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Solving the puzzle of why Finns have the highest IQ, but one of the lowest number of Nobel prizes in Europe
Abstract
Finland has been noted to perform consistently very well in the international PISA assessments for many years, but it also has a relatively low per capita number of Nobel Prize winners. We draw upon a large body of proxy data and direct evidence, including the first ever use of RTs to calculate the Finnish IQ and the first ever use of the WAIS IV and PISA scores in the same capacity. Based on these data, we hypothesize that Finns perform so consistently well in PISA because they have a higher IQ overall than other European countries and exhibit a specialized slow life history strategy characterized by high Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, and low Psychoticism and Extraversion. Most of these traits predict educational success but all would suppress genius and creativity amongst this population. We connect the present distribution of phenotypic traits amongst the Finnish population with evolutionary change starting in the Pleistocene, accelerating in the Holocene, and continuing into the present day. We argue that this profile explains why Finns are relatively poorly represented in terms of science Nobel laureates.
Supplementary resource (1)
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January 2018
... Accordingly, understanding the intelligence of Finno-Ugric peoples is potentially very important to understanding their culture. Dutton et al. (2014) have estimated, based on international student assessment tests and reaction time data, that Finns have the highest IQ in Europe, at somewhere around 105, placing Finland on a par with Northeast Asian countries such as Japan. More recently, Roivainen (2019) has used the WAIS-IV and PISA to suggest that Finnish IQ may be slightly higher than that of other Europeans. ...
... Finland was behind Estonia and Canada, the latter having a large immigrant Chinese population with an average IQ estimated at 105 (Lynn & Vanhanen, 2012). Dutton et al. (2014) suggest that this relatively high Finnish IQ could be a product of the Finns' relatively high levels of Northeast Asian admixture by European standards of between 5 and 10% (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994, p. 273), as well as due to the selection pressures of harsher yet more predictable environmental conditions tending to select for higher IQ to solve the more complex problems which such ecologies present, as well as for better impulse control and planning (Lynn & Vanhanen, 2012). However, the authors note that, alternatively, their findings may be due to Finland's relatively late industrialization. ...
... These relationships are not statistically significant in any case but tend to be robust across both levels of analysis and variables used as criteria. Insomuch as this relationship can be found not just in Finland but also with regard to linguistically and genetically related peoples in Estonia and Russia, it would imply that evidence of Finnish high intelligence in Dutton et al. (2014Dutton et al. ( , 2016 cannot simply be explained by late Finnish industrialization (Talve, 1997) or other factors unique to Finland. A more parsimonious explanation would encompass the findings in Estonia and Russia. ...
... The country is relatively rich, and there are also various indicators that its population has a rather high average IQ. Indeed, with a reported average national IQ of 102, Finland has been estimated to have the highest score in Europe (Dutton, te Nijenhuis & Roivainen, 2014). Finns also score the highest in Europe on a subtest of the PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) test, which is administered to 15 year olds in OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries every 4 years. ...
... One possibility is that the Finnish scores are mere manifestations of the high quality of the Finnish education system. However, average reaction time (RT) is also considerably faster in Finland than the European average (Dutton et al., 2014), and this biomarker suggests a more fundamental basis for this difference. RTs are a robust correlate of IQ (Jensen, 1998), with a substantial common genetic influence (Madison, Mosing, Verweij, Pedersen & Ull en, 2016). ...
... RTs have the advantage of being fairly immune to cultural influences, allowing meaningful comparisons across age cohorts (Madison, Woodley of Menie & S€ anger, 2016;Woodley et al., 2014). Discussing these positive national outcomes, Dutton et al. (2014) noted that Finland's per capita level of science Nobel prizes is the lowest in Western Europe. It is even below that of a number of former Eastern Bloc European countries, such as Latvia, in which the socioeconomic situation is much less favorable than in Finland, and in which the estimated average IQ is also around one-third of an SD below the European mean of 100 (Lynn & Vanhanen, 2012), and thus around eight points lower than Finland's. ...
Previous research has attempted to understand why countries with relatively favorable conditions and high estimated average IQs (such as Finland and Japan) have a relatively low per capita number of scientific Nobel prizes. In the present study, we examine whether there is a relationship between national schizophrenia and left‐handedness prevalence, on the one hand, and per capita scientific and literary achievement, on the other hand, in countries with IQ estimates of at least 90. We found that per capita science and literature Nobel prizes and scientific publications are strongly negatively associated with schizophrenia and strongly positively correlated with left‐handedness. There also was a very pronounced negative correlation between schizophrenia rate and left‐handedness rate. These results suggest that genius can be regarded as a combination of very high IQ, aspects of high‐functioning autism (specifically low empathy) plus relatively low impulse control, consistent with observations of intellectually outstanding individuals, and the fact that schizophrenia appears to constitute the opposite pole of these aspects of autism spectrum. We posit differences in androgen levels as a possible underlying explanation for these findings.
... Introduction Dutton, te Nijenhuis and Roivainen (2014) presented data indicating that Finland has the highest IQ in Europe. These data are the following: 1) Finland's scores on PISA tests. ...
... Moreover, there is a degree to which PISA is more representative, in that the WAIS IV excludes those with various mental illnesses and personality disorders that tend to develop after the age of 15 whereas PISA includes those who will go on to develop such conditions. But certainly, we can see that our meta-analysis, in line with Dutton et al. (2014), confirms that Finland has a higher fluid IQ than Scandinavia and implies that it may be among the highest in Europe. ...
... However, Finland's 5.4% Swedish-speaking minority has a lower score (521) on the CPS than the Finns (526). Indeed, this minority, which are on average wealthier, healthier, and better educated than the Finns (see Dutton et al., 2014) score lower than the Finns on every PISA subtest in all years of assessment. There is a body of evidence that this minority are genetically between the Finns and Swedes (e.g. ...
