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La iconografía del poder en Tiwanaku y su rol en la integración de zonas de frontera
... The second trend, also based on the style concept, seeks to understand the relations between Tiwanaku and neighboring societies such as Wari (Cook 1983;Makowski 2002;Menzel 1964) or the local populations of northern Chile (Berenguer Rodríguez 1998;Llagostera 2006;Torres 2004). Although some views were influenced by outdated notions, such as center-periphery relations or origin hypotheses, the "Southern Andean Iconographic Series" concept (Isbell 2018:3-6) pointed toward a more horizontal understanding of those iconographic interactions. ...
... The monoliths wear sashes, skirts, headbands, long braids running down their temples and napes, and wrists, ankles, and neck ornaments. Finally, in the left hand they hold a keru vase, a ceramic shape emblematic of Tiwanaku society that is linked to the ceremonial consumption of fermented alcoholic beverages (Janusek 2006); in the right hand they hold what appears to be a snuff tablet for psychotropic consumption (Berenguer Rodríguez 1998;Torres 2018). No anatomical or other feature assigns sex or gender to the monoliths. ...
Archaeological research on the architecture and sculpture of Tiwanaku society in the south-central Andes follows two separate paths: one emphasizes iconographic interpretation, whereas the other studies lithic materials’ origin and spatial relations. This separation, stemming from dualistic modern thought, is an obstacle to a comprehensive understanding of lithic sculptures and their role in Tiwanaku society. This article focuses on the Ponce and Bennett monoliths, the two largest and most complex sculptures of the Tiwanaku ceremonial center. It presents the results of an iconographic analysis identifying minimal design components ordered in a three-level nested hierarchy and their distribution over the spatial structures of both sculptures. This analysis incorporates existing information about lithic materials and quarries, the monoliths’ locations, and spatial relationships. All those data are interpreted in the light of Aymara and Quechua ontologies about the relationships between mountains, stones, and images. Characterizing aspects of the Tiwanaku site and its role in lithic production, this article extends the limits of Tiwanaku society to include nonhuman agents and suggests that we overcome anthropocentric biases.
... Derivado de la investigación llevada a cabo desde hace más de un siglo por diversos investigadores, actualmente contamos con un registro y conocimiento amplios acerca de aspectos técnicos, iconográficos y contextuales del instrumental utilizado en tiempos prehispánicos en relación con la práctica inhalatoria de sustancias sicoactivas en los Andes centro-sur (Albarracín Jordán et al., 2014;Ambrosetti, 1907;Ayala et al., 1999;Barón, 1984;Berenguer, 1985Berenguer, , 1987Berenguer, , 1998Berenguer, , 2001Berenguer et al., 1980;Capriles, 2002;Durán et al., 2000;Hermosilla, 2001;Krapovickas, 1958-59;Latcham, 1938;Le Paige, 1958, 1965Looser, 1926;Loza, 2007;Llagostera, 1995Llagostera, , 2001Llagostera, , 2004Llagostera, , 2006aLlagostera, , 2006bLlagostera, , 2016Llagostera et al., 1988;Mostny, 1958Mostny, , 1968Mostny, -1969Núñez, 1962Núñez, , 1963Oyarzún, 1979;Pérez Gollán y Gordillo, 1993;Richardin et al., 2015;Ruiz y Albeck, 1999;Tarragó, 1989;Thomas y Benavente, 1984;Torres, 1984aTorres, , 1984bTorres, , 1986Torres, , 1987aTorres, , 1987bTorres, , 1998Torres, , 2001aTorres, , 2001bTorres y Conklin, 1995;Uhle, 1913Uhle, , 1915Wassén, 1965Wassén, , 1972. Hay que mencionar además, aquellos trabajos que han abordado la identificación de los componentes químicos de las diversas sustancias utilizadas en tal práctica, con especial énfasis en la detección de Anadenanthera colubrina var. ...
