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How contact with nature affects children’s biophilia, biophobia and conservation attitude in China
... In terms of the influencing factors, attitudes and values regarding the environment were the most frequently investigated (37 out of 50 studies), primarily measured by standardized scales including the New Ecological Paradigm Scale (NEP), 2-Major Environmental Values model scale (2-MEV), Children's Environmental Perception Scale (CEP) and Emotional Affinity toward Nature Scale (EAN) (Collado et al., 2015a(Collado et al., , 2015bOerke and Bogner, 2013;Otto et al., 2019;Tucker and Izadpanahi, 2017). Zhang et al. (2014), in comparison, presented children with animal specimens and asked children to complete a questionnaire referencing the notions of biophilia and biophobia after their observations, with arguments that the depressed emotional attachments were possibly elicited by the dead, mounted specimens, despite the natural history museum's attraction to many students with similar displays. Studies have found statistically significant relationships between children's environmental attitudes and behaviours, though the magnitude varied. ...
... Moreover, many studies tried to address children's comprehension-related issues by the adoption of well-developed and widely-used standardized scales (tailored for specific age groups with specific cultural backgrounds), pilot studies or practice items, simplification of questions, detailed explanation (such as one-on-one interactions) and repetition (Collado et al., 2017(Collado et al., , 2015cCollado and Corraliza, 2015). Some also tried to minimize the number of questions or limit the number of options for answers, though this could limit the statistical power of the analysis (Ando et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2014). Verbal/textual methods sometimes fail to attract children's attention and interest, and some researchers have turned to less demanding and more interactive formats such as tasks and games (Çubukçu et al., 2018). ...
... Moreover, children might report false information because of social desirability bias (e.g., Zhang et al., 2014). Children tend to unconsciously perceive themselves or the reality as overly optimistic/positive (self-deceptive enhancement), and may also deliberately seek to impress adults (impression management) (Paulhus, 1984). ...
To effectively confront the enormous environmental challenges the earth is currently experiencing, people will need to adopt more pro-environmental behaviours. In particular, a deeper understanding of children's experiences, attitudes and behaviour regarding the environment is critical for a sustainable future. Studies employing a range of research designs and measurements have identified various factors influencing children's pro-environmental behaviour (PEB). Yet a comprehensive overview of the literature in this area is lacking. This article reviews recent studies exploring this topic, targeting children between the ages of six and twelve years old. From an initial search of the literature, a total of 2768 records were identified, from which 76 studies were included in the final analysis. These studies employed observational or (quasi-)experimental designs, with a paucity of longitudinal studies identified. Studies often adopted self-reported scales rather than observational measurements to assess children's pro-environmental behaviours or behavioural intentions. Collectively, the findings from these studies identified nine key influencing factors associated with children's PEBs, including internal (e.g., self-efficacy) and external (e.g., contact with nature) factors. Understanding these influencing factors can inform how pro-environmental behaviour might best be promoted in children. Improvements in research designs and measurement methods of PEBs are still needed to further reveal the complexity of human behaviours and the interactive mechanism amongst different influencing factors.
... In recent decades, evidence has shown that affect and emotions are important primary motivations that influence human attitudes toward other species (Martín-López et al. 2007;Ballouard et al. 2012;Zhang et al. 2014;Carvalho et al. 2018). The importance of emotions or even the love of nature for the predisposition for environmental conservation has also been discussed theoretically by a variety of authors (Anderson 1996;Soulé 1997;Hunn 2014;Aguiar et al. 2023;Pereira et al. 2023;Toomey 2023, Silva et al. 2024. ...
... In general, research on activities that favor beneficial human-nature interactions has contributed to the empirical analysis of the various factors (including affective and aesthetic) that influence human attitudes toward biodiversity (Zhang et al. 2014;Silva-Andrade et al. 2016;Carvalho et al. 2018;Vanderstock et al. 2022;Moreno-Rubiano et al. 2023;Teixeira et al. 2024). For example, in previous research, we found that emotional and aesthetic criteria were the most salient motivations for adopting stingless beekeeping as a small-scale activity among farmers in northeastern Brazil (Carvalho et al. 2018). ...
... More broadly, other authors have studied the effects of the degree of contact with nature in general (and not only with certain animals) on the expression of biophilic values directed toward animals (Román et al. 2023). For example, Zhang et al. (2014) analyzed emotional attitudes directed toward wild animals by children by comparing students from rural and urban schools in China. The degree of contact with nature was measured by student involvement in Carvalho et al. 2024. ...
Affective and aesthetic values attributed to nature are primary motivations that can influence human attitudes toward and economic valuation of biodiversity. The expression of these values, however, depends on direct contact and positive experiences with nature. In this sense, research on activities that favor beneficial human-nature interactions, such as beekeeping, can contribute to understanding the factors (including affective and aesthetic) that influence attitudes toward and economic valuation of biodiversity. Our research was carried out at Sítio Xixá, a rural locality originally covered by Atlantic Forest in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. We investigated attitudes toward a variety of locally known animals and their economic value among two groups of small-scale farmers: keepers and nonkeepers of stingless bees. We assumed that keepers of stingless bees would cite more affective-aesthetic attitudes toward animals and would be more willing to pay for animal conservation than nonbeekeepers. The data were collected via semistructured interviews. Beekeepers cited more affective-aesthetic attitudes than nonbeekeepers did. On the other hand, beekeepers were less willing to pay for animal conservation than nonbeekeepers were. It seems that the expression of affective-aesthetic values directed toward animals tends to occur more frequently in groups of people who maintain activities that favor beneficial interactions with the environment, such as beekeepers. However, these values reflect nonmaterial aspects that people attribute to nature and may not be economically valued by human groups. Therefore, nonmaterial values that human populations attribute to nature, such as those related to affection and aesthetics, should be considered in conservation proposals involving the public.
... Widespread evidence suggests that frequent exposure to nature provides various benefits to human health and well-being (Bratman et al., 2019;Keniger et al., 2013;Maes et al., 2021). At the same time, increased awareness of and connection with the natural world may be central to driving motivation towards biological conservation (Barragan-Jason et al., 2022;Simaika & Samways, 2010;Soga & Gaston, 2021;Zhang et al., 2014). ...
... be partly explained by increasing internet access and representation of searches for social phobia in our sample. On the other hand, biophobia tends to be more frequent in urban areas with lower access to nature (Zhang et al., 2014), and the observed increase in search volume may be more indicative of a growing prevalence in society. ...
... We recognise that care should be taken when interpreting temporal trends observed in information-seeking behaviour Ficetola, 2013) and other sources of information should be sought for additional evidence. Still, this result provides quantitative support to the belief that biophobias may be broadly prevalent in modern societies and possibly becoming more widely represented on the internet, for example through biophobic individuals that only recently gained internet access such as inhabitants of emerging urban areas or younger members of the public (Fukano & Soga, 2021;Soga et al., 2023;Zhang et al., 2014). A similar assertion can be made towards nonbiophobias, and particularly social phobia, which is known to be increasingly prevalent worldwide (Jefferies & Ungar, 2020). ...
Human relationships with nature may sometimes manifest through fear, disgust and other disease‐avoidance mechanisms. While there is an evolutionary utility to these so‐called ‘biophobias’, many people exhibit phobic responses towards organisms that pose no tangible threats, potentially leading to excessive anxiety and avoidance of interactions with nature. Understanding the drivers of the prevalence and spread of biophobias in modern societies is, therefore, a growing concern.
Here, we posit that online information‐seeking patterns may reveal general insights into biophobias. Using a culturomics approach, we gathered temporal (2004–2022) and country‐level data on the volume of internet searches for 25 biophobias, as well as 25 general phobias acting as a benchmark group. We explored temporal trends in the volume of search for each biophobias and modelled relationships between search volume for biophobias and five country‐level variables.
We observed a steady increase in online search volume for biophobias between 2004 and 2022. Yet, there were marked differences in individual trends, with 17 biophobias showing positive, three negative and five stationary temporal trends. Arachnophobia (fear of spiders) attracted the most interest, followed by mysophobia (fear of microbes) and parasitophobia (fear of parasites).
The United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Mexico and India recorded wide interest in most biophobias, whereas 49% of countries showed no search volume for any biophobia. Search patterns for biophobias were strongly associated with the percentage of urban population, urban population growth and the number of extant venomous species in a given country. Conversely, search patterns for biophobias were weakly correlated with the incidence of anxiety disorders in a country's population and the likelihood of encounters with venomous animals.
Our results provide quantitative support to the hypothesis that biophobias are broadly prevalent and possibly increasing as a result of widespread urbanisation and loss of experiences with nature. We suggest that people affected by biophobic disorders may be using the Internet as a key venue to seek relevant information to appraise their condition and identify coping mechanisms. These findings have broad ramifications for understanding and mitigating human–wildlife conflicts and the prevalence of widespread biophobic sentiments in modern societies.
... Building upon this definition, we use the term biophobia not only to describe severe psychological conditions like anxiety and panic attacks (Garcia-Palacios et al., 2002;Mystkowski et al., 2002) but also more broadly to encompass strong negative emotional attitudes towards nature. This includes feelings of fear, disgust and dislike (Correia & Mammola, 2024;Fukano & Soga, 2021Gish et al., 2024;Prokop et al., 2024;Puri et al., 2024;Vanderstock et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2014), as well as harbouring ill-omened superstitions (Catapani et al., 2024). ...
... These two dimensions, although having distinct implications, have not been clearly distinguished in previous studies.The magnitude of biophobia varies widely among people living in different environmental, socioeconomic and cultural settings. For example, evidence suggests that individuals in urbanised areas tend to exhibit a greater fear and aversion towards wildlife than individuals in more rural areas (e.g.Fukano & Soga, 2021;Zhang et al., 2014; ...
Throughout history, humans have maintained an intricate connection with nature, often finding fascination with, and deriving numerous benefits from, the natural world. This positive emotional bond with nature, which is considered to have a genetic basis, is known as “biophilia”.
However, biophilia represents just one facet of our relationship with nature. People can also harbour strong negative emotions and attitudes towards nature, increasingly referred to as “biophobia”. Current evidence suggests that the prevalence of biophobia is high and increasing, especially in more developed and urbanised societies. Despite this, the importance of biophobia has largely been overlooked in discussions about human‐nature interactions.
This special feature: ‘Biophobia: a hidden dimension of human‐nature relationships’ includes seven papers from different disciplinary perspectives, including biodiversity conservation, psychology, and behavioral science. These studies explore diverse aspects of biophobia, with a particular emphasis on its drivers and consequences. They also provide key insights into how to mitigate excessive phobic responses towards nature.
In this introductory paper, we will briefly explore what biophobia entails, how it operates, and why it is important in the context of the human‐nature relationship. We outline that biophobia can manifest in response to a wide range of organisms and natural environments, and it can have significant adverse impacts on both human health and well‐being and efforts to address the ongoing biodiversity crisis.
We hope that this special feature will serve as a catalyst for more biophobia research, encouraging collaboration among researchers from diverse backgrounds.
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... Consequently, arguments targeting the specific values for each reluctant social cluster must be integrated into awareness campaign messages (Conejero et al., 2019;Cox and Gaston, 2018;Jacobson et al., 2014;Sakurai et al., 2013). Social and cultural research on the factors promoting citizen habituation and sensitization of human-wildlife relations in urban areas could help to properly manage urban wildlife (Nilon, 2014;Slagle and Bruskotter, 2019;Zhang et al., 2014). In the long term, youth education could improve wildlife knowledge and increase environmental awareness, by addressing concerned attitudes derived from lay-knowledge misconceptions (George et al., 2016;Zhang et al., 2014). ...
... Social and cultural research on the factors promoting citizen habituation and sensitization of human-wildlife relations in urban areas could help to properly manage urban wildlife (Nilon, 2014;Slagle and Bruskotter, 2019;Zhang et al., 2014). In the long term, youth education could improve wildlife knowledge and increase environmental awareness, by addressing concerned attitudes derived from lay-knowledge misconceptions (George et al., 2016;Zhang et al., 2014). ...
