Chapter

Cognitive Load Theory: Historical Development and Relation to Other Theories

April 2010

April 2010

DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511844744.003

In book: Cognitive load theory (pp.9-28)
Publisher: New York, USA: Cambridge University Press
Editors: J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, R. Brünken

Authors:

Babette Park

University of Education Freiburg

The goal of this introductory chapter is to provide a historical review of the assumptions underlying Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) and to place the theory into the broader context of the learning sciences. The chapter focuses on the theoretical developments that guided the research on cognitive load and learning for the past twenty years and is organized in the following way. First, we examine the nature of the cognitive load construct and compare it to similar psychological constructs. Second, we present a historical review of the development of CLT's assumptions in the following four stages: (a) extraneous cognitive load in problem solving, (b) intrinsic cognitive load and the first additivity hypothesis, (c) germane cognitive load and the second additivity hypothesis, and (d) the evolutionary interpretation of CLT. Finally, we conclude the chapter by examining the constructs and assumptions of CLT in relation to other theories in psychology and education. THE COGNITIVE LOAD CONSTRUCT CLT is a psychological theory because it attempts to explain psychological or behavioral phenomena resulting from instruction. Psychological theories are concerned with the possible relationships among psychological constructs or between a psychological construct and an observable phenomenon of practical consequence. A psychological construct is an attribute or skill that happens in the human brain. In CLT, the main constructs of interest are cognitive load, hence the name of the theory, and learning. CLT was developed to explain the effects of instructional design on these two constructs.

Video Tutorials in the Traditional Classroom: The Effects on Different Types of Cognitive Load

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2024

Are video tutorials better teachers? This pilot study examined the effects of video tutorials on different types of cognitive load. Participating students (N = 45) attended two classrooms: a video tutorial-based classroom, and a traditional instruction-based classroom. The cognitive load scales indicated differences in cognitive load between the video classroom and the traditional classroom. Video tutorials decreased students’ intrinsic load (t = -4.507, p < .001, d = − 0.672) and increased germane load (t = 4.749, p < .001, d = 0.708) but did not affect extraneous load (t = -1.688, p = .098, d = − 0.252). The results also indicated additivity for different types of cognitive load in the two classrooms. In general, our results demonstrate that video tutorials are a promising form of instructional material, especially to facilitate more effective and deeper learning.

Pedagogical principles used by anatomy teachers to facilitate the teaching and learning of anatomy to physiotherapy undergraduates in the United Kingdom

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023
CLIN ANAT

The teaching of anatomy for physiotherapy differs from other health professions, and yet there is lack of guidance for the best practice in the literature, especially within the United Kingdom (UK). The present study aimed to provide the most effective pedagogical guidance for teaching a typical anatomy curriculum for a three‐year BSc Physiotherapy degree program within the UK. The research design used a constructivist grounded theory where semi‐structured interviews were conducted with eight registered physiotherapists teaching anatomy to undergraduate physiotherapy students within the UK. The study generated 72,292 words of qualitative data that were thematically analyzed using Saldaña's coding techniques until data saturation was reached. The results had three main components: a pedagogical backdrop composed of five pedagogical issues, pedagogical approaches with its three sub‐components and pedagogical timings of phases of when anatomical teaching was conducted across the three undergraduate physiotherapy degree programs. The cognitive load theory (CLT) best explained the results through five main pedagogical principles: spiral curriculum strategies, visual anatomical imagery, kinesthetic anatomical skills, strategies for teaching clinical physiotherapy anatomy, and using anatomical principles for metacognition. The study proposes a new modified version of CLT which acknowledges that newly acquired knowledge is fragile in novice learners, who have limited long‐term memory capacities, and subsequently require regular revisitations, and also acknowledges kinesthetic input and germane cognitive load metacognition strategies. The study recommends appointing anatomy theme leads to take responsibility for the spiral curriculum approach across the 3 years and to introduce explicit anatomy teaching during the later clinical years.

A Systematic Meta-analysis of the Reliability and Validity of Subjective Cognitive Load Questionnaires in Experimental Multimedia Learning Research

Article

Full-text available

May 2022
EDUC PSYCHOL REV

For more than three decades, cognitive load theory has been addressing learning from a cognitive perspective. Based on this instructional theory, design recommendations and principles have been derived to manage the load on working memory while learning. The increasing attention paid to cognitive load theory in educational science quickly culminated in the need to measure its types of cognitive load — intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load which additively contribute to the overall load. In this meta-analysis, four frequently used cognitive load questionnaires were examined concerning their reliability (internal consistency) and validity (construct validity and criterion validity). Results revealed that the internal consistency of the subjective cognitive load questionnaires can be considered satisfactory across all four questionnaires. Moreover, moderator analyses showed that reliability estimates of the cognitive load questionnaires did not differ between educational settings, domains of the instructional materials, presentation modes, or number of scale points. Correlations among the cognitive load types partially contradict theory-based assumptions, whereas correlations with learning-related variables support assumptions derived from cognitive load theory. In particular, results seem to support the three-factor model consisting of intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load. Results are discussed in relation to current trends in cognitive load theory and recommendations for the future use of cognitive load questionnaires in experimental research are suggested.

The effects of language proficiency and awareness of time limit in animated vs. text-based situational judgment tests

Article

Full-text available

May 2024
BMC Med Educ

Background Situational Judgment Tests (SJTs) are commonly used in medical school admissions. However, it has been consistently found that native speakers tend to score higher on SJTs than non-native speakers, which can be particularly problematic in the admission context due to the potential risk of limited fairness. Besides type of SJT, awareness of time limit may play a role in subgroup differences in the context of cognitive load theory. This study examined the influence of SJT type and awareness of time limit against the background of language proficiency in a quasi high-stakes setting. Methods Participants (N = 875), applicants and students in healthcare-related study programs, completed an online study that involved two SJTs: one with a text-based stimulus and response format (HAM-SJT) and another with a video-animated stimulus and media-supported response format (Social Shapes Test, SST). They were randomly assigned to a test condition in which they were either informed about a time limit or not. In a multilevel model analysis, we examined the main effects and interactions of the predictors (test type, language proficiency and awareness of time limit) on test performance (overall, response percentage). Results There were significant main effects on overall test performance for language proficiency in favor of native speakers and for awareness of time limit in favor of being aware of the time limit. Furthermore, an interaction between language proficiency and test type was found, indicating that subgroup differences are smaller for the animated SJT than for the text-based SJT. No interaction effects on overall test performance were found that included awareness of time limit. Conclusion A SJT with video-animated stimuli and a media-supported response format can reduce subgroup differences in overall test performance between native and non-native speakers in a quasi high-stakes setting. Awareness of time limit is equally important for high and low performance, regardless of language proficiency or test type.