... Introduction Dutton, te Nijenhuis and Roivainen (2014) presented data indicating that Finland has the highest IQ in Europe. These data are the following: 1) Finland's scores on PISA tests. ...
... Moreover, there is a degree to which PISA is more representative, in that the WAIS IV excludes those with various mental illnesses and personality disorders that tend to develop after the age of 15 whereas PISA includes those who will go on to develop such conditions. But certainly, we can see that our meta-analysis, in line with Dutton et al. (2014), confirms that Finland has a higher fluid IQ than Scandinavia and implies that it may be among the highest in Europe. ...
... However, Finland's 5.4% Swedish-speaking minority has a lower score (521) on the CPS than the Finns (526). Indeed, this minority, which are on average wealthier, healthier, and better educated than the Finns (see Dutton et al., 2014) score lower than the Finns on every PISA subtest in all years of assessment. There is a body of evidence that this minority are genetically between the Finns and Swedes (e.g. ...
The Scandinavian (Sweden, Norway, Denmark) standardization of the WAIS IV on the matrices
subtest is presented. The score of Scandinavia on the WAIS IV matrices is higher than Finland
(weighted means 105.1 and 103.1, relative to a US norm of 100). However, the difference is not
statistically significant. Finland scores higher than Scandinavia on PISA Creative Problem Solving
2012. We meta-analyze the data from both studies and estimate the Scandinavian Matrices IQ at
99.1 and the Finnish at 102.3 or 102.4 (based on US norms) depending on which sample sizes are
used. Finally, we discuss theories that attempt to explain this difference.
... One possible way to investigate this question would be to use the research fi ndings from previous international comparison of national personality (McCrae, 2002;McRae, Terracciano, et al ., 2005;Schmitt, Allik, McRae, & Benet-Martinez, 2007 ; Bartram, 2013 ). This method is in line with Dutton, te Nijenhuis, and Roivainen (2014 ), who observed that the reason for fewer Nobel Prizes among Finns is caused by their smaller standard deviation in IQ and higher Conscientiousness and Agreeableness. However, we did not explicitly include the results from international personality research, since the national personality scores of the four research articles above did not correlate with each other to any substantial extent. ...
... Accordingly, it may be that in around 1800 Europe actually had a higher average IQ than did Northeast Asia and, in that the European decline in IQ is only hypothesized to have commenced around 1900, it may be that many of the 20th century's European Nobel Prize winners were born at a time when Europe's IQ was higher than that of Northeast Asia, explaining Northeast Asia's relatively poor per capita representation. But, again, even if this is true, it is unlikely that the q index has played no part, as Japan's per capita Nobel Prizes, e.g., is worse than countries with an average IQ of half an SD or more below the European mean (such as Ireland and Cyprus) and only slightly better than various other European countries with lower national IQ, such as Portugal and Romania (see Dutton, et al ., 2014 ). Moreover, even if we only look at Prizes won since 1980, Japan and Korea still perform worse than European countries, despite higher living standards and higher average IQ (Japan and Korea have been awarded 17 and 0 Nobel laureates after 1980, respectively, while the U.K. and France have been awarded 22 and 19, respectively.) ...
It is our argument that as Northeast Asian countries are lower on the q index than European countries, yet higher in intelligence, this would assist in explaining the surprisingly poor representation of Northeast Asian countries in terms of original scientific achievement. However, there are a number of alternative explanations that need to be discussed. First, it might be argued that until around World War II the standard of living was significantly lower in Japan than in Western Europe, and this would explain the poor representation of the Japanese in terms of Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals. However, this raises the question of why the Japanese should have had a lower standard of living if they had a significantly higher average IQ. A parsimonious explanation is that they were less innovative than Europeans due, in part, to lower q. Moreover, since around 1970 or earlier, the Japanese standard of living has equalized with and exceeded that of Western Europe, but even since this time, Japan has lower scientific achievement. The most frequently cited 10 scholars in 21 scientific fields in 2014 (210 in total) include only seven Japanese, while there were 18 British and 12 French scholars (Thomson-Reuter, 2015). Since the Japanese population (126 million) is more than the sum of those of the UK and France (120 million), Japan produces less than one-fourth the number of prominent scholars.
... For example, studies show that Nobel Prizes are awarded in heaps to researchers from countries with a high gross domestic product. [96][97][98] One reason is that in some research fields (e.g., particle physics), extremely high investments are needed to conduct research that can lead to innovations. 89,99 Whether economic educational capital is used for talent development depends, among other things, on cultural educational capital, that is, the values, attitudes, thought patterns, and guiding principles that can favor or hinder the achievement of learning and education goals. ...
This article provides an overview of science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medical sciences (STEMM) talent development from first exposure to a STEMM domain to achieving eminence and innovation. To this end, a resource‐oriented model of STEMM talent development is proposed as a framework. It includes a three‐stage phase model based on Bloom (1985), with the main focus on interest development in the first stage, skill acquisition toward expertise and excellence in the second stage, and style formation toward eminence and innovation in the final stage. A literature review shows that from an educational perspective, each phase is mainly characterized by the focus that Bloom postulated. However, it is important that all three stages (i.e., interest development, skill acquisition, and style formation) occur in a stage‐typical manner. To explain how these primary objectives of STEMM development can be supported through STEMM talent education, Ziegler and Stoeger's (2011) educational and learning capital framework is used in the proposed resource‐based model. A literature review shows that consistent provisioning of the resources specified in the model is necessary for individuals to complete a learning pathway to STEMM eminence and innovation.
