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Smallholder Irrigation and Agricultural Development in the Olifants River Basin of Limpopo Province: Management Transfer, Productivity, Profitability and Food Security Issues
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South Africa has invested substantially in smallholder irrigation, particularly in the former homeland areas. In Limpopo Province alone, there are 171 irrigation schemes with assets valued at R4 billion. However, most of these irrigation schemes are not performing optimally. As a result, the original objective of generating employment and reducing rural poverty through the establishment of these schemes has not been achieved in many instances. This study was undertaken with the objective of contributing to rural poverty alleviation by improving productivity, profitability, gender equity and environmental sustainability of smallholder irrigation. The specific objectives of the study were to (a) to assess productivity and profitability of smallholder irrigation and the potential for achievement of food security; (b) identify cropping and irrigation management practices; (c) determine the effects of irrigation practices on soil salinity; and (d) examine the institutional and organizational arrangements affecting smallholder irrigation. The study was undertaken in six irrigation schemes in the Olifants River Basin of Limpopo Province. The schemes included Adriansdraai, Elandskraal, Sepitsi, Strydkraal, Veeplaats, and Wonderboom. A variety of crops are cultivated at the irrigation schemes, including maize, wheat, cotton, and vegetables. Plot sizes range from less than 0.1 hectare to five hectares.
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... A study by Tafesse (2003) concluded that limited knowledge in agricultural water management was one of the main constraints to irrigation development in Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia. This is consistent with the findings of Eneyew et al. (2014) in Ethiopia;and Fanadzo (2012) and Machethe et al. (2004) in the Republic of South Africa who identified inadequate capacity as an important determinant of poor irrigation system performance. ...
... A number of studies have concluded that a poor enabling environment is one of the most serious challenges to developing irrigation in SSA and that the main issues are; insecure access to land and water, ineffective institutions and unfavorable policies (Ofosa et al., 2014, Fanadzo, 2012Namara et al., 2011;Machethe et al., 2004). ...
... There are several reasons why some of plot holders received poor crop yields and this include: (a) Use of poor quality seeds, (b) Poor soil status in those areas, (c) Incorrect agricultural practices, (d) High climatic variability and change. [32,19,31,20] . One in four (25.3%) of the farmers were not even aware of whether their crop yields were increasing or decreasing, and those would not know whether to change their production practices or not. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate crop production practices used by plot holders in Folovhodwe, Rambuda and Tshipise Irrigation Scheme at Mutale Local Municipality in Limpopo Province of South Africa. The results show that production practices used include those that promote increasing crop yield and natural resource sustainability and those that produce poor quality products that do not meet market requirements. Practices with prospects of promoting yields and natural resource sustainability were: (1) fertilizer application by majority (94.5% for Folovhodwe, 91.4% for Rambuda, and 100% for Tshipise) of plot holders, (2) some application of manure (27.8% at Folovhodwe, 43.3% at Rambuda and 76.7% at Tshipise), (3) use of crop rotation by majority of plot holders at Rambuda (70.2%) and Tshipise (53.3%), (4) control of weeds (using hand hoes) and insect pests (using pesticides), and (5) incorporation of crop residues into the soil (36.1% respondents at Folovhodwe, 62.2% at Rambuda, and 33.3% at Tshipise) contributing to soil fertility improvement. To the contrary, practices with prospects of reducing yields and natural resource sustainability were: (1) too low fertilizer application rate of 5 x 10kg =50kg (68.9% respondents at Rambuda, 100% each at the other two schemes), (2) lack of use of soil conservation practices by majority of plot holders (63% at Folovhodwe, 98.5% at Rambuda, and 53.3% at Tshipise), (3) only a few plot holders practicing fallowing (26.4% at Folovhodwe and 40.3% at Rambuda), and (4) burning of crop residues by some plot holders (37.5% at Folovhodwe, 11% at Rambuda, and 25.7% at Tshipise). In conclusion, Practices with prospects of promoting yields and natural resource sustainability should be promoted.
... This implies that as is with market dynamics of most fresh fruit produce in rural Uganda, produce scarcity drives prices higher, as prices fall flat during seasons of excess production. [63] further argues that this sale price fluctuation also stems from the fact that along the conventional pineapple value chain in Uganda, processing and adequate preservation technology is hardly available [64]. This low processing capacity predisposes the fresh pineapple-which is highly perishable, to rapid spoilage and eventually, chain actors easily make huge losses [57]. ...