... The extensive literature review shows that the role of childhood nature experiences in PEBs has been less investigated in tourism and recreation (van Heezik et al., 2021). However, it has been studied in conservation lifestyle, social environmentalism, environmental citizenship, biophilia, and biodiversity conservation, among others (Rosa et al., 2018;Soga et al., 2016;Wells & Lekies, 2006;Zhang et al., 2014). Experiences in natural environments increase the likelihood of people engaging in PEBs, primarily if these experiences are obtained at an early age (Cheng et al., 2012;Wells & Lekies, 2006). ...
... Furthermore, the public sector should provide accessible and safe natural spaces such as botanical gardens or zoological parks for schools to run summer camps or general visits to parks so that children can experience natural sites more easily (Zhang et al., 2014). Children can engage in both formal (e.g. ...
Despite childhood experiences’ significant role in the pro-environmental behaviour of adults, this issue has insufficiently been addressed within the tourism and recreation context. The current study investigates how childhood nature-based recreation experiences (CHNREs) affect adults’ pro-environmental behaviours (PEBs) in nature-based recreation through connectedness to nature, psychological ownership, and environmental knowledge. It also explores the mediating role of psychological ownership in the relationship between connectedness to nature and environmental knowledge with adults’ PEBs in nature-based recreation. The study’s population included young domestic Iranian visitors to natural sites, and 503 online questionnaires were analyzed employing structural equation modelling AMOS-SEM. The findings showed a significant positive influence of childhood experience on adult PEBs and supported the mediating role of the two variables: connectedness to nature and environmental knowledge. Despite the significant positive impact of environmental knowledge and connectedness to nature on psychological ownership, the mediating role of this variable in the relationship between environmental knowledge and connectedness to nature with PEBs was not supported.
... The urbanization-disgust hypothesis suggests that urbanization increases both the intensity and the breadth of entomophobia by enhancing the frequency of indoor insect sightings and reducing people's knowledge about insects, thus broadening the range of insects that elicit disgust (Fukano & Soga, 2021). Consequently, the growing physical and psychological disconnect between people and nature in highly urbanized societies may contribute to increased levels of entomophobia (Chawla, 2001;Fukano & Soga, 2021;Soga et al., 2020;Zhang et al., 2014;Zsido et al., 2022). ...
... As human populations continue to urbanize, there is a growing disconnect between people and the natural world, potentially leading to an increased prevalence of biophobia in society (Chawla, 2001;Fukano & Soga, 2021;Soga et al., 2020;Zhang et al., 2014;Zsido et al., 2022). Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important to understand the consequences of rising biophobia, particularly in the context of human-nature relationships . ...
Insecticides are commonly used to control insects and other arthropods in homes (hereafter collectively referred to as ‘insects’). Although aversion to insects might encourage the use of insecticides, it is unclear whether such feelings truly influence the decision to use insecticides.
We investigated the connection between feelings of disgust towards insects and the use of household insecticides. Our aim was to uncover the unexplored emotional drivers of insecticide use, in order to provide insights that might help develop new programmes to reduce exposure to household insecticides.
We conducted an online survey (n = 2500) that focussed on insecticide use and disgust feelings towards six species commonly found in homes (cockroaches, ants, spiders, mosquitoes, flies and centipedes). Respondents rated their level of disgust towards these species and reported various beliefs and practices related to household insects and insect control.
Approximately 70% of respondents expressed strong disgust towards these species (ratings of 6 or 7 on a scale of 1–7). More than half (53.3%) reported using aerosol insecticides in their homes in the 6 months prior to the survey.
Path analyses highlighted several factors that influenced insecticide use, including infestation level, disgust intensity, lack of knowledge about arthropods and aversion to chemicals. However, the observed effect sizes were modest, particularly regarding the influence of disgust on insecticide use, which somewhat constrains our study's contribution to the understanding of the motivators driving household insecticide use.
We explain how our findings potentially reflect a critical methodological limitation in the standard methods commonly used for measuring aversion in biophobia (fear of nature) research. This limitation originates from the fact that highly aversive animals often provoke extreme reactions from most participants, resulting in a very low data variation that hinders data analysis. We address this concern in the context of our findings and propose potential solutions that could pave the way for future research on how attitudes towards highly aversive animals affect individuals, society, and the relationships between people and nature.
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... Direct interactions with diverse living and non-living aspects of nature can enhance people's comprehension of biodiversity and increase their personal relevance (Bixler, Floyd & Hammitt, 2002). Furthermore, direct nature experiences are likely to be more vivid and multisensory, thus eliciting strong emotions and creating a lasting and positive memory (Cooper et al., 2015;Asah et al., 2018), which may, in turn, enhance children's conservation willingness via the mediation of biophilia (Zhang, Goodale & Chen, 2014). Children's "hands on" nature experiences are crucial for the development of specific skills, such as of observing and classifying organisms (Klofutar, Jerman & Torkar, 2020). ...
... We extracted children's frequently mentioned nature experience items from the focus group interviews. After combining the Chinese Children's Natural Experience Scale (Zhang, Goodale & Chen, 2014) and the Children's Different Forms of Natural Experience Scale (Mustapa et al., 2018), 20 items were developed to measure self-reported nature experience, including direct (11 items), indirect (five items), and vicarious (four items) nature experience. The scale was tested in pilot tests, and 17 items were reserved for formal investigation. ...
Background
The quantity and context of children’s nature experiences are undergoing significant changes, exacerbating a pervasive negative cycle that could impact future conservation efforts. Therefore, it is essential to conduct further studies on the potential impacts of these changes on children’s willingness to engage in conservation practices.
Methods
We surveyed 2,175 preadolescents (aged 9–12) from rural and city schools in Hangzhou, Kunming, and Xishuangbanna, China, regarding their nature experiences (direct, indirect, and vicarious) and self-reported nature connectedness and conservation behaviors.
Results
We found that children in urban areas have higher frequencies of indirect and vicarious experiences than those in rural areas, with some direct nature experiences seldom reported among city respondents. Direct, indirect, and vicarious nature experiences significantly predicted children’s conservation behavior and collectively provided the highest predictive power for conservation behavior. Direct and vicarious experiences were strongly correlated with pro-nature behavior, and the latter with pro-environmental behavior. Emotional and cognitive connection with nature positively predicted conservation behavior, influenced by location and residence type.
Discussion
This study reveals that different types of nature experiences shape children’s current conservation behaviors in China.
... Among the urban examples in which the biophilia design was the Punggol Residential Neighborhood, as in Fig. 1, which uses a series of lush terraced gardens oriented toward the watercourse that integrate living nature, wide openings to communicate with nature, daylight, air, colors, plants, and green rooftops. These help people conserve, restore space fast, and reduce and treat environmental degradation [16]. Because of the measurable physical and psychological benefits to human health, it is more important than ever to incorporate natural elements into the workplace and avoid isolating the indoor environment from nature. ...
... Table 1. The three levels of sustainable bio-design to attain the biophilic design approach [8], [16], [20]. ...
... Research has shown that interacting with nature provides numerous physical and mental health benefits for urban residents (Li et al., 2023), including reducing stress and anxiety (Grahn and Stigsdotter, 2010), providing a space for physical activity (Knobel et al., 2021), mental restoration (Maller et al., 2006), reducing the risk of depression (Gonzales-Inca et al., 2022), and improving subjective wellbeing (Bratman et al., 2021). Additionally, reduced contact with nature has been found to decrease the affinity people have with the natural world, in-turn negatively affecting their desire to undertake proenvironmental actions (Miller, 2005, Zhang et al., 2014, Soga and Gaston, 2016, Lopez et al., 2020. Despite the importance of human-nature interactions, as cities continue to grow, access to green spaces and opportunities for spontaneous interactions with nature can become increasingly limited. ...
... This study also evidences the role of "fascination (cognitive or physical)" in restorativeness described by Bagot, Allen and Toukhsati [37] and the positive influence of natural elements in students' performance as described by Han [43]. The literature also suggests that a lack of natural experiences could lead to a lesser care of the natural environment [3,38,[51][52][53][54], which could somehow be reflected in this study regarding objects made out of natural materials vs. synthetic, since the former are perceived to be more respected. This could also be due to the extended use of disposable plastic that children encounter every day. ...
The term “biophilia” refers to the intrinsic affinity that humans have towards nature, natural elements and natural processes. Biophilic design theories suggest that the introduction or representation of natural characteristics or elements into the built environment can help enhance people’s health and wellbeing. Primary school buildings are important environments where children spend considerable time. However, there is limited evidence on the impact of their biophilic features on the children themselves and on perceptions of important facilitators of children’s wellbeing, such as teachers and parents. This research aims to investigate whether teachers and parents perceive children to have a preference or desire for specific biophilic characteristics in their school’s physical environment; and whether teachers perceive some biophilic characteristics as having an effect on children’s performance and behaviour. A framework for evaluating biophilic characteristics in primary schools was developed. Two case study primary schools in London and Bath (England, UK) were audited against this framework, and teachers and parents were surveyed. The results suggest that children do have a preference towards the specific biophilic features studied, which is stronger and more demanding when the exposure is higher. For some aspects, teachers’ perception of benefits is also susceptible to the quality of the environment itself.
... Overall limited knowledge among students might also stem from an increasing detachment from nature, culminating in a widespread 'extinction of experience' with the natural world (White et al. 2018). Consequently, this increasing divide, further fuelled by urbanisation, may generate apathy towards wildlife (Zhang, Goodale, and Chen 2014) and negatively influence student perception. Alternatively, the low levels of knowledge among middle and higher secondary school students in Bhutan imply that there is minimal emphasis nowadays in schools on direct observation of nature (Evans et al. 2005;Lindemann-Matthies 2006) and environmental education, which could actually be widening the gap in our understanding of the natural world more than ever. ...
Assessing the knowledge of and attitudes towards species is critical for shaping the next generation of conservationists and environmentally conscious citizens to foster a sense of responsibility and engagement with the natural world. However, no studies have been undertaken from Bhutan to date concerning the knowledge of and attitude towards waterbirds. We conducted an online survey of 741 students encompassing 185 middle and 556 higher secondary schools. The results indicated that the majority of students have a poor level of knowledge but a strong positive attitude towards the waterbirds. Conditional inference tree (CIT) analysis revealed that the most statistically significant factor associated with knowledge was region followed by age, gender and grade, respectively. Similarly, CIT analysis showed that the female students exhibited a stronger positive attitude than males and others. Further, there was a statistically significant but weak positive correlation between knowledge and attitude. The current study suggests that there is a pressing need to address the substantial knowledge gap concerning waterbirds among Bhutanese middle and higher secondary students. Therefore, we recommend that emphasis should also be placed on teaching outdoor waterbird biology, potentially infusing it into school curricula, which would foster a deeper understanding of Bhutan’s waterbirds and their habitats.
... This 'extinction of experience' , a phrase coined by Pyle (1978) to describe the decline in people experiencing the outdoors and interacting with nature, results in a feedback loop in which the loss of urban biota exacerbates the human-nature disconnect, with the ensuing environmental apathy furthering biodiversity decline (Miller 2005, Soga and. Concurrent with increased urbanisation, urban dwellers are now less likely to recognise and value biota over time (Miller 2005, Kai et al 2014, Zhang et al 2014, Cox and Gaston 2016. Consequently, empathy for and protection of remaining biodiversity can be lost, with low motivation among urban dwellers to enhance nature within cities (Nord et al 1998, Collado et al 2015, Soga and Gaston 2016. ...