... In contrast to the results with green spaces, more research is needed about cultural traditions and practices to understand how Finnish people prefer their home as a favorite place while Hungarians are more inclined to choose urban environments. There are speculations about the historical and even evolutionary causes of Finns' low Extraversion (Dutton, 2009;Dutton et al., 2014). However, personality traits alone can partially explain the difference in social phenomena. ...
... More specifically, many studies spanning several decades have focused on studying different kinds of intelligence in gifted students (Worrell et al., 2019;Erden et al., 2020). For example, it has been shown that gifted students score higher on intelligence measures than non-gifted students (McClain and Pfeiffer, 2012); therefore, revealing that high intelligence may be a key contributing factor to high academic performance (Deary et al., 2007;Dutton et al., 2014;Gomes et al., 2014). ...
The current study investigated correlations among gifted students’ academic performance; emotional, social, analytical, creative, and practical intelligence; and their implicit theories of intelligence. Furthermore, it studied the effect of gender and grade on these variables. The participants included 174 gifted fifth (41.4%) and sixth (58.6%) grade students, comprising 53.4% male and 46.6% female. The following analytical, creative, and practical intelligence tests were administered: Aurora Battery, the emotional intelligence scale, the implicit theories of intelligence scale, and an assessment scale of students’ performances. The results revealed significant correlations among academic performance, kinds of intelligence, and implicit theories of intelligence. There were no significant differences between the male and female students in these measures. There were, however, significant differences between the fifth and sixth grade students, with the sixth-grade students showing higher levels of all kinds of intelligence, except emotional intelligence. Moreover, the results indicated that the intelligence measures were non-significantly affected by either gender or gender–grade interaction. Overall, our results showed that most types of intelligence are related to giftedness, and that there were no gender differences among gifted students on measures of intelligence.
... Вероятно, данную особенность индивидов нельзя недооценивать, поскольку она напрямую может быть связана с вопросом о развитии способностей. Так, в статье Э. Даттона рассматривается причина того, почему в популяции финнов, имеющих самый высокий IQ в Европе, так мало нобелевских лауреатов (всего четверо, из них 75% составляют финны шведского происхождения) [28]. ...
The urgency of the researched problem is due to the new demands of society and the state on the resultsthat the general education system should achieve. Changes in the format of the FSESresults, establishedon the methodology of the system-activity approach, entail new tasks for teachersand students. Theauthors demonstrate theurgency of new goalsand results of education for the young generation within the framework of a prefigurative culture. Theysubstantiatethe need to consider the new phenomenon of “self-discovery of abilities” in the context of school education. The purpose of the article is a theoretical description of student's abilities self-discoveryproblem in the context of educational goals. The following tasks weresolved: a review of domestic and foreign psychological and pedagogical research on the topic of self-discoverywas pre-pared, in particular, the results of the self-discovery abilities of high school students in connection withtheirprofessional self-determination were shown, domestic theories of abilities were systematized, as well as modern foreign data. The system-activity approach and the theory of abilities were used as the leading approaches to the study of the problem. The method of theoretical analysiswasused. Main results of the work: the necessity of studying the student's self-discovery abilities is proved, since the scientific base is shown: the system-activity approach, theories of abilities, and the subject of professional self-de-termination has been developed. The dynamics of a student's ability are justified as the goal of education. It is shown that theworkof the teacher goes onas the process of creating an environment for the development of abilities and competences of the student. As a result of this interaction, the student discovershimself primarily as the owner of some promising resources.Thus, self-discovery of abilities for oneself occurs. The pedagogical intentionality is substantiated as a modern teacher’s com-petence, which letsa teacherto make the dynamics of thestudent's ability and competence increments of the studentthe subject of his activity and the result of the student’s work. The theoretical significance is due to the introduction and interpre-tation of new concepts regarding the context of general education and the activity of a teacher: “self-discovery of the abilities of a high school student”, “pedagogical intentionality”.The practical significance of the work consists in applicabilityof a high school student’s abilities self-discovery ideas for his pedagogical support andproviding opportunities for abilities self-discov-ery. Pedagogical intentionality maybe the basis for a change in teaching practice, including the process ofmethodologicaldeveloping lessons and work plans, which makes it possible forthe teacher to workin accordance with the FSES.
... Please note that Estonia has never won a Nobel Prize compared to 68 Nobel Prize winners in France and 12 in Israel. Like Finland, Estonia has a relatively high national IQ (Pullmann, Allik, & Lynn, 2004; see also http://www.oecd.org/estonia/pisa-2015-estonia.htm), but one of the lowest number of Nobel prizes (Dutton, Nijenhuis, & Roivainen, 2014). It is also useful to remember that France and Israel spend respectively 2.3% and 4.3% of their GDP on R&D. ...
Only sufficient economic wealth can produce science with the highest quality. However, there is room for many intervening factors, which can moderate the process of how money invested into research transforms into a bibliometrically measurable outcome. In this paper, based on the latest update of the Essential Science Indicators (ESI), covering the period 2007–2017, we analyze the progress of Estonian science against the background less successful neighbors, Latvia and Lithuania, in the pursuit of scientific excellence. Estonia improved the impact of scientific papers by eleven positions occupying the 17th position in the world-ranking list of countries/territories, sandwiched between France and Israel who both have approximately two times larger DGP per capita to say nothing about 68 and 12 Nobel Prize winners respectively. By the percentage of papers reaching the top-cited category, Estonia occupies the 7th position of the most successful nations. The fact that Estonian papers are cited 30% more frequently than papers recorded by ESI in general is a puzzle because Estonia is spending only about 0.8% of its GDP on the R&D with a dropping tendency during the last three years. Factors that could moderate transformation of the input money into scientific output are discussed.