The pineapple value chain stands out as one that should be prioritized for promotion and improvement among the key fruit value chains for South Western Uganda as a result of its perennial nature with low pest/disease risk, low land requirement, importance for environmental and natural resources’ sustainability, high profitability and history of having enhanced rural household incomes and non- restrictive to entry of rural poor. Mean monthly pineapple production peaks were bi-anual and matched the rainy season. Pineapple nutrient content revealed that fiber was highest in pineapples from Isingiro (6.29%) producing a significantly greater amount of pulp (mean: 510.4g/1000g of fresh fruit) than Ntungamo (2.03%: mean: 226.15g/1000g of fresh fruit) and Bushenyi (mean: 408.84 g/1000g of fresh fruit). Soil physico-chemical parameters varied significantly across the study sites, at 0.05% level of significance. A Pearson’s correlation test between soil composition and nutrient content of pineapples from the various sites revealed that other than pH, Vitamin C however had a significant correlation with soil Nitrogen (p= 0.02), TDS with Magnesium (p=0.01); and fibre with soil organic matter (p= 0.04), Calcium (p= 0.01) and Magnesium (p= 0.02). Pineapples produced in Isingiro had the greatest percentage composition of crude fiber in dry pineapple pulp (mean: 29.6%) proving that dry pineapple pulp is a reliable source for crude fiber for utilization in product development that focuses on enriching human diet with dietary fiber. The high phosphorus and Total Dissolved Solute content (291.7 ppm) of Isingiro pineapples also gives them a strong flavor and a very sweet taste respectively for processing pineapples into dry sweet products and snacks. Pineapples from Ntungamo were best suited for juice extraction due to their high moisture content. The fresh Pineapple value chain in SW Uganda experiences a mean postharvest loss of 19.86% with highest loss hot spot being transportation. On average Ntungamo incurred significantly higher postharvest losses (26.9%) than the other two study sites. Solar drying of pineapples for the export was an easily adaptable value addition innovation for small scale chain actors alongside other potential value addition avenues such as pineapple wine and juice production for improvement and promotion to enhance pineapple value chain in South western Uganda.
... Collaborative funding towards irrigation development of smallholder farmers, for example, can improve farmers' productivity which can then benefit them financially and improve their time invested in on-farm activities. In fact, when (Machethe et al., 2004) found that the withdrawal of the government from support service provision in the Limpopo province led to low productivity and food insecurity, they recommended that access to support services should be improved through public and private sector partnerships. More work has to be done by government and non-governmental organizations ( Figure 4A) to assist smallholder farmers attain financial support. ...
Climate change poses challenges that negatively affect smallholder farmers' contribution to food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Consequently, countries from this region have the responsibility to reduce green gas emissions and adapt to the changing climate in the agricultural sector through such measures as climate-smart agriculture (CSA). This systematic review provides an overview of the CSA adoption challenges faced by smallholder farmers towards ensuring food security as well as recommendations to upscale CSA practices uptake. The review focuses on smallholder farmers of sub-Saharan Africa. Data collection for formal systematic reviews followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) guidelines. Information was gathered from peer-reviewed articles with no limit to the year of publication. A total of 58 papers from the Web of Science and Scopus databases were included in the analysis. Results reveal that more research efforts need to be exerted towards the very vulnerable Southern Africa. The adoption of innovative agricultural practices should focus on rainwater harvesting and mulching while other CSA practices such as crop diversification and crop rotation show a high number of practices. However, major challenges facing smallholder farmers are financial availability, access to information and farm size. These hinder stallholder farmers' ability to contribute to food security. As such, authors have recommended policy intervention, knowledge dissemination and capacity building as possible measures to get smallholder farmers on the right path to sustainable food production and CSA practices uptake.
... Remoteness, which reduces access to markets, results in farmers focusing more on producing for own consumption (Van Averbeke, 2012) [28] . The conclusion of the performance of smallholder irrigation schemes has been that the contribution of these schemes to social and economic development of rural communities has been far below expectations (Machete et al., 2004;Tlou et al., 2006;Fanadzo et al., 2009) [19,25,12] . ...
... Likewise, poor institutional capacity has led to organisational weaknesses in smallholder irrigation projects [13]. Consequently, while capacity building enables farmers to exploit opportunities in smallholder irrigation [14], proper identification of CSFs can improve success of smallholder irrigation projects in planning, resource mobilisation, implementation and control. Thus, the study examined influence of farmer capacity building in institutional linkages on performance of smallholder irrigation projects in Migori County, Kenya. ...
... A study conducted by [38] in Kenya and Zimbabwe shows that irrigation contributed from 25% to 80% of the total family income; [39] points out that smallholder irrigation schemes can be used to increase and diversify plant production, and as a result, the outcome of live hoods dependent on plant production improves. In many African countries small irrigation is still considered vital driving force of moral development and poverty alleviation, despite its problem and failure [40]. Irrigation is a serious problem for Bum women, they have to get water from nearby stream/river or bore holes to water their crops in dry season. ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate “The Role of Women in Agricultural Production and Household-Decision Making in Bum Chiefdom”. It has assessed the various ranges of activities that are performed by women and identified the overall drawbacks encountered by women. The survey was conducted in 16 villages in four sections of Bum Chiefdom in rural districts of Bonthe and 80 households by taking 75% women and 25% men in their residents or sometimes in their farm site. The interviewees were selected using a stratified random sampling technique picking up 16 households from each section. The data were analyzed through descriptive and inference statistics. The Pearson Chi-Square Test was used to the test relationship between variables. The results have shown that women have a primary role in providing labour for agricultural production and household works in the study area. Women play a significant role in the agricultural labour force and in household activities. As a result, their contribution to agricultural output is undoubtedly extremely significant. The most general conclusion reached from the study is that women spend more time than men in activities and agriculture tasks. In day-to-day agricultural transactions, the village men in Bum Chiefdom, southern Sierra Leone make more decisions than women. Division of Labour by gender in farming exists. Women perform their duties on the common plot and prepare food from what is designated for consumption from the farm products. To strengthen and develop women in economic and social, men, local authority government, and other concerned bodies should take all appropriate measures to ensure women empower and actively participate in deciding on agricultural activities, income/expenditure and household decision-making, without any discrimination. Women should also participate at all stages of project agricultural planning, implementation and assessment.