There is an increasing disconnect between people and nature as we become more urbanised. Intensification in cities often results in a reduction of natural areas, more homogenised and manicured green spaces, and loss of biota. Compared to people in rural areas, urban dwellers are less likely visit natural areas and recognise and value biota. Reconnecting people with nature in the city not only benefits human mental and physical wellbeing but can also have positive effects on how people value biodiversity and act on conservation issues. However, in some contexts, the push to reconnect people with nature may have unintended negative outcomes on biodiversity, particularly if place-specific nature is not used in urban greening. In the current biodiversity crisis, using vegetation and green space design that is not reflective of the environmental context of a city can further disconnect residents, particularly Indigenous people, from their local environment and species, and further entrench extinction of experience and loss of environmental values. This disconnect can result in residents applying wildlife gardening practices, such as bird feeding, that are not specific to place, and benefit introduced species over indigenous species. Furthermore, cities are gateways for invasive species, and using species in greening projects that are not locally sourced has already left cities and their surrounding regions with a large weed legacy. Using place-specific nature and green space in cities can be less resource intensive, highly beneficial for biodiversity and give residents a unique sense of place. Rather than simply adding ‘more nature’ in cities, the messaging should be more complex, emphasising the need for urban greening to be context specific to avoid negative impacts on biodiversity and ecological and cultural services.
... The evidence and benefits of a love of nature through biophilia theory have been demonstrated through much research in environmental education (e.g., Bai, Elza, Kovacs, & Romanycia, 2010;Cho & Lee, 2017;Hensley, 2015;Kalvaitis & Monhardt, 2015;Kellert, 2016;Simaika & Samways, 2010;Singleton, 2015;Zhang, Goodale, & Chen, 2014). In a review of the literature, Sandifer et al. (2015) summarise the psychological, cognitive, physiological, social and cultural benefits of experiences in nature with examples such as reduced stress levels, improved mood and self-esteem and increased resilience. ...
... Biophobia can present as a specific fear, for example, of insects, spiders, or snakes (Soga and Gaston, 2022a). It is thought to be more prevalent and intense in urbanized societies, with exposure to negative information about nature, parental influences, and media portrayals potentially intensifying these negative emotions (Zhang et al., 2014;Soga et al., 2020;Fukano and Soga, 2021;Vanderstock et al., 2022). The unpleasant feelings associated with biophobia (Bhaumik et al., 2020) can lead to avoidance of nature and, consequently, further disconnection from the natural environment. ...
This perspective paper investigates the dynamic interplay between wealth, materialism, environmental degradation, and mental health amid escalating challenges of climate change. The paper critically examines how affluence, often a buffer against climate impacts, paradoxically leads to higher consumption and carbon footprints, exacerbating environmental problems. A societal emphasis on materialism contributes to an estrangement from nature, with significant implications for mental health and environmental sustainability. The paper proposes a fundamental shift in addressing these intertwined challenges through reintegration with nature. The paper recommends integrating urban planning, education, mental health, and community engagement strategies to build a sustainable, mentally resilient society more integrated with nature. This approach, supported by future research directions, aims to create a more balanced, environmentally conscious, and mentally healthy world.
... Participants were asked to indicate their level of engagement in each activity during their childhoods. By drawing on previous research (Hoover, 2021;Hosaka et al., 2017;Wells & Lekies, 2006;Zhang et al., 2014), we aimed to encompass a broad spectrum of nature-based activities ( Table 1). The total count of activities in which a participant had engaged was used as an indicator of the diversity of childhood nature experiences, with scores ranging from 0 to 15. ...
The ongoing degradation of Earth's ecosystems through human activities poses a severe threat to biodiversity. To mitigate this crisis, substantial changes in human behaviour are required.
The frequency of nature experiences, particularly during childhood, has been established as a key predictor of actions that support biodiversity (hereafter, pro‐biodiversity behaviours). However, the significance of the quality of these experiences remains poorly understood.
In this study, we analysed a large sample of Japanese adults and observed positive associations between both the frequency and diversity of nature experiences during childhood and increased pro‐biodiversity behaviours. These associations held true across a range of behaviours, including the purchase of eco‐friendly products, reduced use of pesticides in domestic gardens and contributions to conservation organisations.
Our findings indicate that the association between pro‐biodiversity behaviours and the diversity of childhood nature experiences is comparable to that of the frequency of such experiences.
These findings suggest that expanding people's access to diverse and frequent nature experiences can play a crucial role in promoting positive behavioural changes to prevent biodiversity loss.
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... The above research indicates that early childhood experiences with nature shape our relationship with nature. Cheng and Monroe [13] and Zhang et al. [16] found that direct and indirect contact with nature improve the attitudes and feelings for nature. ...
The health of city residents is at risk due to the high rate of urbanization and the extensive use of electronics. In the context of urbanization, individuals have become increasingly disconnected from nature, resulting in elevated stress levels among adults. The goal of this study was to investigate the physical and psychological benefits of spending time in nature. The benefits of touching real grass and artificial turf (the control activity) outdoors with the palm of the hand for five minutes were measured. Blood pressure and electroencephalography (EEG) as well as State-trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) scores, and the semantic differential scale (SDM) were used to investigate psychophysiological responses. Touching real grass was associated with significant changes in brainwave rhythms and a reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared to touching artificial turf. In addition, SDM scores revealed that touching real grass increased relaxation, comfort, and a sense of naturalness while decreasing anxiety levels. Compared to the control group, the experimental group had higher mean scores in both meditation and attentiveness. Our findings indicate that contact with real grass may reduce physiological and psychological stress in adults.
... Direct contact with nature is strongly associated with marked improvements in psychological well-being (1)(2)(3)(4)(5). Given this effect, it is disquieting that urbanization has been increasing globally at an alarming rate (6) and has resulted in our disconnection from nature and its entities (7)(8)(9). Therefore, it is necessary to address how nature contact can be promoted in urbanized populations, including the elderly. The relevant literature indicates that some of the psychological benefits attributable to direct contact with nature can be derived from realistic nature representations using immersive virtual environment (IVE) technology. ...
Objective: Given the loss of direct nature contact due to urbanisation and demonstrated psychological benefits of nature, the question arises as
to whether direct nature contact can be virtually substituted or supplemented in the elderly living in isolation from nature. Although a number of
studies have demonstrated the restorative effects of virtual nature in old age, their results are inconclusive and complicated by the novelty of virtual
reality (VR) experience, participants’ nature connectedness and their previous nature contact. Therefore, a study was conducted for increasing our
limited understanding of the subject.
Materials and Methods: Community-dwelling older adults living in highly urbanised areas of Turkey volunteered for the study. After excluding
the ineligible volunteers and collecting information on sample characteristics, 60 participants, who were assigned to two study groups, watched
6-minute 360° videos of nature and urban settings on two separate occasions. On these occasions, they reported on their affective states, the
restorativeness of the environments in those videos and their nature visit frequency.
Results: VR experience was new and tolerable for the majority of the participants. Unlike the urban video, the nature video significantly improved
participants’ affective states and was reported to be more restorative and favourable. Neither participants’ nature connectedness nor their nature
visit frequency, which was found to be generally low, did not have a moderating effect on the results.
Conclusion: Virtual indirect contact with nature can be effectively used, especially for those living in heavily urbanised areas, to maintain or
improve psychological well-being in old age.
... It was observed that the biophilia level of children differed in children whose frequency of being in nature was 3-4 times a week. Cheng and Monroe (2012), Rice and Torquati (2013) and Zhang et al. (2014) found that the level of biophilia differed according to the frequency of being in nature. It was found that the biophilia levels of their children did not vary significantly according to where they lived. ...
The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between biophilia levels and empathy skills of 60-72 months-old children. In this study, the “Biophilia Scale for Children” and “Empathy Scale for Children” were used as data collection tools. The research is a quantitative study in a relational survey model. The study group of the research consists of 150 children aged 60-72 months who attend the official kindergartens and primary school kindergartens affiliated to the Ministry of National Education in Adapazarı and Serdivan districts of Sakarya province. As a result of the analysis, it was found that there was a high level of positive correlation between the children's biophilia and their empathy skills. As a result of the examining the total scores of both scales according to the variables, it was concluded that children’s biophilia levels differ significantly according to the frequency of being in nature and empathy skills differ significantly according to the age of the father.
... In terms of cognition, young people have been found to be lacking ecological literacy, including knowledge of the relationship between human and environmental systems and processes (Hooykaas et al. 2019;Lee et al. 2020). Finally, a growing body of work has revealed highly negative emotional responses to nature among young people including fear and disgust (biophobia) (Soga et al. 2020;Zhang, Goodale, and Chen 2014). Although wariness and/or fear of nature in certain situations can be a valuable adaptive response (and indeed may indicate a strong level of ecological literacy and nature connection) (Olivos-Jara et al. 2020), biophobia can also manifest in excessive and irrational forms and lead to a strong aversion to nature, including that which is not dangerous or harmful (Soga et al. 2023). ...
... According to the biophilia hypothesis, this tendency arises because nature is the environment in which humans evolved [23][24][25]. Although frequently cited as the root of the connection between time in nature and human well-being, Wilson's hypothesis has been critiqued for being grounded in genetic determinism and leaving out the influences of learning, culture, and individual experiences [26][27][28][29] or the presence of biophobia [28,[30][31][32]. ...
Previous research has demonstrated that practicing forest bathing has significant positive effects on adult psychological well-being. Considering the ongoing adolescents’ mental health crisis of increasing anxiety and depression, determining whether forest bathing has similar effects on adolescents is an important expansion of forest bathing research. This study investigated the possibility that forest bathing could improve adolescents’ mental well-being and sought to determine participants’ experiences of forest bathing. It used a convergent, parallel, mixed-methods design that was partially co-created with 24 participants aged 16–18 as part of a youth participatory action research (YPAR) project in which participants practiced forest bathing three times over 3 weeks. As measured using the Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Survey, the mean participant mental well-being increased significantly after forest bathing, with moderate to large effect sizes. Participants described reduced stress and increased feelings of relaxation, peace, and happiness. These findings correlate with previous forest bathing research involving adult participants. It is recommended that educators and others who work with adolescents consider forest bathing as a simple, low-cost way to improve adolescents’ mental well-being.
... Questionnaires were used to measure children's different forms of nature experiences. By integrating the Chinese Children's Natural Experience Scale (Zhang et al., 2014) and the Children's Different Forms of Natural Experience Scale (Mustapa et al., 2018), 20 items were developed to assess self-reported nature experience, including direct experiences (11 items), indirect experiences (5 items) and ...
The mental associations that children have with the natural environment can be referred to as their natural representations. These representations encompass a blend of shared consensus and individual differences, playing a pivotal role in shaping human relationships with nature and influencing attitudes and behaviours. However, comprehending children's natural representations, particularly among preadolescents with limited verbal narrative abilities, remains a challenge.
To address this challenge, we conducted a study employing a draw‐and‐write task and a questionnaire survey. Our investigation aimed to understand how the level of nature experiences and demographic variables affects the multidimensional representations of nature among preadolescents (aged 9–12) in China. Specifically, we examined the impacts of direct, indirect and vicarious nature experiences on their natural representations. These representations included dimensions such as the level of wildness, cognitive complexity, extent of elaboration, expression of emotion and representation style. These dimensions were based on literature review and supported by empirical data collected from children's drawings.
Our findings showed that children's drawings of nature not only share similarities but also display significant variations. Most of their drawings include natural components, such as living and non‐living elements, while a notable proportion of drawings depicts human activities. Interestingly, we observed notable differences in the level of wildness, elaboration and representation style among preadolescents from different regions. Additionally, we found that vicarious nature experiences have a significant positive impact on the cognitive complexity, extent of elaboration and positive emotional expression in children's drawings, while direct nature experiences also have a weaker but still significant positive effect on the elaboration. Moreover, female students exhibit greater proficiency in these three aspects compared to their male counterparts.
The study highlights the significance of the surrounding environment and nature experiences, especially vicarious nature experience, in shaping the natural representations of preadolescents. Using draw‐and‐write mapping is recommended as a valuable approach to understanding the children's mental representations of the natural environment.