Este trabajo aborda la definición de una tradición estilística detectada al interior del conjunto de tabletas para alucinógenos provenientes de distintos cementerios ubicados en los oasis de San Pedro de Atacama (Antofagasta, Chile) y del noroeste de Argentina. Esta tarea no había sido emprendida previamente, a pesar de que dichas tabletas conforman un grupo mayor de artefactos con características comunes resaltantes, lo cual hace posible su discriminación tanto en términos formales como iconográficos, así como establecer diferencias frente a otros estilos/tradiciones detectados en el conjunto de elementos que integran el equipo alucinógeno registrado. Dicha tradición cuenta con dos estilos diferentes, cuyas respectivas iconografías resultan ajenas a lo reconocido para el área Circumpuneña; por lo mismo, el análisis que se realiza da luces respecto del posible lugar de origen de esta tradición en general, y de dichos estilos en particular, planteándolos además como indicadores de los flujos del intercambio ritual macroregional. Junto con ello, mediante el análisis de los contextos funerarios de algunas de estas tabletas se obtienen datos acerca de la ubicación temporal de los dos estilos mencionados para esta tradición, y se discute la identidad social de los individuos que las poseyeron en vida.
... It has poor resistance to frost and thus was nonlocal to the altiplano; however, it is native to the Peruvian coastal valleys (Hastorf et al. 2006). Throughout the Middle Horizon (AD 600-1100), the Tiwanaku settlers expanded from the altiplano and established colonies in the Peruvian coastal valleys to acquire maize and other lowland-valley crops (Berenguer Rodríguez 1998;Goldstein 1989Goldstein , 1990Goldstein , 1993Goldstein , 2003Goldstein , 2005Hastorf et al. 2006;Janusek 2002;Knudson et al. 2014;Kolata 1986Kolata , 1993Ponce Sanginés 1980). Although maize was mainly imported to the altiplano from coastal-valley colonies, Tiwanaku altiplano farmers learned to grow the crop in the "microclimatic pockets" near Lake Titicaca (Langlie 2018:170). ...
The Tiwanaku civilization (around AD 500–1100) originated in the Bolivian altiplano of the south-central Andes and established agrarian colonies (AD 600–1100) in the Peruvian coastal valleys. Current dietary investigations at Tiwanaku colonial sites focus on maize, a coastal valley cultivar with ritual and political significance. Here, we examine Tiwanaku provincial foodways and ask to what degree the Tiwanaku settlers maintained their culinary and agrarian traditions as they migrated into the lower-altitude coastal valleys to farm the land. We analyze archaeobotanical remains from the Tiwanaku site of Cerro San Antonio (600 m asl) in the Locumba Valley and compare them to data from the Tiwanaku site in the altiplano and the Rio Muerto site in the Moquegua Valley during the period of state expansion. Our findings show high proportions of wild, weedy, and domesticated Amaranthaceae cultivars, suggesting that Tiwanaku colonists grew traditional high-valley (2,000–3,000 m asl) and altiplano (3,000–4,000 m asl) foods on the lowland frontier because of their established cultural dietary preferences and Amaranthaceae's ability to adapt to various agroclimatic and edaphic conditions.
... The Middle Period ('MP', AD 400-1000) was one of the most thriving and dynamic stages in the history of the south-central Andes ('SCA'; Fig. 1). 1 In this area, which comprises south Peru, eastern Bolivia, northwest Argentina ('NWA') and northern Chile, the MP is characterised by the appearance of artefacts in an artistic style associated with Tiwanaku, thought to represent a shared religious iconography focused on a solar cult that developed in the southern Titicaca Basin (Berenguer 1998;Korpisaari 2006;Bouysse-Cassagne 2017). In this scenario, people, goods and ideas continuously moved between distant places in varied ways: by specialised llama caravans, traders travelling by foot or social visits including political alliances (Dillehay and Núñez 1988;Martínez 1998;Llagostera 2006a;Nielsen 2006Nielsen , 2013. ...