... An array of studies have argued and empirically demonstrated that the occurrence of the Big Five personality traits varies between countries and cultures (Romero et al 2012;Ha et al. 2013;Fatke 2017 Dutton et al. 2014, 196, for a detailed critique). Dutton et al. (2014Dutton et al. ( , 2016, however, argue and demonstrate that, in contrast to other Europeans, Finns are lower in Extraversion, but higher in Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Emotional stability. Since this study is not comparative, cross-country variation in personality traits will not affect our findings since all of our respondents are within the same country. ...
The aim of this article is to examine whether core personality traits are associated with opinions on and engagement in political participation of either participatory or deliberative nature. The Finish National Election Survey 2015 is used to explore the link between the Big Five personality dimensions and a wide array of political opinions and behaviour. The results suggest that variations in personality to some extent affect what kind of activities one prefers and engages in. Personality traits seem to better predict actual engagement in participatory and deliberative activities rather than having favorable opinions about them. This suggests that there is a difference between being positive about an activity in principle and actually engaging in it. Extraversion and Openness are positively linked to engagement in both participatory and deliberative activities, while Agreeableness and Emotional stability are negatively related.
There are stronger effects of personality traits in predicting opinions on and engagement in
deliberative activities than for participatory activities. The traits associated with deliberation
differ from traits associated with preferring more traditional forms of politics. Thus, the
results clearly suggest that the impact of personality on participation should not be neglected.
... An array of studies have argued and empirically demonstrated that the occurrence of the Big Five personality traits varies between countries and cultures (Romero et al 2012;Ha et al. 2013;Fatke 2017 Dutton et al. 2014, 196, for a detailed critique). Dutton et al. (2014Dutton et al. ( , 2016, however, argue and demonstrate that, in contrast to other Europeans, Finns are lower in Extraversion, but higher in Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Emotional stability. Since this study is not comparative, cross-country variation in personality traits will not affect our findings since all of our respondents are within the same country. ...
The aim of this article is to examine whether core personality traits are associated with opinions on and engagement in political participation of either participatory or deliberative nature. The Finish National Election Survey 2015 is used to explore the link between the Big Five personality dimensions and a wide array of political opinions and behaviour. The results suggest that variations in personality to some extent affect what kind of activities one prefers and engages in. Personality traits seem to better predict actual engagement in participatory and deliberative activities rather than having favorable opinions about them. This suggests that there is a difference between being positive about an activity in principle and actually engaging in it. Extraversion and Openness are positively linked to engagement in both participatory and deliberative activities, while Agreeableness and Emotional stability are negatively related. There are stronger effects of personality traits in predicting opinions on and engagement in deliberative activities than for participatory activities. The traits associated with deliberation differ from traits associated with preferring more traditional forms of politics. Thus, the results clearly suggest that the impact of personality on participation should not be neglected.
... Some Northeast-Asian countries have national mean IQ estimates that are higher than many Western countries, but have obtained fewer Nobel prizes per capita than would be expected based on their national IQ and educational system. Dutton, Te Nijenhuis and Roivainen (2014) noted that Finland has produced only two science Nobel laureates (and now one Economics laureate) despite its mean IQ and educational achievement (PISA scores) being the highest in Europe. ...
There are national differences in scientific activity that are not well accounted for by economic and intellectual factors alone. We examine the novel hypothesis that androgen levels may also play a role. Androgens are often referred to as male hormones, but are present in both men and women, and have been linked to performance in other domains, such as sports and entrepreneurship. National‐level empirical data on scientific productivity, in terms of numbers of publications, and science Nobel laureates were compared to seven national‐level androgen indicators; namely androgenic body hair, the length of the CAG repeat on the androgen receptor gene, prostate cancer incidence, male and female 2D:4D finger ratio, and sex frequency and number of partners. The majority of these indicators were associated in the expected direction with per capita number of scientific publications and Nobel prizes. Moreover, several indicators significantly interacted with national‐level estimates of intelligence, such that androgen levels are related to measures of the scientific achievement only when the level of intelligence is relatively high. These findings may partly explain the global distribution of scientific productivity, achievements, and Nobel prizes.
... An array of studies have argued and empirically demonstrated that the occurrence of the Big Five personality traits varies between countries and cultures (Romero et al 2012;Ha et al. 2013;Fatke 2017 Dutton et al. 2014, 196, for a detailed critique). Dutton et al. (2014Dutton et al. ( , 2016, however, argue and demonstrate that, in contrast to other Europeans, Finns are lower in Extraversion, but higher in Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Emotional stability. Since this study is not comparative, cross-country variation in personality traits will not affect our findings since all of our respondents are within the same country. ...
... McClain & Pfeiffer (2012) have stated that for N100 years, gifted students have been identified by scores obtained on IQ tests. Dutton, te Nijenhuis, & Roivainen (2014) have proposed that high intelligence scores may predict high academic performance more often than low intelligence scores, but that this is not a general rule. ...
The current study aimed at identifying to what extent gifted students' academic performance differs in light of their emotional, social, analytical, creative, practical, and implicit intelligence, and to explore which of these are more effective for differentiating students' performance. This study was also an attempt to determine the direct effects of different kinds of intelligence on student performance, and to generate a structural model that could explain the relationship among different kinds of intelligence, students' implicit theories of intelligence, and student performance. The 174 participants were randomly chosen from primary school students who participated in summer enrichment programs. An emotional intelligence scale, a social intelligence scale, the analytical, creative, and practical intelligence tests of the Aurora Battery, an implicit intelligence scale, and performance assessment inventory were administered. A cluster analysis revealed that there were three profiles for students. The structural equation model confirmed that the predictor factors had positive and significant effects on performance. These predictor variables accounted for (68%) of the percent of the variance in performance. Ultimately, the factors affecting student performance were, in order of decreasing magnitude, emotional intelligence, analytical intelligence, practical intelligence, creative intelligence, implicit intelligence, and social intelligence. Furthermore, there were strong effects of implicit theory of intelligence on the different kinds of intelligence.