Enculturation of Lombok Coastal Local Wisdom in PBL as A Conservation Learning Strategy to Improve Students' Environmental Literacy

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Aug 2023

Environmental literacy is essential for students to comprehend environmental issues and sustainable behaviours that can help reduce negative environmental impacts. This research is motivated by the low environmental literacy of students, which is attributed to schools not providing direct learning experiences for students to interact with the environment. This study aims to analyze the effectiveness of students' environmental literacy by applying conservation-based PBL (Problem-Based Learning). The research sample consisted of 104 students from SMAN 1 Lembar selected through purposive sampling. The research method employed a pre-experimental design with a quantitative approach. Environmental literacy tests used test instruments adapted and modified from the Middle Schools Environmental Literacy Survey with indicators of knowledge, cognitive abilities, and attitudes. Data were analyzed using t-test calculations and n-gain. The research results show that conservation-based PBL is efficacious in improving students' environmental literacy based on (1) a significant increase in students' environmental literacy scores at α = 5%, (2) moderate n-gain scores, and (3) there was no difference in n-gain for all groups. Therefore, conservation-based PBL can be considered an alternative for teachers to enhance students' understanding of environmental issues while preparing them to adapt to ongoing climate and environmental changes.

Developing a Theory-Based Summative Testing Approach to Evaluate a Mobile Health App for Older Adults

Article

Jun 2023

We describe a method of selecting and organizing tasks for summative testing of a new mobile health (mHealth) app by older adults. Summative evaluations of mobile health apps often focus on “ease of use” assessed by time to complete tasks and the number of use errors. This is not an optimal approach for older users who are more likely to have slower response times and be less experienced with these technologies. In testing with older users, it is important to incorporate the expected process of learning a new app without the use of training or extensive instructions. We drew on the theories of Mastery Learning, Cognitive Load, and Teach to Goal to inform our selection of tasks and the organization of task scenarios to better simulate the users’ patterns of exploration, learning, and initial use of a mobile app. This research has general relevance for human factors professionals involved in planning, conducting, and reporting the findings from summative evaluations for a broad range of mHealth apps and user groups.

Development and Validation of a Cognitive Load Measure for General Educational Settings

Article

Apr 2023

We develop and validate a self-report measure of intrinsic and extrinsic cognitive load suitable for measuring the constructs in a variety of learning contexts. Data were collected from three independent samples of college students in the U.S. (N total = 513; M age = 21.13 years). Kane's (2013) framework was used to validate the measure. Three types of validity evidence were presented: scoring, generalization, extrapolation. After establishing evidence of validity, especially measurement invariance, we then compared group mean differences based on students' demographic characteristics. These findings support the psychometric integrity of this measure of cognitive load, which may be used to investigate cognitive load in various learning contexts, particularly examining factors that may perpetuate or mitigate differences in cognitive load between students. Such a measure could be useful in educational and clinical settings as a mechanism for early identification of potential learning challenges.

Gamification of an n-back working memory task - Is it worth the effort? An EEG and eye-tracking study

Article

Mar 2023
BIOL PSYCHOL

Gamification of cognitive tasks might positively affect emotional-motivational factors (emotional design perspective) or negatively affect cognitive factors like working memory load (minimalistic design perspective). The current study examined the effects of gamification in a spatial n-back working memory task on task performance, task load (i.e., working memory load and effort), and subjective task experience. Task load was assessed by the physiological process measures pupil dilation and EEG theta (4 - 6Hz) and alpha (8 - 13Hz) frequency band power. Gamification was achieved by elements of emotional design (i.e., the visual screen design using, e.g., color, cartoon figures as n-back stimuli, and a narrative embedding of the task). While EEG and eye-tracking were recorded, participants conducted gamified and non-gamified 1-back and 2-back load levels. The gamification resulted in positive effects on subjective task experience and affect. Despite these effects, gamification did not affect task performance and task load. However, exploratory analyses revealed increased EEG theta power at right-parietal electrodes for gamified task versions compared to non-gamified ones. Potentially, this effect might indicate participants' increased effort or concentration in the gamified n-back task. In line with an emotional design perspective, gamification positively altered subjective task experience and affect without hampering task performance and therefore justify the extra effort of implementing game elements.

Understanding the perceived role of electronic health records and workflow fragmentation on clinician documentation burden in emergency departments

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023
J AM MED INFORM ASSN

Objective: Understand the perceived role of electronic health records (EHR) and workflow fragmentation on clinician documentation burden in the emergency department (ED). Methods: From February to June 2022, we conducted semistructured interviews among a national sample of US prescribing providers and registered nurses who actively practice in the adult ED setting and use Epic Systems' EHR. We recruited participants through professional listservs, social media, and email invitations sent to healthcare professionals. We analyzed interview transcripts using inductive thematic analysis and interviewed participants until we achieved thematic saturation. We finalized themes through a consensus-building process. Results: We conducted interviews with 12 prescribing providers and 12 registered nurses. Six themes were identified related to EHR factors perceived to contribute to documentation burden including lack of advanced EHR capabilities, absence of EHR optimization for clinicians, poor user interface design, hindered communication, increased manual work, and added workflow blockages, and five themes associated with cognitive load. Two themes emerged in the relationship between workflow fragmentation and EHR documentation burden: underlying sources and adverse consequences. Discussion: Obtaining further stakeholder input and consensus is essential to determine whether these perceived burdensome EHR factors could be extended to broader contexts and addressed through optimizing existing EHR systems alone or through a broad overhaul of the EHR's architecture and primary purpose. Conclusion: While most clinicians perceived that the EHR added value to patient care and care quality, our findings underscore the importance of designing EHRs that are in harmony with ED clinical workflows to alleviate the clinician documentation burden.

Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023
EDUC PSYCHOL REV

According to cognitive load theory, learning can only be successful when instructional materials and procedures are designed in accordance with human cognitive architecture. In this context, one of the biggest challenges is the accurate measurement of the different cognitive load types as these are associated with various activities during learning. Building on psychometric limitations of currently available questionnaires, a new instrument for measuring the three types of cognitive load—intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load—is developed and validated relying on a set of five empirical studies. In Study 1, a principal component analysis revealed a three-component model which was subsequently confirmed using a confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2). Finally, across three experiments (Studies 3–5), the questionnaire was shown to be sensitive to changes in cognitive load supporting its predictive validity. The quality of the cognitive load questionnaire was underlined by satisfactory internal consistencies across all studies. In sum, the proposed questionnaire can be used in experimental settings to measure the different types of cognitive load in a valid and reliable manner. The construction and validation process of the questionnaire has also shown that the construct germane cognitive load remains controversial concerning its measurement and theoretical embedding in cognitive load theory.

Integration of Virtual Reality (VR) Technology into Vocabulary Teaching in Primary School English Lessons

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Language consists of words, so it is important to increase the level of vocabulary in any foreign language learning to a certain extent in order to be able to communicate in that language. As for VR, it is seen that this technology is a new research field in education, the use of which in language teaching is closely related to the principle of proximity to life, one of teaching principles. While learning a foreign language, learners should experience situational learning experiences, recognize real-life contexts, and be able to use the language communicatively in these environments, which is a difficult goal to be attained by 2nd-grade primary school students who have not yet reached full proficiency in their native language but started learning a foreign one. In this direction, this study, a pre-test – post-test research with the control group, examined VR’s effect on vocabulary levels and student engagement. The study was conducted in the English lessons of 2nd-grade students from six of the state primary schools in the central district of Çanakkale, Turkey. The results indicated that instruction with VR did not show any significant difference in vocabulary levels compared to current teaching method but encouraged more student engagement in the classroom. Although more extensive research into the topic is essential, it is hoped that the study will shed light on future research on the use of VR technology, which still has leeway to progress and may form the basis of future education in the coming years.

Development of Learn to Think (LTT) Model Based on Integrated Twin Tower (ITT) to Increase Scientific and Spiritual Creativity of students in the Early Childhood Islamic Education

Article

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Mar 2022

The learning model is one way that can increase student creativity. The study aimed to describe and explain the validity of the Integrated Twin Tower (ITT) based Learn To Talk (LTT) learning model. The research method uses Educational Design Research (EDR) to develop a new product. The ITT-based LTT model was developed in order to increase students' creativity. In addition, as follow-up research from the recommendations of previous researchers. The development of this model will be used as teaching material in the classroom. Blended Web Mobile Learning (BWML) is based on the development of ITT-based LTT learning by following John Deway's line of thought. The results of the content validity of the learning model product, which include needs, novelty, theory, planning, and implementation, get an average value of 3.80; 4.00; 4.00; 4.00; and 3.50 with a very valid category. The results of construct validity, the results were obtained with valid categories for all of them. In that way, the ITT-based LTT learning model can be alternative learning to improve students' scientific creative thinking skills.

Effects of nonlinear dynamic online assessment model on language learners’ learning outcomes and cognitive load

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2024
Educ Inform Tech

Zhengyuan Liu

This study investigates the differential impacts of various online language assessment models—specifically, the Nonlinear Dynamic Individual-Centered Language Assessment (NDICLA), diagnostic assessment, and formative assessment—on the cognitive load and learning outcomes of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners within computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environments. Utilizing a mixed-methods research design, this investigation engaged 83 EFL learners to provide a holistic understanding of how these distinct assessment approaches influence learner performance and psychological experience. Methodological triangulation, combining quantitative data analysis through one-way ANOVA with qualitative insights, revealed the NDICLA model’s distinctive capacity to mitigate cognitive load while concurrently enhancing CALL learning outcomes. Central to the research objectives, the study underscores the importance of aligning assessment strategies with learners’ individual psycho-socio-cultural backgrounds and linguistic proficiencies. By segmenting learners into subgroups, the research facilitated the creation of personalized instructional plans and assessments predicated on the NDICLA framework. This approach not only adheres to the principles of differentiated learning but also maximizes the pedagogical effectiveness of language assessments in CALL contexts. Theoretically, the findings offer robust support for the NDICLA model as a dynamic and learner-centered assessment tool. Unlike traditional static assessment methods, NDICLA’s adaptability allows it to accurately reflect and respond to the evolving nature of learners’ capabilities. The empirical evidence presented in this study highlights NDICLA’s role in fostering significant improvements in both CALL learning outcomes and cognitive load management, thereby contributing valuable insights into the ongoing discourse on optimizing language assessment methodologies for EFL learners.

Effects of flipped English learning designs on learning outcomes and cognitive load: Workload of out‐of‐class activities versus during‐class activities

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024
J COMPUT ASSIST LEAR

Background Some studies have researched the correlation between flipped learning and cognitive learning outcomes; however, there is a paucity of research elaborating on the effects of flipped language learning on cognitive load (CL). Objectives This study investigates the effects of using flipped learning designs (student‐led, teacher‐led and collaboration‐led) on learning outcomes and CL management during out‐of‐class activities versus during‐class activities. Methods A mixed methods research was used to concurrently triangulate different strands of data on the effects of flipped learning designs on English as foreign language (EFL) learners' learning outcomes and CL. A total of 122 EFL learners were randomly assigned to either the control or experimental group and participated in the study. The interpretations were made based on running one‐way analysis of variance between four groups. Results and Conclusion This study evidenced the efficacy of the interactive use of collaboration‐led flipped learning design over student‐led and teacher‐led designs for improving learning outcomes and lowering CL during computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) course. Pedagogically, CALL practitioners need to develop and integrate a well‐organized combination of student‐led and teacher‐led flipped learning activities for during‐class and out‐of‐class phases with respect to the CL and learning material complexity, while also considering the specific contexts and goals of their instructional settings. Theoretically, the results indicate the necessity of merging active learning and sociocultural theories into an instructional design to take advantage of the identified affordances of flipped language learning approach in terms of psychological effects (CL management) and learning effects (CALL outcomes).

Working Memory Sensitive Math Intervention in Students with Learning Disabilities – a Single Case Study

Preprint

Jan 2024

This study examines the effects of a working memory (WM) sensitive math intervention in students with learning disabilities (LD). The intervention aims to improve early mathematical competencies while accounting for weak cognitive resources through a reduced instructional design. These principles are considered to be effective for learning. Ten students with mild to moderate intelligence impairment participated in our study. We applied an AB single-case intervention study across participants to evaluate the effects of the intervention. The students take part in at least 10 30-minute intervention sessions. Non-overlap indices, as well as regression analysis, support positive effects on students’ mathematical competencies. Nevertheless, there are still students for whom the effects were unstable or failed to materialize. Besides the effectiveness of the WM-sensitive math intervention, the results support the assumption that the mathematical learning of students with LD is similar to that of students without LD but delayed.

