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Vision and Long-term Development Strategy for Kenya's Tourism Industry
... The drop in visitation rate continues until another threshold level (the negative impact turnaround, NIT) is reached, at which point environmental and social damages begin to repair. Recovery comes after a lag, since time is required for environmental regeneration and for socio-cultural changes to take place (Ikiara, 2001a). In fact, the commercial response of the tourist industry to the drop in visitation may delay recovery. ...
... This could happen through competition for the fewer tourists (through heavy discounts, for example) especially when there is excess capacity. Such discounts attract a cheaper class of tourists and lead to quality deterioration, therefore delaying recovery (Ikiara, 2001a). With sustainable tourism development, tourist numbers or tourism activity is not allowed to reach the threshold level (MTP). ...
... Although measurement difficulties (especially for carrying capacity and social-environmental impacts) reduce its utility as a practical tourismmanagement tool, the model demonstrates to policy-makers and tourism managers the tourism policy tradeoffs (Ikiara, 2001a). ...
... 68 In 1990, Kenya was second only to South Africa in tourist receipts; its rank declined to 7 in 2002 and 2003; in 2004 it ranked fifth, behind South Africa, Mauritius, Tanzania, and Botswana (World Tourism Organisation, Tourism Market Trend, 2005 Edition -Annex). 69 Ikiara (2001), Kenya Tourism Federation (2003 ...
... Further, Kenya's tourism policy since its independence in 1963 has been inconsistent, uncoordinated, and partially incomprehensive (Ikiara, 2001). The policy focus at the time of its independence was to encourage a mixture of mass and up-market tourists. ...
An understanding of the wildlife tourism market is fundamental for the development of a competitive and sustainable tourism industry. It is imperative to product development and segmentation, especially with regard to understanding trends in the market place. This study was undertaken to understand better the demographic preferences of wildlife tourists and to determine their preferences, expectations, and choices. Various personal and trip attributes of the visitors were considered. A linear structural relationship (LISREL) approach was applied in order to estimate the structural equation systems by using its maximum likelihood estimator. Using data from 1,566 tourists who had completed their holidays in Kenya, it was found that various forms of travel based on packaging do not significantly affect the preferences of tourists. However, tourists' characteristics and their trip attributes have significant effects on these variables. Advanced age, higher socio-economic status, larger group size, and shorter length of stay are associated with higher preference for wildlife viewing.
The overall goal of the Government of Kenya is to promote and improve the
health status of all Kenyans by making health services more effective, accessible,
and affordable. To address problems in the health sector, and to make healthcare
accessible and affordable, the government, in the early year after independence,
instituted and implemented various healthcare reforms, among them setting
up of health insurance through the National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF).
However, the focus of NHIF has been mainly on formal sector employees. This
has left out those in the informal sector, those in agriculture, and pastoralists.
The government plans to transform the current NHIF to a National Social
Health Insurance Fund (NSHIF) as a way of ensuring equity and access to
health services by the poor and those in the informal sector, who have been left
out for the forty years that the NHIF has been in existence. In view of the
proposed transformation, this paper aims to lead policy makers and programme
planners through the process of evaluating the usefulness and feasibility of a
social health insurance system. The paper offers insight into the process of a
successful implementation of such as scheme by addressing the foreseen obstacles
and issues of desirability and feasibility in assessing the appropriateness of social
health insurance. It also addresses the likely impact on the economy, the health
sector and the various stakeholders, after introduction of the insurance scheme.
The paper reviews the experiences of other countries and draws lessons from
those experiences. The paper finds that most of the conditions for setting up a
social health insurance in Kenya are not yet in place and a lot needs to be done
to meet these conditions. In addition, there are likely to be both positive and
negative impacts on various stakeholders. The paper recommends that the
decision to introduce universal health insurance be premised on a careful and
thorough assessment of all the issues being raised, and implementation based
on clearly outlined stages.