Studies of archaeological goldwork in the Americas are increasingly revealing a rich variety of context-specific ways in which gold items were produced and valued, but research attention has largely focused on visually striking artefacts. However, in the south-central Andes, goldwork is described essentially as a ‘sheet technology’—a definition that tends to downplay the potential complexity and cultural significance of this technology in such an extensive and varied region. Here, we employ a life-history approach to explore the existence of particular traditions within this large area. We present chemical and microscopic analyses, using pXRF, SEM–EDS, PIXE and digital microscopy, of 142 gold and silver objects from San Pedro de Atacama (northern Chile), recovered in seven cemeteries dated to the Middle Period (AD 400–1000). Our results reveal a heterogeneous assemblage where compositions, techniques, designs and skill levels vary, suggesting that gold artefacts circulated and were imported from different areas of the south-central Andes, such as Tiwanaku, Cochabamba and northwest Argentina. We also identify for the first time two distinct technological traditions used in San Pedro: small-scale goldwork production, and a tradition of modifying and reusing imported objects by cutting, perforating and separating object parts. Considering the depositional contexts, we propose that the funerary ritual at San Pedro was a key factor in the development of this local goldwork. Our research demonstrates that even small and unimpressive artefacts can be successfully interrogated from archaeological perspectives with integrative approaches that go beyond overly generalising perspectives of gold as an exotic status marker.
... -Impunidad del white collar crime: Considerando la verticalización del poder en manos de los sacerdotes y guerreros de Tiahuanaco, se puede admitir la posibilidad del crimen de cuello blanco (White Collar Crime), donde deja al descubierto la selectividad de la punición, porque los poderosos que comenten el delito de cuello blanco, rara vez son castigados (Berenguer, 1998;Melgar, 2008;Sutherland, 2009;Zaffaroni, 2012b (2017a) como poder punitivo informal, como el sacrificio humano institucionalizado como en otras culturas semejantes a Chavín (Pärssinen, 2001). ...
La presente investigación mediante una Arqueología Jurídica aborda la problemática de la falta de conocimiento sobre los orígenes del poder punitivo en los Estados Preincas e Inca, desde la Criminología Cautelar (problema). Frente a este problema, respondemos a la siguiente pregunta o enunciado de investigación: ¿Cómo es el origen y los caracteres estructurales del poder punitivo en el sistema penal peruano de los Estados Preincas e Inca, desde la Criminología Cautelar? (preguntas de investigación). Con esta investigación, se logró el objetivo de explicar cómo fue el origen y los caracteres estructurales del poder punitivo en el sistema penal peruano de los Estados Preincas e Inca desde la Criminología Cautelar (objetivos). La investigación fue de diseño cualitativo y tuvo como unidades de investigación a los Estados Preincas e Incas, se aplicó el Método de Investigación Arqueológico y el Método Histórico, secundados de la técnica del análisis documental y fichaje, sobre una población de ideas o discursos históricos del Perú Antiguo, sobre el control y el castigo y como objeto de estudio, la información histórica del Perú antiguo vinculada al poder punitivo (metodología); y como resultado, hemos rastreado al poder punitivo en el Perú antiguo, y con ello hemos llegado a la conclusión de que la verticalización de los Estados teocráticos del Perú antiguo, originó el poder punitivo y se manifestó con los caracteres estructurales de: selectividad, entrenamiento social diferencial, impunidad del white collar crime, relación inversa entre el poder económico y vulnerabilidad punitiva, y la vigilancia (resultados obtenidos).
... The collapse of Tiwanaku is important to Andean archeology and is just beginning to be understood, especially through the study of ceramic artifacts. The Tiwanaku state used decorated pottery, among other strategies, to spread its ideological legacy (see Alconini, 1995;Berenguer, 1993Berenguer, , 1998Bermann, 1994;Burkholder, 2001;Cook, 1994;Isbell and Korpisaari, 2015;Kolata, 2003;Korpisaari et al., 2012;Korpisaari, 2006;Korpisaari and Pärssinen, 2011;Llagostera, 2006;Sagárnaga, 2007;Torres, 1987, Torres, 2004Uribe, 1999Uribe, , 2007Uribe and Agüero, 2001;Villanueva and Korpisaari, 2013). The Cabuza decorated ceramic from the Azapa Valley in northern Chile (ca. ...
We report the chemical characterization of 13 ceramic shreds of the Cabuza phase (900–1200 CE) from northern Chile. In this decorative pottery, the red chromophore was hematite, while the black pigment was jacobsite. We also identified important secondary chemical elements, including arsenic. The discussion of all this evidence allowed us to reflect on the relationship between the individual and the environment, using the ceramics as cultural material.