Measuring Cognitive Load in Virtual Reality Training via Pupillometry

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Pupillometry is known as a reliable technique to measure cognitive load in learning and performance. However, its applicability to virtual reality (VR) environments, an emerging technology for simulation-based training, has not been well-verified in educational contexts. Specifically, the VR display causes light reflexes that confound task-evoked pupillary responses (TEPRs), impairing cognitive load measures. Through this pilot study, we validated whether task difficulty can predict cognitive load as measured by TEPRs corrected for the light reflex and if these TEPRs correlate with cognitive load self-ratings and performance. 14 students in health sciences performed observation tasks in two conditions: difficult versus easy tasks, whilst watching a VR scenario in home health care. Then, a cognitive load self-rating ensued. We used a VR system with a built-in eye-tracker and a photosensor installed to assess pupil diameter and light intensity during the scenario. Employing a method from the human-computer interaction field, we determined TEPRs by modeling the pupil light reflexes using a baseline. As predicted, the difficult task caused significantly larger TEPRs than the easy task. Only in the difficult task condition did TEPRs positively correlate with the performance measure. These results suggest that TEPRs are valid measures of cognitive load in VR training when corrected for the light reflex. It opens up possibilities to use real-time cognitive load for assessment and instructional design for VR training. Future studies should test our findings with a larger sample size, in various domains, involving complex VR functions such as haptic interaction.

Toward a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Assessment (CTMMA)

Chapter

Oct 2023

Driving errors as a function of listening to music and FM radio: A simulator study

Article

Oct 2023
Traffic Inj Prev

Driving errors as a function of listening to music and FM radio: A simulator study

Article

Oct 2023
Traffic Inj Prev

Objectives: Driving is a dynamic activity that takes place in a constantly changing environment, carrying safety implications not only for the driver but also for other road users. Despite the potentially life-threatening consequences of incorrect driving behavior, drivers often engage in activities unrelated to driving. This study aims to investigate the frequency and types of errors committed by drivers when they are distracted compared to when they are not distracted. Methods: A total of 64 young male participants volunteered for the study, completing four driving trials in a driving simulator. The trials consisted of different distraction conditions: listening to researcher-selected music, driver-selected music, FM radio conversation, and driving without any auditory distractions. The simulated driving scenario resembled a semi-urban environment, with a track length of 12 km. Results: The findings of the study indicate that drivers are more prone to making errors when engaged in FM radio conversations compared to listening to music. Additionally, errors related to speeding were found to be more prevalent across all experimental conditions. Conclusions: These results emphasize the significance of reducing distractions while driving to improve road safety. The findings add to our understanding of the particular distractions that carry higher risks and underscore the necessity for focused interventions to reduce driver errors, especially related to FM radio conversations. Future research can delve into additional factors that contribute to driving errors and develop effective strategies to promote safer driving practices.

Applying Cognitive Load Theory in Teacher Education

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023

The study investigated the validation of a rating scale to measure cognitive load in science teacher education. The rating scale was used to measure three types of cognitive load in a new learning context with 81 undergraduate students enrolled in a science education program, randomly assigned to three experimental groups: problem-solving, example-based learning, and control groups. The preservice teachers' cognitive load was measured using a rating scale during an intervention to diagnose students' misconceptions in physics. The study also assessed the effect of instructional design on cognitive load. The results showed that the three types of cognitive load can be reliably measured in science teacher education and that instructional designs that create germane cognitive load contribute to the development of preservice teachers' diagnostic competencies. Conversely, designs that create irrelevant cognitive load are detrimental to this development. These findings suggest the importance of considering cognitive load in science teacher education for effective instructional design.

Reviewing How Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity Affect the Ability in Following Instructions

Article

Jul 2023

This literature review aims to analyze the role of individual differences in working memory capacity in following instructions based on theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence. Individual differences in working memory capacity have an impact on the encoding, and retrieval stage. In general, the output from the review stated that the performance difference between individuals relates to the experimental design and treatment, which include delivery of the instructions, presentation of objects, the length of instructions, involvement of dual tasks, and retrieval methods. In addition, the contents of instructions can be transferred into working memory space if the individuals can give a high level of attention and control the attention to suppress the distractors. Therefore, the ability to follow instructions depends on the individual's understanding of the instructions' meaning and matching them with the available space of their working memory (capacity). This review also adds value and suggestions to the need to conduct more research on the role of working memory capacity in following instructions.

Levels of Inquiry and Reading-Questioning-Answering (LoIRQA) to Enhance High School Students' Critical and Creative Thinking

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Full-text available

Jul 2023

It has been demonstrated that Levels of Inquiry (LoI) can enhance students' critical and creative thinking skills. However, time constraints make LoI less practical for high school biology classes. LoI can be integrated with the Reading, Questioning, and Answering (RQA) strategy to overcome this problem. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the LoI and RQA integration (LoIRQA) impact on high school students' critical and creative thinking skills. This study employed a quasi experimental design with three treatment groups: LoIRQA, LoI, and RQA. The study's population involved all eleventh-grade students at a public high school in Mojokerto, Indonesia. The sample was determined using a random sampling technique, and 144 students participated in this study. The research data were collected using an essay test and examined using the ANCOVA and LSD tests at a 5% significance level. On the critical thinking post-test, LoIRQA students achieved a higher mean score (79.972) than LoI students (77.315) or RQA students (73.071). Similarly, on the creative thinking post-test, LoIRQA students showed the highest mean score (83.195), followed by LoI students (78.528) and RQA students (73.471). These findings indicate that LoIRQA was more effective in enhancing' students' critical and creative thinking skills than LoI or RQA.