The smallholder irrigation scheme development is seen as an important strategy to transform resource-poor communities by enhancing food security and alleviating rural poverty, which has led the South African government to prioritise and invest significantly in irrigation establishment, rehabilitation, and revitalisation. However, little information is available on the effectiveness and impact of smallholder irrigation schemes in improving rural livelihoods. Therefore, the study aims to investigate the impact of smallholder irrigation schemes on household welfare, specifically on household income in farmer-managed irrigation scheme communities in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Primary data in the form of structured questionnaires was used to collect data from 160 farmers using multi-stage sampling. Descriptive statistics and propensity score matching were used for analysis. The study results reveal that smallholder irrigation schemes can significantly transform smallholder farmers' lives by increasing productivity and providing reliable income from farming. The study found a positive impact and relationship between smallholder irrigation schemes and household welfare in the study. Farm characteristics and socioeconomic and institutional factors influence smallholder participation in smallholder irrigation farming. Based on the results, the study recommends that the government continue investing in irrigation schemes to increase the rural economy, improve rural livelihoods, and attract young people to farming. Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform must encourage farmer participation in irrigation schemes and build their capacity through training using agricultural extension agents and subsidising farmers with agronomic practices to improve participation in smallholder irrigation schemes.
Increased pressure on the agriculture industry to optimise water use has drawn interest in the adoption of appropriate irrigation technologies and best management practices (BMPs) as a means of achieving efficiency and potential water savings. Given the growing scarcity of water in Africa, significant increases in water productivity can only be achieved through improving production efficiency rather than increasing the area under cultivation. BMPs refer to cost-effective, sustainable farming practices aimed at optimising yields and mitigating environmental impacts associated with common farming practices. This chapter focusses on agronomic or crop management practices as determinants of productivity. There is ample evidence across Africa that the yields obtained by smallholder irrigation farmers are only a small fraction of the potential. Yield losses are mostly due to the poor management of basic practices by farmers, including use of inferior seed, production of low value crops, untimely planting and suboptimum seeding rates, as well as poor weed, fertiliser, and water management. Thus, the opportunity to raise crop yields with the existing technologies through adoption of BMPs in African smallholder irrigation production systems is considerable. Several plant production and management strategies which can be integrated as BMPs to achieve optimum yields on smallholder irrigation production systems are discussed in this chapter.KeywordsWater use efficiencyYield constraintsSustainable production practicesHigh value cropsIntegrated management
This article describes the present institutional arrangements for irrigators' resource access, agricultural support systems accessible to irrigators, and the various constraints irrigators experience. The survey acquired data from 101 snowballed respondents for the quantitative phase of the study. The qualitative phase gathered information from four purposively selected focus group discussions. According to the findings, irrigators commonly gained access to production land through traditional authority (81.2%). Gender was a barrier to land access, where male-headed families had larger land sizes than female-headed ones (t=4.993, p=0.028). Concerning irrigation water, irrigators abstract it wherever they find access, without any institutional arrangement or restriction. The main limitations to irrigators' water availability were competition and the drying out of the water source, particularly spring water. Government assistance was rare among independent irrigators. Smallholder support services tend to be distributed unevenly among South African smallholders, usually leaving independent irrigators unsupported. Lastly, irrigators experience constraints in their farming that government existing services have the potential to address. Therefore, this study proposes that the government recognize independent irrigators as possible drivers ofpoverty and food insecurities. The study recommends institutional inclusion and the extension of support systems to independent irrigators.
The paper describes the process of transformation currently affecting smallholder irrigation in South Africa and its impact on smallholders' performance. A short review of selected literature indicates that institutional aspects of water management have gained substantial recognition in the past decade. This contribution focuses on institutional aspects affecting water supply, and smallholder production and marketing in a broader sense, including access to financial and product markets, ownership and technology. Conclusions form a case study analysis stress the importance of coordination and sequencing of policies and strategies, participation and acceptance of responsibilities in the process of institutional transformation.
Although water is renewable, it is also finite. The amount of fresh water that can sustainably be supplied to farmers is nearing its limits. At least 214 rivers flow through two or more countries, but no enforceable law governs the allocation and use of international waters. As world population expands by 2.6 billion over the next 30 yr, water problems will intensify. The author sets out a blueprint for meeting growing water needs focused on using water more efficiently, sharing it equitably, and protecting the health of freshwater ecosystems. Rational water pricing, regulated water markets, efficiency standards, the reuse of waste-water to irrigate crops, and the setting of minimum flows for ecosystem health are among the actions that are needed.