... 50,51 In the Azapa valley near Arica in northernmost Chile, the Tiwanaku influence interacted with local populations and led to the development of the highland Arica-Cabuza and the Western Valleys Maytas-Chiribaya traditions. [52][53][54] In SPA, Tiwanaku influence adopted the form of commercial and ideological persuasion through highly iconic objects, 51,55,56 which led to the development of the local Atacama tradition. 54,[57][58][59] However, Tiwanaku was not the only community with which SPA interacted during the MP, since cemeteries of the oases contained objects from other areas including the Southern Altiplano and Eastern Valleys of Bolivia, and Northwestern Argentina (Berenguer 1984;Cifuentes et al. 2018;Llagostera 1995Llagostera , 1996Tarrag o 1989Tarrag o , 2006. ...
Few sources of red (anthraquinoids) and blue (indigoids) dyes were used in pre-Hispanic textiles from different cultures, periods, and areas in the South-Central Andes. Yellow dyes have been shown to be mainly flavonoids. Since flavonoids exhibit wide color variations, ample distribution dependent on biogeographical region, and species-specific patterns, color variation in yellow dyed textiles and sources of yellow dyes are predicted to be higher in relation to red- and blue-colored textiles. The study of textile colors, in particular the comparison between yellow and other colors, should shed light on the relationship of people with the environment and on the processes of selection of sources of raw materials for textiles. Colorimetric data in the CIELAB three dimensional space were obtained of yarns sampled from pre-Hispanic textiles from San Pedro de Atacama (37 textiles, 79 yarns of different colors) and Quillagua (41 textiles, 95 yarns of different colors), two archeological areas in Northern Chile sustaining different plant communities. The textiles were assigned to different styles (hence to different biogeographical regions). The results showed that the degree of dispersion of colorimetric data was larger in red than in blue yarns, and did not differ between any other pair of colors, and that the degree of dispersion of colorimetric data of yarns from textiles of different styles differed significantly within yellow yarns but not within yarns of other colors. These results are discussed in terms of the nature, variety, and sources of the dyes involved and reveal the use of a limited number of yellow dyes in Northern Chile.
... The Middle Period (MP, AD 400-900) represents a dynamic moment when people, goods and ideas continuously moved between distant places within the south central Andes (SCA; Fig. 1). In this area comprising south Peru, eastern Bolivia, northwest Argentina (NWA) and northern Chile, the MP is characterized by the appearance of a variety of artefacts bearing an art style associated with Tiwanaku, thought to represent a shared religious iconography that developed in the Circumtiticaca area (Berenguer 1998;Korpisaari 2006). Although Tiwanaku colonies were set in some regions (e.g. ...
The life-histories of gold artefacts can provide rich insight into technology and culture, but so far the potential of this research approach has not been exploited in the south central Andes. Here we present the analysis of 34 gold and silver objects from the Middle Period cemetery of Casa Parroquial (San Pedro de Atacama, northern Chile), using pXRF, SEM-EDS, PIXE and digital microscopy. Chemical analyses detected variable compositions (2.4–73.1 per cent Ag and 0.2–3.4 per cent Cu) suggesting that artisans used both native gold and artificial gold-silver-copper alloys. Based on their manufacturing techniques, quality and designs, we identify two working styles, one technically more ‘careful’ than the other. Given their elemental and technological variety, together with the lack of local production evidence, we propose that these artefacts were imported as finished objects from Tiwanaku or Cochabamba and northwest Argentina. However, we identify a series of objects that were modified or reshaped as they entered a new cultural context, revealing complex life-histories. Modifications used relatively simple mechanical means: punching, cutting and folding, most likely made in multi-craft contexts by non-metallurgists from San Pedro.
The pre-Hispanic iconography of the Andes around violence, death, and fertility has been associated with sacred animals of various types and meanings whose rites persist to the present time. In Tiwanaku (590-1150 AD) the condor assumes these aspects within the theme that we call Tiwanaku Devouring Condor (CDT). The CDT`s images suggest rites associated with death, transformation, and propitiation through the sacralization of his scavenger behavior, and allow us to delve into the definition of a new category of iconographic themes defined as “Devourers”, in which the CDT positioned as the most continuous and ancient during the Middle Horizon. We propose that the CDT was a product of a ritual symbolism in which many cultures of the Andes converge.
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