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Beatriz Peña-Acuña

This article recomposes the background of this theme during the decade 2001 to 2011. This study aims to discover ten main current research trends of performance in second language from 2012 to 2022. It will search scientific articles in the Social Science Citation Index (WOS) and in the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) databases and discover which are emergently compared to the previous decade. Finally, the study discusses these topic trends, other alternates and transversal-related issues. It presents a critical vision of the state-of-the-art of the last 20 years, considering reference publications. The method is a documentary review that selects ten scientific articles from the last decade to discover deep trends. This documentary methodology differs from a systematic bibliographic review in that it allows selecting and delving deeper into the qualitative content of the articles. Thanks to the quality system implemented, the articles published in these journals included in this WOS database ensure significant studies that ensure scientific contributions and discoveries in the field. The main results are ten recurring topic trends with the previous decade on language learning programs, evaluation, teaching strategies, communication and psychological approach, digital devices, teacher action, cognitive approach, speaking performance, motivation and instructional performance language. The major conclusions highlight emerging interdisciplinary approaches to different variables and the adaptive study of emerging technologies, such as AI, without great interest in linguistic or economic policy issues. However, searches on other academic platforms find a broader open debate for two decades with other contextual parameters about economic factors and language policy, such as the literacy of immigrants in L2 as a factor of social and economic interest, the formal programming of a second language in institutions to obtain employment, especially in the professional framework of international mobility. This means that the WOS database collects general trends in this investigated topic. However, it only partially collects the breadth of scientific interest generated as a result of the needs of the socio-economic context. Funding Statement This work belongs to the R+D+I Project, funded by a national state call titled Multiliteracies for adult at-risk learners of additional languages (Multi-Lits). It is supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and the State Research Agency [PID2020-113460RB-I00]. Author: Beatriz Peña-Acuña, 0000-0002-0951-795X beatriz.pa@dfilo.uhu.es

Student Extraneous Load Analysis in Online-Based Plant Tissue Structure Learning

Article

Full-text available

May 2023

This study aims to determine the cognitive load of students in online-based plant anatomy learning. The research was conducted at the Biology Education Study Program at a State University in Palembang, Indonesia. The research subjects were Biology Education students (n=73) who contracted the plant anatomy course. The instrument used to determine students' mental effort in understanding plant anatomy material is a questionnaire with a Likert scale with five answer choices: very easy (VE), easy (E), moderate (Md), difficult (D), and very difficult (VD). The aspects measured are (i) identifying the type of tissues and its characteristics by observing 2D and 3D images; (ii) analyzing the interrelationship of tissues structure and it function; (iii) identifying the structure of the constituent tissues in several plant organs, and (iv) spatial thinking related to the structure of plant tissues. The research data shows that the highest percentage in all aspects is in the medium category (MD), which ranges between (31.14% - 47.69%), which means that the learning carried out is not too burdensome for students in these four aspects. However, the data also shows that in the second aspect, namely the ability to analyze the relationship between structure and function, 31.64% of students stated that it was difficult. This is due to the complexity of the material related to the structure and function and the ineffectiveness of the media used in online-based learning

The Relationship between Iraqi EFL Preparatory Students' Cognitive Load and Reading Comprehension

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May 2023

The Relationship between Iraqi EFL Preparatory Students' Cognitive Load and Reading Comprehension

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Full-text available

May 2023

Teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of a planning framework on content sequencing for the teaching and learning of mathematics

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023

Planning is an instrument for effective teaching and learning of mathematics, which can address the dropping enrolments of year 12 students studying advanced mathematics. This study investigated teachers’ perceptions of how a planning framework on content sequencing from junior mathematical knowledge (years seven to 10) to senior mathematical knowledge (years 11 to 12) informs teaching and learning of mathematics in Queensland, Australia. This mixed methods study collected data through a survey and semi structured interviews with 16 high school mathematics teachers. The data reveals that the elements of the framework can enhance the process of content sequencing, promote an environment that enhances development of new knowledge from prior knowledge, and articulate the hierarchical nature of mathematics. The study found that the framework can enhance collaborative planning among teachers within and across year levels. The study argues that using the planning framework on content sequencing can be a significant tool that can play an important role in guiding teachers to plan and teach new mathematical knowledge building from prior mathematical knowledge.

THE COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF POWERPOINT

Article

Jun 2021

PowerPoint, Google Slides, Keynote, Prezi and other visual tools have become ubiquitous in modernclassrooms, business meetings, and engineering briefings. Unfortunately, many slides are poorly designed with a high cognitive load. That is, they either contain too much information or have poorly organized information. Given the inverse correlation between cognitive overload and memory, reducing the cognitive load of slides can lead to more effective presentations – improving communication, retention, and instruction. The paper will first provide an overview of cognitiveload theory and its significance/relation to human factors engineering. Then, selected theories from cognitive psychology, including the expert-novice divide, dualchannel theory, gestalt principles, and constructivism will be introduced. Using authentic examples of classroom slides, this paper will demonstrate how these cognitive theories' practical application can reduce cognitive load. This paper aims to be a "why-to" as well as a "how-to" guide for improving visual pedagogical aids, specifically, slides, in the engineering classroom.

Communicating the Evidence: Individual-level Responses to Transparency of the Evidence in Evidence-Informed Policy

Preprint

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Kayla Schwoerer

As movements to use evidence to inform policy continue to gain traction, so do calls for greater transparency. Research suggests that efforts to enhance transparency by disclosing the evidence justifying a new policy will positively influence support, voluntary compliance, and coproduction. On the other hand, emerging research into the many nuances of transparency shows that individuals' understanding of the information provided is critical for enhancing outcomes such as policy support and compliance. Previous research has also found that more information, especially when it is visually dense and contains a high level of detail, can hinder understanding and, in turn, have a negative effect on policy support, thus, leaving to question what impact transparency initiatives in an evidence-intensive context might have. This study examines the effect of providing individuals with greater transparency regarding the scientific information, evidence, and data informing a local climate action policy. Drawing on communication design principles and framing theory, the study tests the effect of two strategies for communicating the evidence justifying a "plastic bag ban" policy at the local level-evidence-based and story framing-on micro-level individual responses: individuals' perceived understanding of and support for the policy. Results suggest that while the transparency of the This is a working paper. Please do not cite without author's permission.-2-evidence justifying the policy decision increased individuals' support for the policy, overall, each strategy was effective in a different way. Ultimately, the aim of this research was to investigate micro-level individual responses to transparency of complex information in order to explore how governments can advance transparency efforts by moving beyond the disclosure of information to more strategic efforts to design communication to fit engagement goals.