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... Even when children and adults are outside, they are often too focused on their electronic devices to really experience the natural world. This is despite the fact that there are many health and psychological benefits to spending time in nature (Collado et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2014;Soga, et al., 2016;Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002). ...
... Kinder und Jugendliche, die in Städten leben, haben weniger Möglichkeiten, die Natur zu erleben. Erhöhter Naturkontakt wirkte sich bei dieser Zielgruppe auch auf ihre Einstellung, ein umweltschützendes Verhalten zu zeigen, positiv aus (Zhang et al., 2014). Zudem wurde gezeigt, dass nicht das Wissen über die Umwelt das Umweltverhalten vorhersagt, sondern die persönliche Einstellung zur Umwelt (Roczen et al., 2014). ...
Der nationale Aktionsplan für Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung (BNE) sieht vor, BNE als fächerübergreifende
Querschnittsaufgabe in den Lehrplänen zu verankern. Umweltbildung als spezifischer Teilaspekt von BNE findet
derzeit allerdings primär in inhaltsnahen Fächern statt. Ziel des nachfolgenden Artikels ist es a) Möglichkeiten zur
Einbindung der Umweltbildung im Sportunterricht zu erläutern und b) die Hintergründe und den Forschungsstand
zur Rolle der Sportausübung in Bezug auf Umweltverhalten und Klimawandel darzustellen. Als Sportartenbeispiel
für die Integration der Umweltbildung werden die Potentiale von Abenteuersportarten aufgezeigt. Umweltbezug
und Naturschutz können in diesen gut vermittelt werden, da sie bei Kindern und Jugendlichen sehr beliebt sind, in
der Natur stattfinden und die Möglichkeit für die Vermittlung persönlich relevanter Informationen über eine aktive
und motivierende Unterrichtsmethode, bieten.
... In this study, the students' contact with the natural environment may have contribuited them to identify a significantly greater number of flora species. Zhang et al. (2014) suggest that contact with less urbanized areas increased the biophilia and decreased the biophobia of urban and rural children in different cities in China, providing more interest in conserving animal and plant species. Similarly, Sampaio et al. (2018) found that Brazilian children who have contact with a forest or proximity to a natural area, even in urban areas, had more knowledge about local biodiversity. ...
Abstract Limited experiential contact to natural environment can affect the knowledge of the local flora and, consequently, the intentions to conserve it. Therefore, this study aims to analyze whether high school students from Teresina (PI-Brazil) can identify more species of native than exotic plants and the factors that can affect this ability. 333 students from state public schools were interviewed through semi-structured questionnaires and with printed images of 20 species of plants found in the region. The data were analyzed using univariate non-parametric statistics. The results show that living in the countryside positively influenced the identification of local flora, but there was no significant difference in the number of identified plants between students who attended botany classes and those who did not. Two native plants (cashew-96.7% and pitomba-91.9%) and three exotic plants (mango-90.7%, guava-94.9% and acerola-82.0%) stood out among the most identified plant species. It was also found that, for two species of native plants very important for the State of Piauí, the caneleiro (0.6%) and the carnauba (26.7%), the identification rates were scarce. Thus, it is necessary to use Environmental Education and the teaching of Botany to prioritize native plant species, valuing local ecology and ensuring their protection.
... These results suggest that early exposure to the natural world shapes a person's perspective and appreciation of the environment throughout their life. Several other academics and environmentalists have come to the same conclusion: exposure to nature, either directly or indirectly, is crucial for the development of a positive worldview concerning the natural world [22]. Through previous studies [23] and review papers [24], greenery has been shown to have positive health impacts immune function, endocrine function, and the autonomic nervous system. ...
Abstract
Background Indoor, sedentary lifestyles have disconnected individuals from nature, necessitating interventions to
reestablish this bond. Performing horticultural activities, such as watering houseplants, offers a potential solution. This
study sought to determine how participating in horticulture activities affected adults’ cognitive and emotional moods.
Methods We compared the benefits of watering houseplants (a gardening task) to those of standing while
performing a computer task (a mental task). Chinese participants, aged 20 to 21 years, were recruited; their
physiological and psychological reactions were measured using electroencephalograms, blood pressure assessments,
and psychological assessments.
Results Fifty participants were included. Watering indoor plants significantly reduced blood pressure, without
affecting pulse rate. During the plant watering task as opposed to the mental activity, more dramatic different
patterns of very high alpha and beta brainwave activity were identified. Participants reported increased happiness
following gardening activities.
Conclusions The findings of this study highlight the substantial relaxation benefits, both mental and physical,
associated with the simple act of watering indoor plants
... Nevertheless, this study did not investigate the correlation between childhood feelings and pro-environmental behaviours related to rivers in adulthood (such as engagement in river restoration activities). Many studies have reported that children with stronger connections to nature tend to exhibit more environmentally responsible behaviours as adults (Wells and Lekies 2012;Zhang et al. 2014;Evans et al. 2018). Therefore, future research should further explore these connections specifically in relation to rivers in China's social context. ...
Rivers are social-ecological systems. Yet, in urban contexts, they have often been degraded to lifeless conduits, failing to promote human-nature interactions. As a countermeasure, river restoration has progressively been implemented globally to improve rivers’ ecological quality and rejuvenate human-nature connections. In China, urban river restoration has been facilitated to improve river water quality and enhance nature-based recreation. Despite this nation-driven effort towards restoration, scholarly understanding of whether and how river restoration could align with societal preferences remains scarce. This study examined the social-ecological interactions associated with urban rivers with a social science methodology; a questionnaire survey was conducted at three Water Museums in three Chinese cities in summer 2022 and collected 654 responses from highly educated respondents. The results revealed an appreciation for rivers' environmental and recreational value among urban residents, with childhood experiences playing a role in shaping these evaluations and perceptions. Respondents generally preferred prioritizing biological elements in urban river restoration. They also stress the importance of a balanced approach, integrating nature conservation and recreational functionality while maintaining physical water access. These findings challenge the current approach of urban river restoration in the three Chinese cities, which tend to emphasize aesthetic and recreational aspects over comprehensive ecological considerations. The ANCOVA analysis further indicated that preferences for river restoration are influenced by individuals' perceptions of the positive and negative social-ecological impacts of rivers, emphasizing the need to enhance environmental awareness regarding river ecosystems. Finally, in alignment with China’s vision of promoting human-nature harmony, the study advocated for strategies that harmonize ecological functionality with societal needs in urban river management.
... Conservation biologists have sounded alarms about the "extinction of experience" that occurs when people are deprived of interactions with nature (Pyle 1993;Miller 2005;Soga and Gaston 2016). Studies of children in China (Zhang et al. 2014) and Japan (Soga et al. 2015) found that those who had more exposure to nature also had stronger emotional ties to nature and tended to more strongly value environmental conservation. Human well-being in cities may also depend on the characteristics of urban greenspaces. ...
Urban parks and greenspaces protect biodiversity in cities and provide important opportunities for city residents to interact with wildlife. We used a large community-science database to examine the predictors of amphibian and reptile species richness across urban areas in the eastern United States. Overall, we found that park area, wetland habitat diversity, and park connectivity were related to amphibian and reptile species richness, reducing prediction error by around 50% compared to a null model. Additionally, forest cover within parks was a predictor of amphibian richness, but not a predictor for reptiles. The richness of uncommon species (fewer than 50 observations in our sample) was related only to park area and connectivity. Our model was effective at predicting herp species richness at parks in “new” urban areas (i.e. those not included in the original model fitting) for some locations (e.g., Philadelphia, Indianapolis, Manhattan) but also tended to under-estimate the most species-rich parks in some places (e.g., Washington DC and Pittsburgh) and over-estimate richness in others (e.g., Staten Island). For individual species, presence in parks tended to follow expected habitat associations, with salamanders mostly responding to forest cover, and frogs and turtles primarily responding to park area and wetland diversity. Our results demonstrate that large urban parks with can harbor high species richness, particularly those with a high diversity of aquatic and terrestrial habitats. However, these patterns are only moderately predictable, and individual parks may have higher or lower conservation value value than might be expected from simple models.
... Therefore, direct contact with natural surroundings can affect how children and teenagers interact with nature, influencing their willingness to conserve biodiversity (Zhang et al., 2014;Soga and Gaston, 2016;Barthel et al., 2018). These studies also reinforce the hypothesis that experiences of this type can influence pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors during adulthood (Wells and Lekies, 2006;Collado et al., 2015;Chawla, 2020), emphasizing the importance of close experiences with natural beings and processes since childhood (Broom, 2017) to promote environmental actions. ...
The idea of separation between person and nature, accentuated by current production and consumption models, has generated unthinkable impacts, causing an unprecedented loss and degradation of the global environment. Occupying 13% of the Brazilian territory, the Atlantic Forest is the second-largest tropical rainforest on the American continent; however, it is one of the most threatened biomes in the world, with only 12% of the original cover. In this study, we consider that enabling young people to experience direct contact with nearby natural environments can positively influence their knowledge and feelings about the biodiversity that occurs there, contributing to its protection and conservation for current and future generations. In this study, we explore how teenagers (n = 17) aged between 13 and 17 years old describe and perceive the nearby natural environment before and after an interpretive trail in Una, Bahia, Brazil. Participants were asked to draw the Atlantic Forest with colored pencils on white paper and, based on the drawing, they answered the following questions: “What is in your drawing? and “What is happening in your drawing?,” in addition to other information such as the title of the drawing, difficulty of the activity, and sociodemographic aspects. Content analysis was used to analyze the information collected. From the drawings and responses of the participants, categories related to knowledge, experiences, and types of relationships with the visited place emerged. We count the frequency of drawing elements before and after the visit, together with a qualitative analysis of the descriptions of their feelings and meanings attributed to the visit, highlighting the different elements and their relationships. The results showed that, after the trail, the participants manifested bonds of proximity with the visited environment and the organisms protected there, evidencing expressive changes in their perceptions of the person-nature interaction, in the specific knowledge of the visited ecosystem, and in the different forms of relationship provided by the visitation itinerary.
... This result is in agreement with previous observations in the study area assessing 11 to 14 year-old teenagers (Barrutia et al. 2022;Díez et al. 2018;Pedrera et al. 2023), and also with other works conducted in westernized countries (Enzensberger et al. 2022;Palmberg et al. 2015). Most probably, as contact with nature is inversely proportional to urbanization (Zhang et al. 2014), the lower a student's hometown population was in this study, the more rural their surroundings would be, offering children more opportunities to interact with nature. Nevertheless, this effect was weak in the current work, probably because other factors can neutralize the influence of people's provenance on ecological knowledge, such as the predominantly urban character of the region (Eurostat, 2022), the convergence of rural and urban lifestyles nowadays and the stronger effect of the educational level as observed in other works (Bermudez et al. 2017, Bermudez, Díaz, andDe Longhi 2018;Gerl, Randler, and Jana Neuhaus 2021;Hooykaas et al. 2019). ...
Biodiversity loss is one of the biggest environmental issues in the world
today and the biodiversity literacy of citizens can be key to counteracting
this. Considering that children can be change agents and actively take
part in decision-making from early years, we have assessed the native
fauna identification skills of Primary School students (aged 6–12 years-old;
n = 1975) from northern Spain along with their conservation preferences
regarding common and threatened species. We have observed that,
despite students’ species literacy increasing with the education level, it
remains overall very low. Besides, the conservation preferences of children
are not exclusively guided by conservation priorities and, although are
partially explained by species identification accuracy, other factors also
seem to skew these preferences. These findings point out the need to
properly address knowledge of local fauna from the early school years
and the urgent need to provide children with the appropriate training
regarding the characteristics to be taken into account when selecting
species for protection and ensure their conservation.
... These findings suggest that childhood experiences with nature have a lasting effect on one's relationship with nature. Several other researchers and nature advocates have concluded that both direct and indirect contact with natural environments is critical for increasing positive feelings toward nature (Cheng and Monroe 2012;Zhang et al. 2014). Review articles (Hansen et al. 2017;Song et al. 2016) and previous studies (Kaplan 1995;Ulrich et al. 1991) have demonstrated the positive health effects of greenery on the autonomic nervous system, immune activity, and endocrine system. ...
