum,
Paeonia emodi and Geranium wallichianum can be introduced as minor crops on marginal fields
Conclusions
Swat is a mountainous area with diverse and unique flora. However, over the last two decades
the plant resources has been largely degraded due to indiscriminate deforestation for acquiring
cultivation lands, over exploitation of plant resources for economic purposes, urbanization and
industrialization trends, population explosion and increased tourism. Different measures are needed
on the part of Government of Pakistan and NGO’s working in the area, to check practices which have
resulted in the degradation of the biodiversity. The involvement of local community in any
conservation effort is highly valued as without local community participation and mobilization,
conservation efforts can not be effectively materialized. Community awareness projects should be
initiated in Swat, to educate the inhabitants of the area about the importance of natural resources for
them and their future generations and how to utilize medicinal plants for their better livelihood on
sustainable basis.
References
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Chaudhri, M.N. & R.A. Qureshi. 1991 .Pakistan’s Endangered Flora-II:A checklist of rare and
seriously threatened taxa of Pakistan. Pak.Syst. 5(1-2):1-84.
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12
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