Biometrické testování při studiu kognitivní zátěže v prostředí ArcGIS StoryMaps --- Biometric testing in the study of cognitive load in the ArcGIS StoryMaps environment

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Vojtěch Blažek

Hlavním tématem předložené disertační práce je detailní analýza toho, jak žáci pracují s webovou mapovou aplikací ArcGIS StoryMaps, pomocí metod biometrického testování. Výběr tohoto tématu souvisí s rozvojem a větším zapojováním digitálních technologií do výuky, který byl akcelerován vypuknutím pandemie Covidu-19. Vliv digitálních technologií na současnost společnost zapříčinil novou průmyslovou revoluci 4.0, kdy většina pracovních procesů začíná být automatizována a řízena počítači -------- The main focus of the present dissertation is a detailed analysis of how students interact with the ArcGIS StoryMaps web mapping application using biometric testing methods. The choice of this topic is related to the development and greater involvement of digital technologies in education, which was accelerated by the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic. The impact of digital technologies on contemporary society has caused a new industrial revolution 4.0, where most work processes are becoming automated, and computer controlled.

Comparison of graph and animation: An unbalanced battle over two decades

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022

Numerous studies have produced contradictory findings about whether static or animated format is the better instructional tool. With a comparison between graphs and animations that has a genuine impact on learning and teaching, this review provides a comprehensive examination of (a) the theoretical foundations of visualized learning, (b) influencing factors, and (c) prospective future studies.

Early Assessment of Cognitive Skills, Self-Regulated Learning Skills, and Attitudes Toward Education Predict University Success at Graduation

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

Considerable research has been conducted on the incremental or individual influences of cognitive skills, self-regulated learning skills, and attitudes toward education on the success of learners in many levels of educational inquiry. In addition, much work has been focused on predicting student success in the first year of college, or examining factors that promote retention only for the second semester or second academic year. This study expands the focus by specifically examining the interactive nature of these three broad domains of student characteristics over the course of the entire students’ experience in higher education. Specifically, this study examines seven years of institutional data exploring the predictive utility of measures of students’ cognitive skills, self-regulated learning skills, attitudes toward education, and academic anxiety prior to the start of their first semester on graduating GPA for anyone completing a degree within 6 years of matriculation. The results demonstrate that while all of the variables were instrumental in explaining overall university success, the best explanation of the data was achieved through a partial moderated mediation model. Furthermore, the data illustrated that the patterns of these relationships for first generation and non-first generation students differed. The results are supportive of a model of early assessment to identify areas of need for learners to promote more adaptive coping strategies at the start of the university experience to support optimal graduation outcomes for both first generation and non-first generation learners.

Lernen mit einem Augmented Reality Escape Game: Der Einfluss didaktischer Variationen auf den Lernerfolg und das Immersionserleben

Thesis

Full-text available

Jun 2022

Josef Buchner

In this thesis, the author presents three studies that deal with the effects of an augmented reality escape room game on learning outcomes and immersion experience. Augmented reality, AR, is a relatively new visualization technology that extends the real environment with virtual elements. AR allows completely new possibilities for the design of educational escape room games. For example, AR simulates authentic situations, enables interactions between players and virtual avatars as well as real and digital objects, and engages learners into physical activities. The combination of AR and the game-like narrative environment creates a learning space that involves learners cognitively and emotionally in the simulated situation leading to the experience of immersion. However, the influence of immersion experience on learning outcomes is contradictory. For example, the lower levels of immersion (engagement, engrossment), described in the immersion continuum, turned out to promote learning, while the highest level of immersion, total immersion, tends to inhibit learning. Research that has addressed this challenge to learning with AR escape room games has been lacking. In this thesis, the author addresses this research gap by first exploring in Study 1 whether learning can occur with an AR escape room game. To be able to explain possible successes or failures, the Cognitive Affective Theory of Learning with Media (CATLM) serves as a theoretical framework. As the results show, the used AR escape room game Escape Fake can enhance learning: The learners in the study were able to significantly increase their knowledge on fake news, were better able to assess simulated postings from social networks as true or false news and increased their willingness to check online information on the Internet for accuracy. Study 2 addresses the challenge of immersion as a possible distracting variable in the learning process. In study 2, the author developed scaled-down marker images to ensure playing Escape Fake in a seated position. The author hypothesized that a lower experience of total immersion would occur in the seated condition, which should then have a positive impact on learning outcomes. As the results from Study 2 show, the lower physical involvement had no effect on the experience of total immersion. As a result, the learners neither differ in their performance on a knowledge test and an application task, nor their willingness to check online information on the internet for accuracy. Significant differences were found for the immersion level of engrossment, which learners in the seated condition perceived as more intense. To reduce the immersion experience, Study 3 combined the generative learning strategy of summarizing with playing Escape Fake in the experimental condition. Learners in this group summarized the content of the game in their own words after playing. The results show that adding the learning strategy can significantly reduce the experience of total immersion. As a result, learners in the experimental group were significantly better at applying their knowledge to the evaluation of simulated postings from the social networks. No effect was found for knowledge acquisition and the affective learning outcome. The second goal of Study 3 was also met: adding the generative learning strategy of summarizing had no negative effect on the experience of the two immersion levels that are productive for learning (engagement and engrossment). In summary, the Escape Fake AR escape room game proved to be an effective and meaningful educational resource. The use of the game in the context of fake news education is recommended. Further empirical, theoretical, and practical implications and the development of future AR escape games are discussed in the course of this work.

In search of a measure to address different sources of cognitive load in computer-based learning environments

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022
Educ Inform Tech

In the current study, we aimed to develop a reliable and valid scale to address individual cognitive load types. Existing scale development studies involved limited number of items without adequate convergent, discriminant and criterion validity checks. Through a multistep correlational study, we proposed a three-factor scale with 13 items to address intrinsic, extraneous and germane cognitive load in computer-based learning environments. A thorough literature search of cognitive load indicators in the literature was followed by expert panels for content and construct validity. The initial item pool was administered to 236 undergraduate students who watched an instructional video on IP address classes. A multiple-choice achievement test was also implemented after the intervention. The exploratory factor analysis with maximum likelihood explained 58 percent of the variance with factor loads above .49, and internal consistency coefficients above .81. Convergent and discriminant validity indices were acceptable. Besides, achievement was related positively with the germane load and negatively with intrinsic and extraneous load. Fifteen percent of the achievement was explained by the three sources of the cognitive load. Then, the developed factor structure was validated with 193 undergraduate students immediately after they participated in online webinars, and with 99 undergraduate students after they participated in face to face classes. The proposed structure was confirmed in both settings so the scale was considered a reliable and valid indicator of cognitive load in both online and face-to-face learning environments.