Reducing stress associated with technology and the use of electronics is a major issue among Chinese adults. However, no studies have investigated the effect of tactile stimulation of the feet. In this study, we investigated psychophysiological techniques for controlling stress by having participants touch natural materials with the sole of the foot. The study included 90 young Chinese adults with a mean (±SD) age of 21.2 ± 2.7 years. A crossover design was used to examine psychological and physiological differences between touching grass with the sole of the foot and touching wood (control) for 10 minutes. Physiological assessments included blood pressure measurements and electroencephalog-raphy, and psychological assessments included the Semantic Differential Method (SDM) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). We observed significant decreases in sys-tolic and diastolic blood pressures in the experimental condition compared with the control condition, along with increases in alpha and beta activities. SDM results indicated that participants were moderately comfortable, very relaxed, and experienced reduced anxiety after stimulation with grass compared with after the control condition. Mean attention and relaxation scores were also significantly higher in the experimental condition than in the control condition. Thus, our results suggest that touching grass with the sole of the foot can lower psychophysiological stress in adults.
... Furthermore, some works have described that bird species identification skills are related to nature connectedness [72] and that attitudes towards birds vary along the urbanization gradient [73]. Students from more rural regions tend to show more biophilic attitudes and are more prone and willing to support animal conservation than urban children [74,75]. Indeed, Otto & Pensini [7] affirm that connectedness to nature is a better predictor of environmental attitudes and behavior than any other factor, and Randler and Heil [76] identify birding specialization and bird-related interest and activities as the most important predictors of bird species literacy. ...
Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve holds a diversity of habitats and resources that are essential for migratory bird species’ conservation, and at the same time provides a rich milieu for the development of environmental education programs. This study evaluates the impact of a daylong and place-based environmental education program, performed at the Urdaibai Bird Center (UBC), on secondary education students’ environmental attitudes and knowledge. Students (n = 908) completed a written questionnaire where their perceptions on the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve and marshes, together with their interest in biodiversity, knowledge about bird migration and bird species identification skills, and attitudes towards conservation were assessed. Results show that students’ knowledge regarding Biosphere Reserves, marshes, and bird migration is limited, and that their bird identification skills are scarce. Although they scored high on environmental attitudes, a significant number of them feel that conservation efforts are excessive and hinder economic development. Students living within the Biosphere Reserve, as well as from rural milieus or who underwent primary education through a bird-centered curriculum hold a better knowledge of the local biodiversity. To adapt the environmental education program at the UBC, its integration in formal teaching/learning contexts via meaningful hands-on and/or project-based activities could be considered, together with the systematic evaluation of the outcomes.
... Recent research investigating nature connection using a database of twins showed that an individual's affinity for nature is partly genetic (46%), but other factors, such as experience and knowledge, are important in developing a desire to spend time outdoors (Chang et al. 2022). For example, other research has shown that an individual's childhood experiences may affect patterns of green space use and attitudes toward nature as an adult (Thompson et al. 2008, Zhang et al. 2014. A study of university students in Provo, Utah, showed that daily interactions with green space in childhood were associated with more frequent green space use as a university student (Holt et al. 2019). ...
New urban models increasingly seek to create more sustainable, livable, and healthier cities by reinvigorating green space. In this article, we highlight and briefly review several main but disconnected areas of study in which the factors that frame human–environment interactions and therefore also influence the potential well-being outcomes of those interactions are studied. We then use the intersection of affordance theory and socio-institutional programming to provide a conceptual framework that ties together these spheres of research, and we discuss some critical keys for enabling different positive green space experiences. Urban communities are not homogeneous, and accounting for the intersection between individual differences and landscape programming opens up more diverse pathways for affording positive human–environment interactions and different well-being outcomes.
In order to deal with the environmental risks caused by human behavior and change it towards sustainable pro-environmental behaviors, propose reestablishing the connection between humans and the natural world. The purpose of this research was to identify the components affecting connectedness to nature (CTN) in order to strengthen conservation behaviors in the context of critical theory paradigm. To analyze the selected final articles, qualitative content analysis technique with inductive approach was used as the research method. The articles related to CTN are considered as the statistical population and sample in this technique. Selection of the article from population was fulfilled using a purposeful approach. Based on the results of content analysis, a model was developed and proposed for components affecting CTN. The results showed that the three main components including "situational-contextual (experience with nature and activities affecting CTN)", "individual (worldviews and individual factors)", and "psychological (mindfulness, identity, and empathy)" dimensions affecting CTN. Each of the sub-components also encompasses several variables that, when given attention, can enhance connectedness to nature (CTN) and pro-environmental conservation behaviors (PECB). The model developed and proposed in the present study can be utilized by policymakers and stakeholders interested in facilitating change and planning for decision-making processes among natural resource users.
Connectedness to Nature and the ability to perceive the restorative value of places characterised by the presence of natural elements are personal characteristics that, when appropriately measured, make it possible to predict an individual’s attitude towards pro-environmental behaviour. While these characteristics have an innate basis, they are also shaped by personal experiences and various cognitive, affective and sociocultural factors. In this exploratory study in North-eastern Italy, we delve into an interdisciplinary field that explores the relationship between the environment of the residential area and its impact on children's attitudes toward Nature. To do so, we conducted a comprehensive questionnaire amongst 533 primary schoolchildren, aged 6-11 years, to gauge their connectedness to Nature, their perceptions of restorativeness in surrounding natural settings, and their schoolyard environment. Drawing from optical satellite imageries, we calculated a combined multispectral index to assess the naturalness degree of participants' residential areas, focusing on their 68 residential areas, located in three administrative Italian Regions (Trentino Alto Adige, Friuli Venezia Giulia and Veneto), which were classified into four different classes with respect to their level of presence of natural areas ("coastal," "low," "average," "high"). By performing non-parametric tests for multiple comparisons amongst groups, we detected a significantly higher level of connectedness to Nature amongst children living in areas with high naturalness, compared to those living in areas with average or low naturalness. Perceived restorativeness scores exhibit a similar trend to that of connectedness to Nature, reinforcing the importance of natural spaces in fostering positive attitudes towards the environment. This result confirms that accessibility and the viewability of natural spaces, even semi-natural ones, seemed to play a crucial role in children's preference for these environments. However, schoolyards were consistently perceived as less regenerative than natural places, regardless of the naturalness of the neighbourhood. These findings raise intriguing questions about the potential consequences of inadequate exposure to Nature on children's affiliation to the natural world and possible subsequent effects on pro-environmental behaviour in adulthood. By shedding light on the complex interplay between personal characteristics, environment and attitudes towards Nature, our study underscores the significance of fostering a deeper connection with natural spaces to nurture a sustainable and environmentally conscious society.
Monarch butterfly populations in western North America suffered a substantial decline, from millions of butterflies overwintering in California in the 1980s to less than 400,000 at the beginning of the 21st century. The introduction of neonicotinoid insecticides in the mid–1990s and their subsequent widespread use appears to be the most likely major factor behind this sudden decline. Habitat loss and unfavorable climates (high temperatures, aridity, and winter storms) have also played important and ongoing roles. These factors kept overwintering populations stable but below 300,000 during 2001–2017. Late winter storm mortality and consequent poor spring reproduction drove winter populations to less than 30,000 butterflies during 2018–2019. Record high temperatures in California during the fall of 2020 appeared to prematurely terminate monarch migration, resulting in the lowest overwintering population (1899) ever recorded. Many migrants formed winter-breeding populations in urban areas. Normal seasonal temperatures in the autumns of 2021 and 2022 enabled overwintering populations to return to around the 300,000 level, characteristic of the previous two decades. Natural enemies (predators, parasitoids, parasites, and pathogens) may be important regional or local drivers at times but they are a consistent and fundamental part of monarch ecology. Human interference (capture, rearing) likely has the least impact on monarch populations. The rearing of monarch caterpillars, particularly by children, is an important human link to nature that has positive ramifications for insect conservation beyond monarch butterflies and should be encouraged.
Current literature emphasizes the benefits of the biophilic atmosphere on people’s lives.
However, there is a shortage of in-depth research pertaining to its effects on variables such as
perceived value and customer loyalty. Therefore, the objective of this study is to evaluate the positive
effects of the biophilic atmosphere both in the hedonic and utilitarian dimensions of perceived value
and on customer loyalty. An analysis conducted using structural equations applied to 385 customers
in shopping malls revealed that hedonic and utilitarian values mediate the relationship between this
new retail atmosphere and loyalty responses. Additionally, results indicate that hedonic value can
positively influence utilitarian value in a physical setting that includes natural elements. These results
improve the understanding of the effect of biophilia on the promotion of sustainable environmental
practices of protection and preservation of nature; moreover, they offer alternative information to
encourage attraction and loyalty towards modern commercial settings.
Recently, the frequency of children’s nature-related experiences has been decreasing. Early childhood is an important period for cultivating the foundation of one’s personality. Therefore, enriching nature-related experiences in early childhood is important for nurturing a positive attitude towards nature. This study aims to clarify the current state of nature-related experiences at early childhood facilities in Akita Prefecture, on the island of Honshu, Japan. Furthermore, the authors assess whether or not factors such as the facility's surrounding natural environment and existing staff training affect the frequency of nature-related experiences and discuss potential improvements. A questionnaire-based survey was conducted at all 314 early childhood facilities in Akita Prefecture, and the responses from 193 facilities were analyzed. The results revealed that the frequency of overall activities, especially out-of-facility activities, in Akita exceeded those in Tokyo and Hyogo prefectures, where the same questionnaire-based survey was conducted during previous research. However, the frequency of activities and the implementation of different activity items varied widely between facilities. The environment surrounding facilities and the staff training for nature-related experiences were significantly correlated to the frequency of the activities. Therefore, staff training programs should be implemented to increase and enrich the nature-related experiences. Furthermore further efforts to initiate activities in the respective playgrounds with less naturally appealing surroundings is encouraged.
Giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca exhibits are popular attractions for zoos and wildlife parks. However, it remains to be investigated whether such exhibits enhance visitor knowledge about pandas and broader conservation issues. We conducted questionnaire surveys at giant panda exhibits at three city zoos and five wildlife parks in China. Although visitors were generally interested in the giant panda, this was not reflected in their post-exhibit knowledge of giant panda biology. Socio-demographically, men were more knowledgeable of giant panda biology than women. Knowledge correlated positively with respondent level of education. Younger respondents (< 45 years) knew most about giant pandas and expressed an interest in learning more about them using social media. The most informed respondents had visited other giant panda exhibits previously. Respondents were generally satisfied with the giant panda exhibits (mean score 4.44/5). Wildlife parks delivered a better educational outcome than city zoos. We recommend approaches to improve the visitor experience further and to leverage public interest in broader conservation engagement and action in China.
The ongoing degradation of Earth’s ecosystems through human activities poses a severe threat to biodiversity. To mitigate this crisis, substantial changes in human behavior are required. The frequency of nature experiences, particularly during childhood, has been established as a key predictor of actions that support biodiversity (hereafter, pro-biodiversity behaviors). However, the significance of the quality of these experiences remains poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed a large sample of Japanese adults and observed positive associations between both the frequency and diversity of nature experiences during childhood and increased pro-biodiversity behaviors. These associations held true across a range of behaviors, including the purchase of eco-friendly products, reduced use of pesticides in domestic gardens, and contributions to conservation organizations. Our findings indicate that the association between pro-biodiversity behaviors and the diversity of childhood nature experiences is comparable to that of the frequency of such experiences. These findings suggest that expanding people’s access to diverse and frequent nature experiences can play a crucial role in promoting positive behavioral changes to prevent biodiversity loss.