... In line with the above, it would be informative to compare the Finland-Swedes and Finns on these individual difference measures. A recent study has examined Finnish intelligence and personality and found that Finns have relatively high intelligence by European standards, as well as high Agreeableness and Conscientiousness based on proxy evidence (Dutton, te Nijenhuis, & Roivainen, 2014). However, to the best of our knowledge no previous study has specifically looked at the personality of the Finland-Swedes in comparison to the Finns and no international study has specifically examined their intelligence in relation to the Finns, though Brink, Nissinen, and Vettenranta (2013) have noted differences in PISA score in a study published in Finnish and Swedish. ...
There is evidence that Finland's Swedish-speaking minority (Finland-Swedes) may have a distinct intelligence-personality profile from the Finnish-speaking Finns (Finns). We test this through an examination of the two groups' PISA (Programme of International Student Assessment) scores (which assesses representative samples of 15 year olds from OECD countries) and their personality scores, drawing upon a representative Finnish sample. We found Finland-Swedes to have slightly lower average intelligence. However, when controlling for gender and age, the Finland-Swedes score significantly higher on Conscientiousness, Extraversion and Emotional Stability. Overall, we found a Jensen Effect whereby most of the personality differences between the two groups could be attributed to the General Factor of Personality (GFP), which reflects the shared variance of lower-order personality traits. The GFP is assumed to reflect general social effectiveness.
The relationship of religiosity with education and intelligence was investigated with data from the World Values Survey covering a total of 345,743 respondents in 96 countries. The individual-level relationship of education with religious belief was slightly but significantly negative in the majority of countries, although its relationship with religious attendance was substantially less negative. At the country level, religious belief has independent negative relationships with intelligence and a history of communist rule, but not with educational exposure and log-transformed GDP. The results suggest that a weak negative relationship of religiosity with education is culturally amplified into far larger differences at the country level, and that the effect of education is mediated by cognitive skills. The results suggest that secularization during the 20 th century has been driven by cognitive rather than economic development. É inteligente acreditar em Deus? A relação da religiosidade com educação e inteligência Resumo A relação da religiosidade com educação e inteligência foi investigada de acordo com dados do World Values Survey abrangendo um total de 345.743 entrevistados em 96 países. No nível individual, a relação da educação com a crença religiosa foi discretamente, porém significativamente negativa na maioria dos países, apesar de que a relação com a presença religiosa foi substancialmente menos negativa. No nível nacional, a crença religiosa tem relações negativas independentes com inteligência e com um histórico de regime comunista, mas não com a exposição educacional ou com o produto interno bruto (PIB) obtido por transformação logarítmica. Os resultados sugerem que uma fraca relação negativa de religiosidade com educação é culturalmente amplificada para diferenças muito maiores no nível nacional, e que o efeito da educação é mediado por habilidades cognitivas. Os resultados sugerem que a secularização durante o século XX tem sido impulsionada pelo desenvolvimento cognitivo e não pelo desenvolvimento econômico. Palavras-chave: Religiosidade, Educação inteligente, Bem-estar econômico, PIB, Comparações transculturais. 102 Meisenberg, G., Rindermann, H., Patel, H., & Woodley, M. A. Es inteligente creer en Dios? La relación de la religiosidad con educación e inteligencia Resumen La relación de la religiosidad con la educación e inteligencia se investigó de acuerdo con datos del World Values Survey cubriendo un total de 345,743 entrevistados en 96 países. A nivel individual, la relación de la enseñanza con la creencia religiosa fue baja, pero significativamente negativa en la mayoría de los países, aunque esta relación con la presencia religiosa fuera considerablemente menos negativa. A nivel nacional, la creencia religiosa tiene relaciones negativas independientes de la inteligencia y un histórico de régimen comunista, pero no con la exposición educacional o con un Producto Interno Bruto (PIB) obtenido por transformación logarítmico. Los resultados sugieren que una débil y negativa relación de la religiosidad con la educación es culturalmente ampliada en diferencias muy grandes a nivel nacional, y que el resultado de la educación es medido por capacidades intelectivas. Los resultados apuntan que la secularización durante el siglo XX ha sido impulsada más por el conocimiento que por el desarrollo económico.
Lynn and Vanhanen test the hypothesis on the causal relationship between the average national intelligence (IQ) and the gap between rich and poor countries by empirical evidence. Based on an extensive survey of national IQ tests, the results of their work challenge the previous theories of economic development and provide a new basis to evaluate the prospects of economic development throughout the world.
They begin by reviewing and evaluating some major previous theories. The concept of intelligence is then described and intelligence quotient (IQ) introduced. Next they show that intelligence is a significant determinant of earnings within nations, and they connect intelligence with various economic and social phenomena. The sociology of intelligence at the level of sub-populations in nations is examined, and the independent (national IQ) and dependent (various measures of per capita income and economic growth rates) variables are defined and described. They then provide empirical analyses starting from the 81 countries for which direct evidence of national IQs is available; the analysis is then extended to the world group of 185 countries. The hypothesis is tested by the methods of correlation and regression analyses. The results of statistical analyses support the hypothesis strongly. The results of the analyses and various means to reduce the gap between rich and poor countries are discussed. A provocative analysis that all scholars, students, and researchers involved with economic development need to confront.