Developing Feedback Visualizations to Support Older Adults’ Medication Adherence

Article

May 2024

A theoretical framework for understanding the importance of implementing simulation in social work education

Article

Mar 2024

Conditional indirect effects of clarity on students’ information processing: disentangling sources of cognitive load

Article

Jan 2024

أثر نمطي تكرار المحتوى باستراتيجية التعلم الإلكتروني المتباعد على تنمية مفاهيم التعلم الرقمي لدى تلاميذ المرحلة الإبتدائية

Article

Jan 2024

أثر العبء المعرفي على الذاكرة العاملة لدى الطلاب مرتفعي ومنخفضي سمة القلق

Article

Sep 2023

On the Use of Encapsulation, Parity, and Visual Storytelling in Graphic Medicine

Chapter

Feb 2023

Spencer Barnes

Graphic medicine represents a juncture between the humanities and health communication which has received sparse exploration over the past few years. The subfield is characterized as “the intersection of the medium of comics and the discourse of healthcare” (Czerwiec et al. 2015: 1) and it leverages the relationships between different forms of discourse to engage in visual storytelling. Graphic medicine combines the features of pathography, the autobiographical documentation of one’s experiences dealing with an illness, and narrative medicine, the practice of efficient doctor-patient engagement during clinical encounters where the doctor attempts to gain insight into a patient’s experiences by listening to “the narratives of the patient, [and] grasp[ing] and honor[ing] their meanings” (Charon 2001: 1897). Within many contexts graphic medicine has been used to communicate stories about the imperatives and outcomes associated with health-related events but there have been few attempts to explore how graphic medicine can implement effective visual storytelling. This chapter examines how decisions about encapsulation (i.e. the mechanism through which information is transformed into a specific form of discourse) are informed and how visual and text-based forms of discourse interact and achieve parity within narratives (i.e. the equivalent and meaningful contribution that multiple discourse units jointly make towards the advancement of a story). The chapter also discusses how visual storytelling can enhance one’s comprehension of small stories produced on social media platforms.

Korelasi Prilaku Personal Hyegiene Saat Menstruasi dengan pH Vagina pada Mahasiswi di Asrama UMPRI

Article

Apr 2021

Cynthia Puspariny

Personal hygiene in menstruation is also very important because it can trigger vaginal discharge. Leucorrhoea usually occurs due to unbalanced vagina PH (hydrogen potential). Inappropriate personal hygiene behavior in menstruation is not only done by teenagers who do not understand reproductive health, but health students have less personal hygiene behavior. The purpose of this study was to determine the correlation of personal hyegiene behavior during menstruation with Genetalia pH in Health Students. The research used is descriptive correlation with cross sectional design using purposive sampling of 82 samples conducted in July - September 2019 at the Muhammadiyah Pringsewu University Dermatory. Research Results The majority of personal hygiene behavior is sufficient for 44 respondents (53.7%), genetalia pH is mostly normal as many as 50 respondents (61%) and the results of the Spearman rho correlation test obtained a p value of 0.000. Based on these results, the importance of education on personal hygiene during menstruation is carried out before or immediately after menstruation for young women and the importance of providing repeated education on personal hygiene for adolescents living in dormitories.

Participatory Governance and Responsiveness: Do Motivational Interventions Increase Engagement with Citizen Input?

Article

Jul 2022

Annabelle Sophie Wittels

Bureaucrats are important agents in participatory governance processes, especially in local government where bureaucrats are awarded greater discretion to enact small changes to local policy. This study employs a large field experiment to test (1) whether bureaucrats tasked with policy design and implementation engage with citizen input and (2) whether bureaucrats’ engagement with citizen input can be increased by using non-monetary rewards and value-based communication. It finds low baseline engagement but that motivational interventions increase engagement with citizen input significantly and substantially. The study contributes to theories of public service motivation and the role of bureaucrats in serving the public. Empirically, its contribution centres on testing the potential for interventions to heighten the attention bureaucrats award to information that citizens legitimately relay to the bureaucracy via participatory initiatives.

Finding your way around University of Saarland. Effects of navigational aid on spatial learning and navigation performance

Thesis

Full-text available

Jan 2020

Artem Kuzmin

Different types of navigational aids provide different kinds of support and mental processing in real and virtual world. This master thesis examines the effects of various navigation assistance modes in the context of 3D virtual environment built for the campus of University of Saarland, Germany. Following a trail of coins, using a dynamic mini-map and static public map were investigated by a three-group randomized comparative experiment (N = 54) that included first year students. A small part of the sample provided eye-tracking measurements about average fixation duration. The results showed that following a trail of path group, having the lowest level of cognitive load, performed best in time for the training, but worst for the test and spatial knowledge tasks. On the contrary, static public map condition, having the highest level of cognitive load, performed worst in time for the training phase, but best for spatial knowledge tasks. This indicates a trade-off between navigation performance and spatial knowledge acquisition in a virtual environment.

Transfer – Herausforderungen und Potenziale für Hochschulen

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

RTD Approach to Using Norman Webb's Depth of Knowledge (DOK) Typology of Cognitive Complexity

Technical Report

Full-text available

Feb 2022

This paper lays out a rigorous approach to using Norman Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK) typology of cognitive complexity when classifying items and/or standards by DOK level. It brings the Rigorous Test Development focus on student and test taker cognition and the common idea in cognitive psychology that changes in skill proficiency qualitatively alters how information is processed to using DOK. It explains how these ideas reinforce the fundamental assumptions and thrust of Webb’s definitive 2002 explanation of DOK (i.e., that lower DOK levels are about greater automaticity and higher levels are about more deliberate and conscious thinking). Thus, the best approach to classifying items is to recognize that they often elicit a range of cognitive complexity from test takers, depending on their familiarity and/or proficiency with the targeted cognition. It describes parallel, but fundamentally different, approaches for classifying standards and for classifying items, and also lays out common misconceptions about DOK.