This work aims to study how the eco-literacy of preservice teachers is influenced by ecological videos created based on the surroundings in college campuses and used for lectures and assignments. For research purposes, 15 animal and 74 plant ecological videos were developed and uploaded on the YouTube platform, and the literacy improvements were assessed. An eco-literacy test sheet developed by Yoon (2022) was used to assess the eco-literacy of the students. After using the ecological videos developed based on the organisms found on the university campus for a semester, preservice elementary school teachers observed that three of the five factors-namely ecological sensitivity, knowledge and understanding, and thinking ability-were all improved with a significance level of 0.001. This indicates that the use of ecological videos is as effective in improving eco-literacy as directly observing living organisms. However, although there was no statistically significant improvement in ecological values and attitudes and ecological activities and participation, it was confirmed that these factors had an impact when checking lecture impressions. Thus, if ecological videos of organisms observed in our surroundings are available on the YouTube platform, it is recommended to actively use the videos because they can improve students' eco-literacy.
Many people, especially those living in developed countries, exhibit irrational negative feelings (e.g., fear, disgust, and aversion) toward insects. This so-called "entomophobia" has often been suggested as a key contributing factor to the ongoing global decline in insects. However, this topic has not been well investigated. From this point of view, we discuss the formation processes of entomophobia and its consequences from an evolutionary psychological perspective. Adopting the concept of the behavioral immune system, we suggest that the negative responses toward insects exhibited by modern people are driven by a series of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral traits that evolved to avoid infectious diseases. We then provide several strategic recommendations for mitigating the prevalence of entomophobia and a roadmap for better understanding how individual-level entomophobia can influence insect conservation. Understanding the human psychological dimension behind the ongoing decline of insects will provide useful insight on how best to mitigate this decline.
Çocukların doğayı nasıl gördüklerini belirlemek amacıyla yapılan bu çalışmada temel nitel araştırma deseni kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, Antalya ilinde Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı’na bağlı bir anaokuluna devam eden 54-77 aylık 45 çocuk oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplamak amacıyla çocuklar tarafından çekilen doğa fotoğrafları ve yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formları kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın verileri içerik analizi ve doküman analizi yöntemi ile analiz edilmiştir. Çocukların fotoğraflarında en fazla canlı unsurlara yer vererek ağaç, çiçek ve yaprak fotoğrafı çektikleri görülmüştür. Çocukların en fazla ailesi istediği için /ailesi çektiği için ve güzel olduğu için fotoğrafı çekmeyi tercih ettiği bulunmuştur. Çocukların en fazla deniz/göl kenarında ve evlerinin önünde/bahçesinde fotoğraf çektikleri görülmüştür. Çalışma grubundaki çocukların doğa tanımlamaları; canlı unsurlara yer verilerek, olumlu benzetmelere yer verilerek, zarar vermeme ile ilişkilendirilerek, yaşam alanı/yer olarak yapılan tanımlamalar olmak üzere dört kategoride ele alınmıştır. Çocukların doğayı en fazla canlı unsurlara yer vererek hayvanlar, ağaçlar, yaşam/nefes/can ve çiçekler olarak tanımladıkları görülmüştür. Çalışma grubundaki çocukların doğada neler olduğuna yönelik görüşleri canlı unsurlar ve cansız unsurlar olmak üzere iki kategoride ele alınmıştır. Çocukların en fazla canlı unsurlar kategorisinde görüşleri olduğu görülmüştür. Çocukların doğada en fazla hayvanlar, ağaçlar ve çiçekler olduğunu ifade ettikleri bulunmuştur. Çalışma grubundaki çocuklar doğada en fazla; piknik yapabileceklerini, oyun/ oyuncak oynayabileceklerini, koşabileceklerini/yürüyebileceklerini/gezebileceklerini ve çiçek/ağaç dikebileceklerini/koklayabileceklerini/inceleyebileceklerini ifade etmişlerdir. Ayrıca çocukların doğada ağaçlara/çiçeklere zarar veremeyeceklerini, ateş/mangal yakamayacaklarını, hayvanlara zarar veremeyeceklerini ifade ettikleri görülmüştür. Ailelerin çocuklarıyla doğada daha fazla zaman geçirmeleri, okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin çocuklarla beraber doğa gezileri yapması ve çocuklarla doğada oyunlar oynaması önerilmektedir.
Primate sanctuaries provide a solution for the increasing number of primates being taken from their home countries to support the demands of the illegal pet trade. To help end the primate trade and raise awareness about the risks this trade poses to delicate ecosystems, sanctuaries are increasingly developing conservation education programs. Education and raising awareness must be one of the primary roles of primate sanctuaries. However, there are few evaluations of the impacts of conservation education programs for school children published in scientific literature. To address this gap, we conducted an evaluation of educator-led visits of school children at Fundació Mona, a primate sanctuary located in Catalunya, Spain. Questionnaires for an experimental and control group were conducted with 3,205 school children, ages 8 to 18 from 83 different schools, to evaluate changes in their attitudes and knowledge of primate welfare and conservation. We found that Fundació Mona’s program of environmental activities had a positive impact on children, both female and male students, in terms of attitudes and knowledge of primate welfare and conservation. Although female students gave better responses regarding welfare and conservation, all children showed gains in pro-conservation responses. This study demonstrates that environmental education activities focused on children can help shape a change in knowledge and attitudes toward primate welfare and conservation. Educator-led visits of school children to primate sanctuaries such as Fundació Mona can also serve to amplify biodiversity conservation messages among children and their families. We encourage primate sanctuaries to promote empirical studies of attitudes and knowledge of primate welfare and conservation and to conduct systematical evaluations to strengthen their educational activities.
In this mixed-methods study, we designed and implemented an environmental service-learning program at a public charter school to develop eighth-grade students’ environmental literacy. Data sources included the Middle School Environmental Literacy Survey (MSELS), interviews, and students’ written work. We extend prior work by analyzing qualitative excerpts using the four dimensions of Cheng and Monroe’s (2012) connection to nature scale. Results from qualitative and quantitative analyses showed positive changes in student ecological knowledge and environmental attitudes (connection to nature and empowerment) and some new skills, but no immediate changes in environmentally responsible behaviors.Implications for other educators striving to cultivate civic participation and connection to nature are discussed.
In this study, a nature camp which provides authentic learning opportunities for children was conducted. Twenty-four 4th and 5th graders (9 girls, 15 boys) participated to the camp. The camp program started with observations in the forest nearby. More focused observations were also made. Children discussed their observations with their friends and scientists. A questionnaire was applied at the beginning and end of the camp. The results showed that the nature camp program was effective in extending the children’s conception of the nature by including both living and non-living things. Most of them started the camp with a conception of the nature which consisted of only living things whereas only four children left with this conception at the end. Biological aspects of the nature also increased. Children generally stated that living or non-living things exist or live together at the nature, but relationships between them were noticed by fewer children.
Research dealing with various aspects of* the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985,
1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is
found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different
kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of
behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient
behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these
relations is still uncertain. Expectancy value formulations are found to be only partly
successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value
measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of
past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory*s
sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning
this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the
ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability.
In this study, the author investigated the influence of the educational program Nature on the Way to School on children's everyday perception of species. More than 4,000 children (8–16 years old) from 248 classes in Switzerland participated in the study. Possible influences of the program were evaluated with the help of pretest and posttest questionnaires completed by test-group and control-group teachers and students. Participation in the program significantly increased the number and diversity of species that children noticed on the way to school; the positive effects increased with the time spent on the program. The program had a similar positive effect on both younger and older children and on girls and boys.
It is unfortunate that children can't design their outdoor play environments. Research on children's preferences shows that if children had the design skills to do so, their creations would be completely different from the areas called playgrounds that most adults design for them. Outdoor spaces designed by children would not only be fully naturalized with plants, trees, flowers, water, dirt, sand, mud, animals and insects, but also would be rich with a wide variety of play opportunities of every imaginable type. If children could design their outdoor play spaces, they would be rich developmentally appropriate learning environments where children would want to stay all day. Playground Paradigm Paralysis We are all creatures of our experience, and our common experiences usually shape the conventional wisdom, or paradigms, by which we operate. When most adults were children, playgrounds were asphalt areas with gross motor play equipment such as swings, jungle gyms and slides where they went for recess. Most adults see this as their model for a children's playground. So when it comes time to plan and design a playground, the paradigm is to search through the catalogues of playground equipment, pick a piece or two that looks good to the adult and place it in an outdoor space which resembles their childhood memories of playgrounds. This is easy and doesn't take a whole lot of effort. Then once or twice a day, teachers let children go outside for a recess from their classroom activities to play on the equipment.
There are many factors that influence the formation of attitudes, one of the most crucial ones being education. Positive attitudes toward animals can be effectively accomplished principally by enabling students to directly experience organisms and their environments. The following study presents the development of a Toad Attitude Questionnaire (TAQ). Results were gathered from a sample of 195 primary school students (grades 6–9, ages 11– 14). Results show, that students who reported direct experience with animals were more willing to study animals and generally exhibited a more positive attitude toward them. Implications of the study are discussed.
This paper reviews the literature on human attitudes to animals, and postulates the existence of two primary motivational determinants of attitudes labelled 'affect' and 'utility'. It also proposes that the relative strengths of these key attitude dimensions are affected by various modifying variables including the specific attributes of the animal, the individual characteristics and experience of the person evaluating the animal, and a range of cultural factors. The role of science as a cultural modifier of human attitudes to animals is also discussed.
This study focused on human-otter interactions in Slovenia. The aim of the study was to obtain data about secondary-school students’ knowledge of and attitudes toward the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) and its conservation. The survey was carried out in fall 2008 and winter 2008–09 and included 273 teenagers. Their average age was 15.57 (SD = 1.01, Min = 13, Max = 19). The sample consisted of 92 (33.7%) males and 181 (66.3%) females. Participants were asked to complete a detailed self-administered questionnaire with 18 attitude questions and 8 factual-knowledge questions about Eurasian otter conservation. The results showed that teenagers’ attitudes toward the Eurasian otter are favourable and pro-conservation. Teenagers’ positive attitudes toward otter conservation were registered despite their poor knowledge. The study revealed that better factual knowledge correlates with positive attitudes. The data also indicated that females disagreed more strongly than males with attitude statements expressing opposition to otter conservation.
This article reviews four bodies of research that shed light on how to promote active care for the environment in children and youth: research on sources of proenvironmental behavior, socialization for democratic skills and values, the development of a personal sense of competence, and the development of collective competence. The article begins with an overview of studies of formative childhood experiences reported by environmental activists and educators, followed by correlational and experimental studies with young people regarding factors associated with their taking action for the environment. Because behaviors with the largest potential benefits for the environment require political engagement, the article also reviews experiences associated with young people’s interest and engagement in public issues. Action for the environment in the home or in public arena like schools and communities requires a personal sense of competence and a sense of collective competence, or confidence in one’s ability to achieve goals by working with a group. Therefore experiences that promote the development of these assets are summarized as well. The conclusion compares major findings in these different fields and discusses implications for environmental educators.
The following paper presents current thinking and research on fit indices for structural equation modelling. The paper presents a selection of fit indices that are widely regarded as the most informative indices available to researchers. As well as outlining each of these indices, guidelines are presented on their use. The paper also provides reporting strategies of these indices and concludes with a discussion on the future of fit indices.
Using phenomenological analysis, the authors examined the long-term effects of an environmental education school field trip on fourth grade elementary students who visited Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The authors' findings suggest that one year after the experience, many students remembered what they had seen and heard and had developed a perceived proenvironmental attitude. The authors discuss the phenomenological analysis, cite interviews with students, and draw conclusions on the effect of the field trip.