The relationship of religiosity with education and intelligence was investigated with data from the World Values Survey covering a total of 345,743 respondents in 96 countries. The individual-level relationship of education with religious belief was slightly but significantly negative in the majority of countries, although its relationship with religious attendance was substantially less negative. At the country level, religious belief has independent negative relationships with intelligence and a history of communist rule, but not with educational exposure and log-transformed GDP. The results suggest that a weak negative relationship of religiosity with education is culturally amplified into far larger differences at the country level, and that the effect of education is mediated by cognitive skills. The results suggest that secularization during the 20th century has been driven by cognitive rather than economic development.
Reaction time variables are used widely in studies of human cognitive ageing and in research on the information processing foundations of psychometric intelligence. The research is largely based on biased population samples. In the present study, large (500+), representative samples of the population of the West of Scotland were tested at ages 16, 36 and 56 years on simple and choice reaction time. Participants were re-tested eight years later, at which time they also took the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). We report simple and choice reaction time means and their variabilities, their stability across 8 years, and their correlations with the PASAT. Simple and choice reaction times become slower and more variable with age. Women from age 36 to 63 show more variability in choice reaction times than men, an effect which remains after controlling for mean reaction time. Reaction time differences largely account for age differences, but not sex differences, in PASAT scores.
The Big Five Inventory (BFI) is a self-report measure designed to assess the high-order personality traits of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness. As part of the International Sexuality Description Project, the BFI was translated from English into 28 languages and administered to 17,837 individuals from 56 nations. The resulting cross-cultural data set was used to address three main questions: Does the factor structure of the English BFI fully replicate across cultures? How valid are the BFI trait profiles of individual nations? And how are personality traits distributed throughout the world? The five-dimensional structure was robust across major regions of the world. Trait levels were related in predictable ways to self-esteem, sociosexuality, and national personality profiles. People from the geographic regions of South America and East Asia were significantly different in open- ness from those inhabiting other world regions. The discussion focuses on limitations of the current data set and important directions for future research.
Two studies tested one linear and two curvilinear hypotheses concerning the relationship between political conservatism-liberalism and cognitive ability. Study 1, focusing on students at a selective US university (n = 7279), found support for the idea that some dimensions of conservatism are linked to lower verbal ability, whereas other dimensions are linked to higher verbal ability. There was also strong support for political extremists both on the left and right being higher in verbal ability than centrists. Study 2 employed aggregate data pertaining to the 50 US states and demonstrated that conservatism was linked to lower cognitive ability in states with high political involvement, but found conservatism to be correlated with higher average ability in states with low political involvement. The discussion addresses potential implications and criticisms of this research.
Previous research concerned with the Finnish-Swedish mortality differential in
Finland tends to have overlooked the fact that many Finnish speakers who live in the
same coastal area as the Swedish speakers originate from parts of the country with
high death rates. Using an extract from Statistics Finlands longitudinal employment
statistics ? le, we ? nd that geographical extraction is an important factor underlying
variation in both mortality and disability retirement in working-aged people. Finnish
speakers born in eastern and northern Finland have substantially poorer health than
those originating from western Finland. It is consequently not suf? cient to restrict
analyses only by present region of residence. Still, there remains a between-group
health differential also in people born in the coastal area, which suggests that health
behaviors and risk factors could be relevant.
Why are some people worriers, and others wanderers? Why do some people seem good at empathising, and others at controlling? We have something deep and consistent within us that determines the choices we make and the situations we bring about. But why should members of the same species differ so markedly in their natures? What is the best personality to have; a bold one or a shy one, an aggressive one or a meek one? And are you stuck with your personality, or can you change it? Daniel Nettle takes the reader on a tour through the science of human personality, introducing the five 'dimensions' on which every personality is based, and using an unusual combination of individual life stories and scientific research. Showing how our personalities stem from our biological makeup, Nettle looks at the latest findings from genetics and brain science, considers the evolutionary origins and consequences of personality variation, and even includes a questionnaire for you to assess your own personality against the five dimensions. There is no optimal personality to have. Rather, every disposition brings both advantages and disadvantages. Life is partly the business of finding a niche where your personal characteristics work for you. Full of human as well as scientific insight, this book will enable you to understand the perils and potentials of your personality to the full.
Cited References Count:89|QU374|PLENUM PUBL CORP|233 SPRING ST, NEW YORK, NY 10013|TOWNSEND, JM|ISI Document Delivery No.:QU374
In this beautifully written account, Julian Young provides the most comprehensive biography available today of the life and philosophy of the nineteenth-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Young deals with the many puzzles created by the conjunction of Nietzsche's personal history and his work: why the son of a Lutheran pastor developed into the self-styled “Antichrist” why this archetypical Prussian came to loathe Bismarck's Prussia; and why this enemy of feminism preferred the company of feminist women. Setting Nietzsche's thought in the context of his times - the rise of Prussian militarism, anti-Semitism, Darwinian science, the “Youth” and emancipationist movements, as well as the “death of God” - Young emphasizes the decisive influence of Plato and of Richard Wagner on Nietzsche's attempt to reform Western culture. He also describes the devastating effect on Nietzsche's personality of his unhappy love for Lou Salomé and attempts to understand why, at the age of forty-four, he went mad. This book includes a selection of more than thirty photographs of Nietzsche, his friends and his work sites. Seventeen of the philosopher's musical compositions, which are key to a deeper understanding of his intellectual project are available online.