After unprecedented decline in Kenya’s cotton-textile-apparel industry since the early 1990s, substantial interest in its revival has emerged. This interest has largely been stimulated by the market opportunity presented by the United States’ African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) of 2000 and the potential of the industry in poverty alleviation. Within only two years of qualifying for AGOA, Kenya’s exports of clothing, and investment in the textile sector, have experienced remarkable growth. This study explores the prospects of this growth continuing after 30 September 2004, when Kenya will be required to source raw materials either locally, from other AGOA eligible sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, or from the US. Using secondary and primary production, trade and other types of data relating to the entire cotton-textile-apparel chain, this study looks at the issues involved and examines the prospects of each of the various options available to the country. The study shows that none of the three options is feasible to Kenyan apparel producers as things stand now. High quality fabric and yarn are available from the US but sourcing them to make apparels will at least double the unit cost of apparels and make them uncompetitive. Kenya has a cotton-textile-apparel supply chain in place but only the garments part of it can be said to be thriving and fairly competitive. Many apparel firms are already exporting to the US, which is impressive considering the stringent requirements of that market. All the other parts of the chain, however, are very disorganized, weak and lack adequate capacity, largely due to infrastructure, market, and policy constraints. Cotton production is insufficient and the capacity to produce high quality and competitive fabrics is lacking. The option of sourcing fabric and/or yarn from other AGOA-eligible SSA countries is limited by the fact that the region does not meet the fabric requirements of its apparel sub-sector due to various supply constraints. Moreover, the fabric produced locally and regionally falls short of the variety and quality demanded by the US market. For Kenya and the rest of SSA, the solution lies in sourcing fabric from the local cotton-textile industries, or the region through collaborative and strategic regional cotton-textile supply chains. For quality fabrics to be supplied locally and competitively, substantial capacity building in the lower parts of the cotton-textile chain is required. Critical inputs into this capacity building include establishment of an apex stakeholder institution to coordinate the industry and provide necessary regulation, cost-reducing interventions at all points in the chain, incentives to stimulate investment (at the ginning, spinning and fabric finishing parts of the supply chain), improved macroeconomic management, identification of niche markets, and accumulation of the necessary capital and skills.
Introduction of international tourism as a development stimulus or tool in sub-Saharan Africa is relatively recent. In the context of Kenya, tourism development, in volume and value terms, exemplifies a success story. Despite the remarkable progress made in these respects in recent years, the tourism sector in this country has, however, been constrained by certain internal and external factors requiring planning reorientations. This article reviews the main features of tourism development in Kenya, with particular reference to the problems of development, and draws from the analysis several policy-oriented conclusions for which new planning directions are required.RésuméLignes d'action pour le développement du tourisme au Kenya. Ĺintroduction du tourisme international comme stimulus ou instrument de développement en Afrique, au sud du Sahara, est relativement neuve. Dans le contexte du Kenya, le développement du tourisme, sur le plan du volume et de la valeur, est une réussite. Malgré les progrés marquants faits pendant ces derniéres années le tourisme au Kenya a pourtant été contraint par certains facteurs intérieurs et extérieurs, qui exigent la réorientation de la planification. Cet article considère les faits principaux du développement en particulier, et tire de l'analyse quelques conclusions axées sur la politique touristique, qui exigent des directions nouvelles en ce qui concerne la planification
This paper looks at the development of the tourism industry from an economic, environmental, and social viewpoint. It also addresses the issue of sustainable tourism development and proposes a method of basing tourism development on acceptable levels of social and environmental change. The process begins with the identification of important social and environmental indicators, embracing a number of different viewpoints, such as, anthropologists, ornithologists and environmentalists. Once the limits of acceptable change have been established, using the Delphi technique to evaluate these results, planning goals can be set so that tourism development stays within these limits. To conclude, once a course of action has been decided upon, a cost-benefit analysis will determine if the project is economically feasible.
The study examines the role of North-South tourism as a vehicle of international relationships and primarily of international development. It follows the growth of tourist activity from its modest beginnings in antiquity to the present day when it has assumed the dimensions of a major industry both in developed, industrialized countries and the less-developed. Traces how North-South tourism gained in importance in the 1960s as tourists and business entrepreneurs showed increasing interest in the Third World destinations and holiday resorts. Offers an analysis of the economic, social, and cultural implications of North-South tourism, and suggests that, for some developing countries tourism has tended to be an even more dynamic economic force than trade in goods. There is a summary treatment of tourists economic costs and benefits and recommendations of policies to maximize the latter and to minimize the socioeconomic costs.-from Forward
Discusses the above.-from Wildlife Review
FEBRUARY 2001 The authors wish to thank all those who commented on the paper and those who gave liberally of their time in the many one-on-one discussions that were held; and also to those who attended the presentation made to the tourism network. We would like to mention in particular ABSTRACT The quality of Africa's resource endowment for tourism is exceptional, but most countries have only barely developed their tourism potential. The continent receives about 4% of all international travelers and tourism receipts, but tourism is "significant" (>2% GDP and >5% exports) in about half of SSA countries. Countries in Africa are now focusing on tourism as a source of growth and diversification, but with only limited policy guidance from most donors, despite the sector's potential. At present, the World Bank Group (WBG) provides limited support for tourism and has no overall sector strategy, though the CDF, PRSP and CAS are helping to define such strategies in a few countries. This paper gives a broad overview of issues in tourism in Africa and suggests guidelines to assist countries to develop a more coherent framework for tourism.