A connection to nature index was developed and tested to measure children’s affective attitude toward the natural environment. The index was employed through a survey that investigates students’ attitude toward Lagoon Quest, a mandatory environmental education program for all fourth-grade, public school students in Brevard County, Florida. Factor analyses were conducted to explore and confirm different factors in the connection to nature index. A path analysis was conducted to examine the association among variables. The results suggest four dimensions in the children’s connection to nature index: (a) enjoyment of nature, (b) empathy for creatures, (c) sense of oneness, and (d) sense of responsibility. Children’s connection to nature influences their intention to participate in nature-based activities in the future. Children’s connection to nature, their previous experience in nature, their perceived family value toward nature, and their perceived control positively influenced their interest in performing environmentally friendly behaviors.
This paper examines connections between childhood involvement with the natural environment and adult environmentalism from a life course perspective. Approximately 2,000 adults age 18-90 living in urban areas throughout the United States were interviewed with respect to their childhood nature experiences and their current, adult attitudes and behaviors relating to the environment. Model testing and cross-validation procedures using structural equation modeling suggest that childhood participation with nature may set an individual on a trajectory toward adult environmentalism. Specifically, childhood participation in "wild" nature such as hiking or playing in the woods, camping, and hunting or fishing, as well as participation with "domesticated" nature such as picking flowers or produce, planting trees or seeds, and caring for plants in childhood have a positive relationship to adult environmental attitudes. "Wild nature" participation is also positively associated with environmental behaviors while "domesticated nature" experiences are marginally related to environmental behaviors.
Almost 150 years ago, nineteenth century psychologist Herbert Spencer published his book, Principals of Psychology, in which he espoused the "surplus energy theory," explaining that the main reason for children's play is to get rid of surplus energy. Although researchers and developmental theorists have rejected his theory, it has had an unfortunate and lasting influence on the design of children's outdoor play environments (Malone 2003). As a result of Spencer's theory, playgrounds are seen as areas for physical play during recess, where children 'burn off steam,' and not for the other domains of development or for learning. In child care settings, playgrounds typically have manufactured climbing equipment, and other than sometimes- manicured grass, are void of nature and vegetation. The playgrounds for multitudes of children are not green, but gray (Moore & Wong 1997), many analogous to a parking lot (Worth 2003). Early childhood learning facility designers' and directors' point-of-view that playgrounds should be designed for surveillance of children, ease of maintenance and to have a break from children, rather than stimulate the children themselves, has also contributed to the barren design of outdoor childcare environments where there is neither shade, shelter nor opportunities to interact with nature (McKendrick, Bradford & Fielder 2000, Cheskey 2001, Malone 2003). Playground design also reflects a lack of understanding of how quality outdoor play environments can provide children rich educational opportunities, particularly in the area of social skills and environmental learning (Evan 1997). Roger Hart, a noted developmental psychologist, attributes much of the problem to an underestimation of the importance of play to children; that it is considered discretionary rather than essential to child development, and that this misguided concept of play has trickled down into the play areas we create for children, resulting in lackluster environments with little value (Shell 1994).
This study discusses the extent to which children in the USA today participate in active, outdoor play, compared with the previous generation. Eight hundred and thirty mothers nationwide were surveyed regarding their active, outdoor play experiences as children, as well as their children's play experiences today. The mother's play experiences, compared with the child's, clearly indicate that children today spend considerably less time playing outdoors than their mothers did as children. The study reveals several fundamental reasons for this decline, including dependence on television and digital media, and concerns about crime and safety. The study also conveys findings related to the frequent use of electronic diversions and discusses several suggestions for early childhood professionals, classroom teachers, and parents for fostering the child's enjoyment for outdoor play.
The authors constructed a 32-item survey instrument to measure knowledge and aspects of attitudes (issue understanding and concern, locus of control, and verbal commitment) regarding sea turtle conservation on Zakynthos, Greece. It was completed by 332 5th and 6th grade students from 21 classes in 3 geographic settings. The results indicate low knowledge scores, but high score levels for attitudes. Knowledge, understanding and/or concern, and locus of control significantly correlated with grade level. Overall, a significant positive correlation between knowledge and attitudes was demonstrated. The findings of the study may be useful in designing environmental education programs to promote sea turtle conservation.
Structured, open-ended interviews were conducted with 30 environmentalists in Kentucky and 26 in Norway (35 men, 21 women) who represented a broad range of issues, from wilderness protection to urban planning, to determine the sources of their environmental commitment. Experiences of natural areas, family influences, organizations, negative experiences, and education were mentioned most often. People were also asked about the period in life when significant experiences occurred, and on this basis, a typical life path of predominant sources of commitment at different ages was constructed. Respondents also recommended strategies for effective environmental action.
Using a standardised questionnaire, a total of 415 students from two different Swiss primary schools, grammar schools and agricultural schools as well as students from a Swiss University of Applied Sciences were asked about their attitudes towards 27 different indigenous wildlife animal species. In the questionnaire, six mammal, five bird, two reptile, four amphibian and ten insect species, all with potential flagship quality, were individually presented on a colour photograph without any further background information. The participants were also asked to give individual reasons for species-related affinity or antipathy. In addition, it was ascertained whether they were able to correctly identify and name each species.The survey shows a heterogeneous pattern, whereby butterflies, birds and most mammals are, on average, more higher appreciated than reptiles, insects (excl. butterflies) and amphibians. Furthermore, it becomes evident that attitudes do not only depend on the species themselves, but also on other factors, particularly the type of educational institution attended. In general, there is no significant difference in attitudes to animals between males and females. At species level, females show significantly higher affinity for 'loveable animals' and a lesser degree of affinity for 'fear-relevant animals'. Respondents seem to show higher affinity for species they can identify than for unfamiliar species. The authors postulate that providing targeted background information in educational institutions might help soften rigid thinking patterns by strengthening appreciation for less attractive animals.
The objective of this study has been an empirical evaluation of the ultimate goal of every environmental and ecological education, i.e. fostering responsible environmental behavior, effecting long-term changes of student's attitude towards conservation and nature as well as gaining basic ecological knowledge. The study surveyed a day-long and a week-long version of an outdoor ecology program which has been established for many years in a National Park. For gathering empirical evidence the study was designed as a pre-post-treatment evaluation, and the post-test was delayed for a one-month period after experiencing such an outdoor education program as well as for a six-month period with a subsample. Both programs fostered the cognitive level of the approx. 700 surveyed students and this was evaluated by using multiple-choice knowledge statements. Similarly, the scores within the subdivision 'Human-Changed Nature' increased. Furthermore, the week-long program explicitly provoked favorable shifts in the individual behavior, both actual and intended, a parameter which is generally seen as a complex and long-term process.
Comparison of the 'average' pupil population with the one which was enrolled for the outdoor education programs surprisingly revealed a more pro-environmental orientation before any education at the nature site took place: Possible reasons for such a pre-selection and/or pre-sensitizing are discussed.
The general public prefers to support conservation projects that focus on a few, easily “loveable” species; consequently most of biodiversity is neglected. It is essential to redress such bias and to educate children about the value of a wide diversity of organisms, including those labeled by social bias as less appealing. Because snakes are among the most disliked animals, they are suitable candidates for such endeavor. We evaluated the impact of a single field trip on the attitudes of more than 500 schoolchildren. The participants were involved in snake catching and were allowed to manipulate nonvenomous snakes. The organizers limited their intervention to providing natural history information and carefully avoided saying that snakes should be protected. We used pre- and post-field trip questionnaires to gauge the feelings of the children. Although pre-surveys suggested that many schoolchildren like snakes a priori, their attitudes improved following field experience: almost all children declared then that they liked snakes and expressed a strong willingness to protect them. Such change was associated with an increase of the frequency in the responses of the terms linked with affectivity (e.g., “snakes are cute”…). Snake handling was the favorite activity, and physical contact with animals appears to be a crucial element to improve schoolchildren's attitude for an unpopular organism. Our results support the promotion of field trips that include physical contact with wildlife over the current trend in the educational systems that promote virtual approaches.
Numerous theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain the gap between the possession of environmental knowledge and environmental awareness, and displaying pro-environmental behavior. Although many hundreds of studies have been undertaken, no definitive explanation has yet been found. Our article describes a few of the most influential and commonly used analytical frameworks: early US linear progression models; altruism, empathy and prosocial behavior models; and finally, sociological models. All of the models we discuss (and many of the ones we do not such as economic models, psychological models that look at behavior in general, social marketing models and that have become known as deliberative and inclusionary processes or procedures (DIPS)) have some validity in certain circumstances. This indicates that the question of what shapes pro-environmental behavior is such a complex one that it cannot be visualized through one single framework or diagram. We then analyze the factors that have been found to have some influence, positive or negative, on pro-environmental behavior such as demographic factors, external factors (e.g. institutional, economic, social and cultural) and internal factors (e.g. motivation, pro-environmental knowledge, awareness, values, attitudes, emotion, locus of control, responsibilities and priorities). Although we point out that developing a model that tries to incorporate all factors might neither be feasible nor useful, we feel that it can help illuminate this complex field. Accordingly, we propose our own model based on the work of Fliegenschnee and Schelakovsky (1998) who were influenced by Fietkau and Kessel (1981).
This study investigated which plants and animals Swiss children found most attractive and evaluated the effect of an educational programme on children's preferences for species. More than 4000 pupils (8–16 years old) from 248 classes participated in the study. Possible effects of the programme were studied with the help of questionnaires using a pretest/post‐test design with an experimental group that participated in the programme and a control group that did not. Before the start of the programme most children found decorative or garden species among plants, and pets and exotic species among animals, most attractive. However, the more wild plants and animals children noticed in their local environment and could name, the more did they appreciate these organisms. Moreover, the more additional wild plants the children noticed due to the programme, the higher was the increase in their appreciation of these species. This supports the hypothesis that children may appreciate animals other than pets and exotic species and even inconspicuous wild plants if they know them.
Outdoor educational programmes are generally believed to be a suitable alternative to conventional biology settings that improve participants' environmental attitudes and knowledge. Here we examine whether outdoor educational programmes focused solely on practical work with plants influence participants' knowledge of and attitudes towards plants. It was found that mean scores of participants' attitudes towards and knowledge of plants significantly increased after the outdoor programme. These effects remained significant even after three months' post‐testing. No similar patterns were found in the control group. Interestingly, the proportion of participants who liked biology as a school subject also significantly increased after the outdoor programme in the experimental group. Females showed better knowledge of plants than males, but attitudes towards plants were similar between genders. Having a garden at home was not associated with better knowledge or attitudes towards plants. Our results reveal that outdoor programmes significantly relieve ‘plant blindness’ and make biology more attractive to pupils.
At a recent talk on the global extinction crisis, prominent botanist and conservation biologist Peter Raven, in an aside, fondly reminisced about his boyhood plant-collecting trips in then semiwild Napa County, California. As I listened, I reflexively thought of my own early rambles in the Adirondacks of New York State. At the end of the talk, a member of the audience asked, “How can young people today have the experiences with nature that you had? Where will the Peter Ravens of the future come from?” This is a profoundly important issue that we biologists should consider. Over the last several decades, the significance of biodiversity, and the need for its protection, has emerged as one of the organizing principles of biology. The selection of articles in this and other scientific journals reflects a large and growing research effort that explicitly addresses many aspects of biodiversity loss and protection. Even research on traditional topics of “pure” biology often includes the conservation implications of results.
Knowledge and attitudes of children towards wildlife and the environment were assessed through questionnaires given to 366 children in 9 schools in southwest Guyana. Children’s responses revealed that they had a general knowledge of wildlife but knew few details about specific species. Respondents thought that wildlife was important but were nonetheless tolerant of several forms of environmental exploitation. Visits by conservation organizations, Conservation International and Foster Parrots, were shown to increase appreciation of wildlife and the need to set up more protected areas, but unless programmes were concentrated and sustained they had little effect on attitudes towards environmental utilization and exploitation. Experience of the natural world in terms of owning a domestic animal or pet, having visited a zoo, or being a member of a wildlife club had little impact on children’s knowledge of wildlife and did not change attitudes to utilization and exploitation. Surprisingly, Guyanese children did not have particularly positive views about classic flagship species, such as jaguars, giant anteaters and tapirs, when compared to other species. Our findings suggest that zoos, wildlife clubs and conservation organizations could enhance the dissemination of their message through making more frequent and sustained visits, imparting more detailed knowledge, and exposing children to the potential dangers of utilization and exploitation; also that conservation organizations should reassess their use of standard flagship species in South America.