Preface List of illustrations A word about correlation 1. To see 'g' or not to see 'g': How many types of intelligence are there? 2. Ageing and intelligence - senility or sagacity? What happens to mental abilities as we grow older? 3. Brainy? Why are some people cleverer than others? 4. 'They **** you up your Mum and Dad': Are intelligence differences a result of genes or environments or both? 5. The (b)right man for the job: Does intelligence matter? 6. The lands of the rising IQ: Is intelligence changing generation by generation? 7. Twelve angry men: Getting experts to agree about human intelligence differences Further reading Index
In this book, Gregory Feist reviews and consolidates the scattered literatures on the psychology of science, then calls for the establishment of the field as a unique discipline. He offers the most comprehensive perspective yet on how science came to be possible in our species and on the important role of psychological forces in an individual's development of scientific interest, talent, and creativity. Without a psychological perspective, Feist argues, we cannot fully understand the development of scientific thinking or scientific genius. The author explores the major subdisciplines within psychology as well as allied areas, including biological neuroscience and developmental, cognitive, personality, and social psychology, to show how each sheds light on how scientific thinking, interest, and talent arise. He assesses which elements of scientific thinking have their origin in evolved mental mechanisms and considers how humans may have developed the highly sophisticated scientific fields we know today. In his fascinating and authoritative book, Feist deals thoughtfully with the mysteries of the human mind and convincingly argues that the creation of the psychology of science as a distinct discipline is essential to deeper understanding of human thought processes.
Regional differences in IQ are reported for Finland showing that average IQs are highest in the south, containing the capital city of Helsinki. It is proposed that the selective migration of those with higher IQs to Helsinki has been the major factor responsible for the higher average IQ in the south. Regional IQs are positively correlated with the percentage of the population with tertiary education, mean income, and average male and female life expectancy; and negatively with the percentage of the population with average income less than 60% of the national median, the percentage of unemployment, and the rate of infant mortality.
Major innovations in the arts and sciences can be largely attributed to the output of creative geniuses. But how do such great innovators emerge? And how does their creativity manifest itself? The first question shall be addressed by examining the early experiences that contribute to the development of extraordinary creative potential. The factors include family background, education, and professional training. The response to the second question concentrates on the typical career trajectory of illustrious creators. Features of this trajectory include the ages at which geniuses tend to produce their ?rst great work, their best work, and their last great work.
Dysgenic fertility has supposedly resulted in a decline in general intelligence (g) over time. In light of evidence that simple visual reaction time (RT) is inversely related to IQ, Woodley et al. (2013) tested the hypothesized dysgenic effect by subjecting to a meta-regression simple visual RT data collected over 100 years in 15 studies. This analysis found that RT had significantly increased according to a linear function over this time period. Woodley et al. then used this result to estimate the rate at which g had declined over the same period. The present comment points out that there are large gaps in the distribution of RTs analyzed by Woodley et al. with respect to year tested, and that RT in males did not vary as a function of year in the 13 studies published from 1941 on. It is concluded that although existing data are consistent with the idea that g has been adversely affected by dysgenic fertility, it cannot be determined at what rate g has fallen over time.
In Finland, members of the Swedish‐speaking minority, many of whom live in the province of Ostrobothnia, intermingle with the Finnish‐speaking majority. Although the two language communities are quite similar to each other in most societal respects, including socioeconomic status, education and use of health services, significant disparities have been reported in the morbidity, disability and mortality between the Swedish‐speaking minority and the Finnish‐speaking majority. Since the population genetic, ecological and socioeconomic circumstances are equal, Swedish speakers’ longer active life is difficult to explain by conventional health‐related risk factors. A great deal of health inequality (between the language groups) seems to derive from uneven distribution of social capital, i.e. the Swedish‐speaking community holds a higher amount of social capital that is associated with their well‐being and health. Factor analysis revealed four patterns of social capital measures, i.e. voluntary associational activity, friendship network, religious involvement and hobby club activity, of which associational activity, friendship network and religious involvement were significantly associated with good self‐rated health. Also, trustful friendship network, hobby club activity and religious involvement as well as avoidance of intoxication‐prone drinking behavior were significantly more frequent among the individuals of the Swedish‐speaking community. We suggest that health promotion should seek ways of working which would encourage social participation.
Historical Understanding of the Problem Natural Selection in Preindustrial Societies The Breakdown of Natural Selection The Genetic Deterioration of Health Intelligence and Fertility Sibling Studies Intelligence and Fertility in the United States Intelligence and Fertility in Europe Resolving the Paradox of the Secular Rise of Intelligence Education and Fertility Socioeconomic Status and Fertility Socioeconomic Status Differences in Intelligence Socioeconomic Status Differences in Conscientiousness The Genetic Basis of Socioeconomic Status Differences in Conscientiousness Dysgenic Fertility for Conscientiousness Dysgenic Fertility in Economically Developing National Counterarguments and Rejoinders.
Previously Woodley, te Nijenhuis and Murphy (2013) tested the hypothesis that Victorian era British and American samples exhibited higher g on average than relatively more modern populations sampled from the US, UK, Canada, Australia and Finland, using measures of simple visual reaction time in a meta-analytic study. Based on 13 age-matched studies from Western countries conducted between 1884 and 2004 yielding 16 data points we estimated a decline of − 13.35 IQ points. Here we respond to a quartet of critical commentaries on our paper (Flynn penned by five prominent intelligence researchers (James Flynn, Theodore Nettelbeck, Irwin Silverman, Julia Dodonova and Yuri Dodonov). We show via various reanalyses of the data and also via careful consideration of the arguments presented that the original finding of a potential secular decline in simple reaction time performance is robust. A recurrent criticism of our finding stems from earlier work showing no secular trends with respect to inspection time over a 20-year period in Australia despite the possibility of co-occurring dysgenic fertility. We deal with this via the method of correlated vectors, which reveals the presence of a ‘genetic g’ common factor on which simple RTs, WAIS g loadings and subtest heritabilities load positively and significantly, but on which inspection time does not load. This indicates that inspection times are associated with local information processing, unlike simple reaction times, which are associated with global processing (i.e. g). The robustness of our original finding is best illustrated however by our final meta-regression, in which the use of six methods variance-controlled reaction time means taken from the US and the UK between 1889 and 1993, coupled with a newly-estimated age-matched reference standard deviation, reveal a seemingly robust secular trend towards slowing reaction time in these two countries, which translates into a potential dysgenics rate of − 1.21 IQ points per decade, or − 13.9 points in total between 1889 and 2004. We conclude by arguing that the best way forward is to test novel predictions stemming from our finding relating to molecular genetics, neurophysiology and alternative cognitive indicators, thus shifting the research focus away from the purely methodological level towards the broader nomological level. We thank our critics for helping us to arrive at a much more precise estimate of the decline in general intelligence.