When a Third World country uses tourism as a development strategy, it becomes enmeshed in a global system over which it has little control. The international tourism industry is a product of metropolitan capitalist enterprise. The superior entrepreneurial skills, resources, and commercial power of metropolitan companies enables them to dominate many Third World tourist destinations. This paper outlines the dynamics of this process, particularly in the context of the South Pacific.RésuméL'Economie politique du tourisme du Tiers Monde. Quand un pays du Tiers Monde emploie le tourisme comme stratégie de développement, il s'empètre dans un systéme global dont il a peu de contrôle. L'industrie touristique internationale est un produit de l'entreprise capitaliste métropolitain. Les talents supérieurs des entrepreneurs, les ressources et le pouvoir commercial des compagnies métropolitains leur donnent la possibilité de dominer beaucoup de destinations touristiques au Tiers Monde. Cet article expose les grandes lignes de la dynamique de ce processus, en particulier dans le contexte du Pacifique du Sud.
Cohen Erik “The Impact of Tourism on the Physical Environment”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. V, No. 2, April/June 1978, pp. 215–237. While moderate and well-distributed tourism may help to upkeep attractions and preserve the environment, tourism as a mass industry poses new environmental risks. This paper is a first attempt to assess systematically the environmental impact of tourism and to spell out the principal factors on which this impact depends: the intensity of tourist site-use, the resiliency of the eco-system, the time perspective of the developers and the transformational character of touristic developments. The environmental dynamics of the tourist ecological sub-system are shown to consist of a constant expansion at the margins and intensification at the mature core, leading to the creation of “contrived” attractions both at the core (as “natural” attractions decline) and the margins (to supplement meager “natural” attractions as tourism expands into less attractive regions). Two major types of measures for environmental protection are discussed: those protecting the environment for tourism and those protecting it from tourism. The need for the second type of measures is emphasized, particularly in developing countries, which face greater environmental risks from tourism than the developed ones.
The Third World tourism industry has grown rapidly, but has also encountered many problems common to other outward-oriented development strategies, including: excessive foreign dependency, the creation of separate enclaves, the reinforcement of socioeconomic and spatial inequalities, environmental destruction, and rising cultural alienation. To avoid such problems, institutional mechanisms need to be created to encourage active state and community participation in tourism planning. Appropriateness of tourism strategies ought to be measured according to the changing conditions and interests of each host community; and tourism-led development should always conform to the long-term interests of the popular majority instead of the short-term goals of an elite minority.RésuméNouvelles directions pour le tourisme dans le développement du Tiers-Monde. L'industrie du tourisme des pays en voie de développement est en plein essor, mais fait face à de nombreux problèmes communs à d'autres stratégies de développement tournées vers l'extérieur: une trop grande dépendance de l'étranger, la destruction de l'environnement et une aliénation culturelle grandissante. Pour éviter ces problèmes, on doit créer des mécanismes pour encourager une participation active de l'état et de la communauté dans la planification du tourisme. Toute stratégie pour le tourisme doit correspondre aux besoins toujours changeants et aux intérêts de chaque communauté hôte; le développement du tourisme doit toujours se conformer aux intérêts à long terme de la majorité plutôt qu'aux intérêts à court terme de l'élite minoritaire.
An examination of ecotourism patterns within Costa Rica and Kenya reveals differential magnitudes across an array of relevant criteria. If measured in terms of specialized accommodations, visits by specialist ecotourists, direct social and economic impact, activity space, or government investment, ecotourism is a relatively minor activity. More congruent with the popular image of these two countries as high profile ecotourism destinations are total tourist activity time, ecotourism as a visitor motivation, and indirect revenue generation, all of which are substantial or major. It is argued that this touristic form of development and practice exists in a symbiotic relationship with mass tourism, and the more intensive types should be considered as a type of the latter.RésuméMagnitude de l'écotourisme en Costa Rica et au Kenya. Une visite d'un modèle d'écotourisme entre la Costa Rica et le Kenya révèle une ampleur differente à travers un étalage de critères appropriés. Si mesuré en termes de logements spécialisés, visites d'écotouristes spécialisées, d'impacts sociaux et économiques directs, d'éspaces d'activités ou d'investissements gouvernementaux, alors, l'écotourisme est une activité relativement mineure. Plus conforme avec l'image populaire de ces pays comme un haut profile de destinations écotourismes sont, le temps d'activité touristique totale, écotourisme comme une motivation pour les touristes et un revenu indirect de générations, tous ces aspects peuvent être majeurs ou substantiels. Ecotourisme, comme il est discuté, existe dans une relation de symbiose avec le tourisme de masse et les types les plus intenses devraient être considérés comme étant un type de tourisme de masse.
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