Urban conservation education programs aim to increase knowledge and awareness towards biodiversity and to change attitudes and behaviour towards the environment. However, to date, few urban conservation education studies have evaluated to what extent these programs have managed to achieve their goals. In this study, we experimentally explored the influence of an urban conservation activity day on individual knowledge, awareness and actions towards biodiversity, in both the short and longer term.
We organised three activity days in Paris (France), during which people were invited to participate in urban conservation efforts. Both quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (interviews) methods were employed to investigate the influence of this short urban nature experience on the relationships that city-dwellers develop with nearby biodiversity. We found a strong positive correlation between the levels of participation and an immediate interest towards local urban biodiversity. In the longer term, however, although participants claimed to have gained more knowledge, local awareness and interest for species in their daily environment, they did not seem to extend this interest to participating in other related activities. These results highlight the complexity of validating the effectiveness of this type of education program for achieving conservation goals. Although such a short activity may only have a limited environmental impact, it nevertheless seems to increase people's knowledge, awareness, interest and concern. We therefore believe that when repeated locally, these short conservation education programs could enhance people's experience with nature in cities and achieve conservation goals more fully.
Females valued wild animals as objects of affection and expressed considerable concern regarding the consumptive exploitation of wildlife. Males were far more knowledgeable and less fearful of wildlife and more inclined to value animals for practical and recreational reasons. Efforts to broaden the scope and effectiveness of wildlife management should consider and understand the influence of gender. -Authors
The main focus of environmental education programs has been to change environmental behavior through increasing environmental knowledge. As many environmental studies have failed to apply successfully attitude theory in researching environmental attitudes, the present study investigated the cognitive and effective bases of environmental attitudes to indicate that it is what people feel and believe about the environment that determines their attitudes toward it. The findings suggest that for environmental educators interested in changing environmental attitudes, emotions and beliefs, rather than knowledge, need to be targeted as sources of information on which to base their environmental programs.
Positive experiences in nature relate to children’s environmental behaviors. The reasons for this link remain unknown. One possibility is that children behave more ecologically because they obtain benefits from spending time in nature. In the present study, we looked at positive experiences in nature, specifically restoration, as a motivational factor enhancing children’s proenvironmental behavior. Children (N = 832) rated their school yards in terms of restoration and reported their frequency of proenvironmental behaviors as well as their environmental attitudes. Perceived restoration predicted 37% of the variance in reported proenvironmental behavior. Moreover, this relationship was completely mediated by environmental attitudes. In addition, fascination, a component of restoration, was the only direct predictor of proenvironmental behavior.
The present study examined ecological awareness among preschool children. Three tasks were employed with 3-to 5-year-old boys and girls residing in rural and urban communities: a picture discrimination, a picture arrangement, and a picture comprehension task. It was found the young children are able to identify graphically depicted ecological issues with accuracy, relative to the nature of the task and its level of difficulty. It was also found that boys and girls, within the age range surveyed, were comparably aware of ecological issues. Moreover, no differences were found relative to the children's place of residence. The implications of these findings for ecological education and for advancing our knowledge of the development of ecological attitudes and behavior are discussed.
The present study evaluates how a stay in a summer holiday camp changes children's willingness to display ecological behaviour and the affective and cognitive factors that may be responsible for this change. The study included two types of nature camps, one with an Environmental Education (EE) program and one without it, with an urban camp without EE as an additional control group. Nature experiences increased children's emotional affinity towards nature, their ecological beliefs, and willingness to display ecological behaviour. No differences were found between the nature camps with and without EE. Emotional affinity towards nature and ecological beliefs independently mediated the direct effect that exposure to nature has on children's ecological behaviours, the strength of each mediator differing according to the type of ecological behaviour.
From an interdisciplinary approach, this study aims at analyzing self-reported animal fear, specifically large carnivore fear, in relation to public willingness to pay to fulfill a governmental policy on large carnivore-induced costs. In a survey in Sweden involving more than 2,000 respondents, it was found that people whose animal fear was directed particularly toward large carnivores were less likely to be willing to pay these costs, or were likely to be willing to pay a lower amount of money. In the prediction of willingness to pay (WTP), the contribution of the fear variable was as equally important as previously addressed socioeconomic factors.
Beginning with the study of significant life experiences initiated by Tanner, this article reviews a growing body of related research in the form of surveys, interviews, and questionnaires that explore people's accounts of the sources of their environmental interest, concern, and action. The questions, methods, and results of studies in this field are closely compared. In conclusion, the article notes that the experiences that people describe can be understood as exchanges between the ‘outer environment’ of the physical and social world and the ‘inner environment’ of people's own interests, aptitudes, and temperament, and that more attention needs to be paid to the influence of this ‘inner environment’ of individual differences.
This research investigates whether species are perceived differently based on aesthetic and negativistic attitudes, and whether these and other attitudes, naturalistic activities, and gender predict support for the protection of threatened species. 228 undergraduate students completed a survey in which they rated pictures of 10 endangered species on aesthetic and negativistic attitudes, and support for protection. Findings showed that the two-striped garter snake, Ozark big-eared bat, and dolloff cave spider were conceptualized differently than other species, which may be the result of “irrational” fears linked to animal phobias, culture, and emotional reactions to pictures. The regression results support the common belief that aesthetics is an important determinant in perceptions of endangered species and that the importance of negativistic attitudes may be waning. Moralistic worldviews and attitudes toward landowner rights and the Endangered Species Act were significantly related to support for governmental protection of species. Surprisingly, naturalistic activities and gender were not significantly associated with support for governmental protection of species. In general, the results were consistent across both models. However, the amount of variance explained by aesthetic and negativistic attitudes was 23 percent higher in the other species models than in the bat, snake, and spider models.
Using teachers as co-researchers to collect and analyze data, this case study explored preschool and kindergarteners' learning when they were engaged in hands-on activities in the garden and greenhouse areas of a model outdoor classroom. Key findings suggest that when young children are participating in garden and greenhouse activities they are: (1) communicating their knowledge about the world to others, (2) conveying (and learning to process and manage) emotions, and (3) developing important skills (e.g., initiative, self-confidence, literacy, math, science skills) that will help them be more successful in school and better navigate the world.
The use of both linear and generalized linear mixed‐effects models ( LMM s and GLMM s) has become popular not only in social and medical sciences, but also in biological sciences, especially in the field of ecology and evolution. Information criteria, such as Akaike Information Criterion ( AIC ), are usually presented as model comparison tools for mixed‐effects models.
The presentation of ‘variance explained’ ( R ² ) as a relevant summarizing statistic of mixed‐effects models, however, is rare, even though R ² is routinely reported for linear models ( LM s) and also generalized linear models ( GLM s). R ² has the extremely useful property of providing an absolute value for the goodness‐of‐fit of a model, which cannot be given by the information criteria. As a summary statistic that describes the amount of variance explained, R ² can also be a quantity of biological interest.
One reason for the under‐appreciation of R ² for mixed‐effects models lies in the fact that R ² can be defined in a number of ways. Furthermore, most definitions of R ² for mixed‐effects have theoretical problems (e.g. decreased or negative R ² values in larger models) and/or their use is hindered by practical difficulties (e.g. implementation).
Here, we make a case for the importance of reporting R ² for mixed‐effects models. We first provide the common definitions of R ² for LM s and GLM s and discuss the key problems associated with calculating R ² for mixed‐effects models. We then recommend a general and simple method for calculating two types of R ² (marginal and conditional R ² ) for both LMM s and GLMM s, which are less susceptible to common problems.
This method is illustrated by examples and can be widely employed by researchers in any fields of research, regardless of software packages used for fitting mixed‐effects models. The proposed method has the potential to facilitate the presentation of R ² for a wide range of circumstances.
This paper establishes environmental attitude as a powerful predictor of ecological behaviour. Past studies have failed in this enterprise because they did not consider three shortcomings that limit the predictive power of environmental attitude concepts: (1) the lack of a unified concept of attitude, (2) the lack of measurement correspondence between attitude and behaviour on a general level, and (3) the lack of consideration of behaviour constraints beyond people's control. Based on Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour, the present study uses a unified concept of attitude and a probabilistic measurement approach to overcome these shortcomings. Questionnaire data from members of two ideologically different Swiss transportation associations are used. This study confirmed three measures as orthogonal dimensions by means of factor analysis: (1) environmental knowledge, (2) environmental values, and (3) ecological behaviour intention. One other measure, general ecological behaviour, is established as a Rasch-scale that assesses behaviour by considering the tendency to behave ecologically and the difficulties in carrying out the behaviours, which depend on influences beyond people's actual behaviour control. A structural equation model was used to confirm the proposed model: environmental knowledge and environmental values explained 40 per cent of the variance of ecological behaviour intension which, in turn, predicted 75 per cent of the variance of general ecological behaviour.
Five hundred and sixty two children and adolescents, aged between 9 and 15 years, from one urban and three rural areas in southern Norway, completed a questionnaire in which they expressed their degree of preference for various animal species. The dog, cat, horse, and rabbit were the favourite species, while the crow, worm, bee, and spider were the least liked. Girls were more positive toward horses, and were more pet-orientated than boys, while more boys than girls preferred wild animals. Younger respondents liked animals more than did 15-year-olds, with a few exceptions: the wolf, bear, and whale. Urban respondents liked animals more than rural respondents did, a finding which applied to the large carnivores in particular. Interests in wildlife decreased with increasing age, and few respondents wished to save ecologically-significant species (ants, bees, ladybirds) from extinction.
Five hundred and sixty-two children and adolescents, aged between nine and 15 years, from one urban and three rural areas in Southern Norway, completed a questionnaire in which they expressed their degree of preference for various animal species, participation in animal-related activities, and the presence of pets at home. The results showed that a majority of the respondents had an animal at home (71%), and participated in animal-related activities such as fishing (72%), feeding birds (74%), and reading about animals (66%). Participation in most animal-related activities decreased with increasing age. Pet owners liked farm and wild animals more than did respondents without pets. Positive associations were found between the liking of animal species and participation in animal-related activities. Gender differences were largest for horseback riding (girls most) and for fishing and hunting (boys most). Those who reported allergic reactions to animals, or had been injured by an animal, liked animals as much as, or more than, did the other respondents.
To date, research on the effects of urbanization, which include reduced biodiversity, has focused on changes at particular sites or along gradients of urbanization. Comparatively little work has investigated changes in biodiversity at any citywide—much less global—scale, and no attempt has been made to quantify such changes in human terms. We have developed a novel data set that reveals a systematic pattern of biodiversity: Within cities worldwide, most residents are concentrated in neighborhoods of impoverished biodiversity. This pattern exists despite substantial biodiversity present in cities overall, and becomes more severe when only native species are considered. As humanity becomes increasingly urban, these findings have a tragic and seldom-considered consequence: Billions of people may lose the opportunity to benefit from or develop an appreciation of nature. Because nearby surroundings shape people's baselines of ecological health, our findings suggest adverse consequences for conservation in general as well as for humans' quality of life if the problem remains uncorrected.
The main focus of environmental education programs has been to change environmental behavior through increasing environmental knowledge. As many environmental studies have failed to apply successfully attitude theory in researching environmental attitudes, the present study investigated the cognitive and affective bases of environmental attitudes to indicate that it is what people feel and believe about the environment that determines their attitudes toward it. The findings suggest that for environmental educators interested in changing environmental attitudes, emotions and beliefs, rather than knowledge, need to be targeted as sources of information on which to base their environmental programs.
This is an R package (a piece of Software) to fit and do inference on mixed-effects models.
The package is Free Software (hence open-source) and the package and much documentation about it is freely available from CRAN at
https://cran.r-project.org/package=lme4