The average IQs of approximately 25,000 18–20 year old male military conscripts in Finland per year are reported for the years 1988 to 2009. The results showed increases in the scores on tests of Shapes, Number and Words over the years 1988 to 1997 averaging 4.0 IQ points a decade. From 1997 to 2009 there were declines in all three tests averaging 2.0 IQ points a decade.
Innovations in science can be divided into at least four major types: radical revolutions (such as Copernican and Darwinian theory), technical revolutions (led by scientists such as Newton, Lavoisier, and Einstein), controversial innovations (for example, Semmelweis's theory of puerperal fever), and conservative innovations (eugenics and various vitalistic doctrines). Biographical predictors of support for scientific innovations are distinctly different depending on the type of innovation, as are the predictors of who initially engineers such innovations. A meta-analytic approach assessing each new scientific theory according to its salient features (including epistemological, ideological, and technical attributes) is required to make sense out of the varied predisposing factors associated with the origins of these innovations. These predisposing factors are not neatly classifiable in terms of Simonton's (2009, this issue) hierarchical model of domain-specific dispositions, although this model is applicable under some conditions. Instead, the principal sources of scientific achievement are largely a product of person-by-situation interaction effects that are dictated by the nature of the particular innovation.
© 2009 Association for Psychological Science.
Prior research supports the inference that scientific disciplines can be ordered into a hierarchy ranging from the "hard" natural sciences to the "soft" social sciences. This ordering corresponds with such objective criteria as disciplinary consensus, knowledge obsolescence rate, anticipation frequency, theories-to-laws ratio, lecture disfluency, and age at recognition. It is then argued that this hierarchy can be extrapolated to encompass the humanities and arts and interpolated within specific domains to accommodate contrasts in subdomains (e.g., revolutionary versus normal science). This expanded and more finely differentiated hierarchy is then shown to have a partial psychological basis in terms of dispositional traits (e.g., psychopathology) and developmental experiences (e.g., family background). This demonstration then leads to three hypotheses about how a creator's domain-specific impact depends on his or her disposition and development: the domain-progressive, domain-typical, and domain-regressive creator hypotheses. Studies published thus far lend the most support to the domain-regressive creator hypothesis. In particular, major contributors to a domain are more likely to have dispositional traits and developmental experiences most similar to those that prevail in a domain lower in the disciplinary hierarchy. However, some complications to this generalization suggest the need for more research on the proposed hierarchical model.
© 2009 Association for Psychological Science.
Despite Rushton’s path-breaking work into evolutionary forces affecting life history traits, not many attempts at operationalizing the differential-K spectrum at the level of countries or racial groups have been made so far. We report the construction of a “national K” factor from country-level behavioral variables. This K factor is closely related to country-level intelligence (“g”), operationalized by a composite score of IQ and scholastic achievement. We further demonstrate relationships of both g and K with measures of current environment and hypothesized evolutionary antecedents. Whereas K is predicted most powerfully by intelligence, log-transformed GDP (lgGDP) and skin reflectance, g is predicted by skin reflectance, lgGDP, cranial capacity, and a measure of evolutionary novelty.
The existence of general-purpose cognitive mechanisms related to intelligence, which appear to facilitate all forms of problem solving, conflicts with the strong modularity view of the mind espoused by some evolutionary psychologists. The current study assessed the contribution of general intelligence (g) to explaining variation in contextualized deductive reasoning. One hundred and twelve participants solved 70 contextualized reasoning problems in a computerized version of the Wason Card Selection Task that recorded both accuracy and reaction time. Consistent with prior research, in the sample as a whole, precautionary and social exchange reasoning problems were solved more frequently and more quickly than reasoning problems about arbitrary rules. At the individual-differences level of analysis, however, performance on all reasoning tests was significantly correlated and loaded on a single deductive-reasoning accuracy factor. Further, this factor was significantly correlated with g. There was no relation, however, between g and the speed of arriving at the correct answer for any form of deductive reasoning. We discuss the implications of these findings for evolutionary psychology, intelligence, and reasoning.
The aim of this study was to identify factors that might affect reaction-time (RT) testing and interpretation. Simple reaction time and choice reaction time were measured in a cohort of 893 white young men. Age, body size, color vision, and intelligence (IQ) were analyzed as subject-related factors. Effects of time of day of test and different examiners were analyzed in relation to testing facilities. All factors were statistically correlated to RTs; however, the relationships between age and RTs and between height and RTs were noticeably weak and apparently insignificant in practice. A defect in color vision was notably associated with slow choice RT and with mistakes on the test. As the choice was coded by color in the choice RT test, the result was expected. Low IQs were significantly related with slow RTs. Slow RTs have been correlated with low-grade IQs in previous studies also. Lower grades and greater variation in RTs were recorded just before meals or if testing was done outside the daily testing schedule. The examiner supervising the RT testing significantly affected the results. It was concluded that the introduction for tests should be given impersonally using a tape recorder or comparable equipment.