Effects of situated learning and clarification of misconceptions on contextual reasoning about natural selection

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Background Natural selection is a core principle of evolution. Understanding natural selection enables students to think about the evolution and the variability of life. Despite its great importance, understanding natural selection is challenging for students. This is evident in the phenomenon of contextual reasoning, showing that students can often explain natural selection in one context (e.g., trait gain) but not in another (e.g., trait loss). The study pursues the following aims: First, to examine the link between contextual reasoning and situated learning. Second, to explore whether different instructional strategies differ in their associated cognitive load. Third, to investigate whether clarifying common misconceptions about natural selection (no vs. yes) is an effective strategy to regular instructions when aiming to increase key concepts and reduce misconceptions. Fourth, to exploratively examine the effectiveness of different instructional strategies. Method In a 2 × 2 factorial intervention study with a total of N = 373 secondary school students, we varied the instructional material of a 90-min intervention in terms of the evolutionary context (trait gain vs. trait loss) and the availability of additional support in the form of a clarification of misconceptions (no vs. yes). We measured students’ cognitive load immediately after instruction and assessed their ability to reason about natural selection (i.e., use of key concepts and misconceptions) later. Results We documented low knowledge about evolution in the pre-test and persisting misconceptions in the post-test. The results showed that the intervention context of trait loss elicited a higher intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load than trait gain. Moreover, when the clarification of misconceptions is analyzed in connection to the intervention context, it reveals a potential for reducing misconceptions in some contexts. Students who have learned in trait gain contexts with a clarification used significantly fewer misconceptions in later reasoning than students who learned in trait gain contexts without a clarification of misconceptions. Conclusion Our study creates new insights into learning about natural selection by outlining the complex interplay between situated learning, cognitive load, clarification of misconceptions, and contextual reasoning. Additionally, it advises researchers and educators on potential instructional strategies.

Überlegungen zur Anwendbarkeit der Cognitive Load Theory auf die Gestaltung polizeilicher Einsatztrainings: Braucht es eine kognitive Wende im Polizeitraining?

Chapter

Apr 2022

Als eine empirisch gut untersuchte Theorie aus der Pädagogischen Psychologie liefert die Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) auf der Grundlage der kognitiven Architektur des Lernenden didaktische Empfehlungen für die Gestaltung von Lernmaterialien und -umgebungen („instructional design“). Für die Entwicklung von Expertise sind hierbei insbesondere das kapazitätsbegrenzte Arbeitsgedächtnis und das Langzeitgedächtnis mit unbegrenzter Speicherkapazität zu berücksichtigen. Lernen besteht demnach darin, Wissen als Schemata im Langzeitgedächtnis anzulegen, um in der Folge den automatisierten Abruf gespeicherter Inhalte sowie deren Übersetzung in entsprechende Handlungsabläufe in einer gegebenen Situation zu ermöglichen. Wird das Arbeitsgedächtnis des Lernenden beim Lernen allerdings überlastet, kann der Lernprozess behindert werden. Im Polizeitraining sollen jene Handlungen, wie zum Beispiel das Schießen mit der Pistole oder die Anwendung einer Kampftechnik zur Selbstverteidigung, so gelernt werden, dass die kognitive Überlastung der Trainierenden beim Lernen vermieden wird und dass im realen Polizeieinsatz unter Stress und Lebensgefahr möglichst noch hinreichend funktional gehandelt werden kann. Angesichts dessen scheinen gerade Schema-Konstruktion und Automatisierung zentrale Prozesse des Lernens im Polizeitraining zu sein. Im vorliegenden Beitrag soll vor dem Hintergrund der kognitionspsychologischen Grundlagen der Gedächtnispsychologie die CLT in ihren Grundzügen dargestellt werden, um hiermit der Frage nachzugehen, inwiefern polizeiliches Einsatztraining von der Anwendung der CLT und dem darauf aufbauenden 4C/ID-Modell für Trainingsprogramme profitieren kann.

How to Do Things with Pictures: Imagery in Visual Media as Workspace

Article

Jan 2022

Matthew Peterson

Some imagery in visual media permits readers to extend their minds, reducing the processing demands of a given task. Six kinds of pictures are identified that provide information as a space for external cognition. Computational imagery promotes the quantitative comparison of entities. Distinctive imagery promotes qualitative comparison. Categorical imagery suggests a category with a set of similar entities. Integrative imagery presents related entities that can be combined into one mental model. Procedural imagery describes a system’s function through cause-effect relationships among entities or components. Narrative imagery, with six distinct strategies, shows an entity changing over time. A corresponding structural framework of imagery permits a careful deconstruction of pictures into units of meaning: concepts, entities, components, attributes, adjuncts, and configurations.

Efficiency of using AR-assistant for teaching drawing skills

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

Introduction. In connection with the steady growth in the world of the number of implementation of various kinds of educational applications based on augmented reality (AR) and publications on their effectiveness in relation to student performance, the need for experimental research in this area is growing. The pedagogical examination of AR-textbooks is complicated by the lack of empirical data to assess the actual effectiveness of the use of innovative tools in teaching. The aim of this study was to study how effective the use of augmented reality aids for the formation of draw skills is. Materials and methods. The study was organized as a pilot experiment: the control group learned to draw a sketch of a tiger's figure by copying a step-by-step guide (step-by-step table) printed on paper, and the experimental group performed it using the author's AR marker application. The quality of sketches performed (actual and delayed for a week), levels of subjectively perceived fatigue and cognitive load were considered as learning outcomes. The quality of the sketches was assessed by an expert with an art education. The levels of fatigue and cognitive load were assessed using self-rating scales. Primary results were analyzed using the Student's t-test and the paired Student's t-test. The reliability of self-rating scales was assessed using the Cronbach alpha coefficient. 38 students of the pedagogical bachelor degree took part in the experiment. Research results. The results obtained showed the equivalence of the sketches of the figure of the animal made using the AR-manual and the paper guide. It was also found that the levels of subjectively perceived fatigue, internal and external cognitive load were comparable in both groups, but the relevant load was higher in the AR-aid group (p=0,004). Conclusions. The results obtained in the study contribute to the development of expert criteria for evaluating teaching aids using augmented reality technology. These criteria already now include the presence of equivalence, and even better - an increase in the educational success of students in comparison with other means and methods of teaching, as well as a decrease in extraneous and an increase in relevant cognitive loads.

Promoting Self-Efficacy, Mentoring Competencies, and Persistence in STEM: A Case Study Evaluating Racial and Ethnic Minority Women's Learning Experiences in a Virtual STEM Peer Mentor Training

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022
J Sci Educ Tech

Within this article, the researchers present the design, implementation, and evaluation of a pilot of a virtual peer mentoring training program for racial and ethnic minority women peer mentors within STEM programs at two historically black institutions. The design, usefulness, and usability of the training program are explored, and the influence of participation in the training program on mentors' self-efficacy, mentoring competencies, and persistence in STEM. The results demonstrate that racial and ethnic minority women peer mentors participating in the program increased their STEM self-efficacy, and, in turn, their mentoring competencies and intent to graduate from a STEM program. In addition to these results, lessons learned about the program and its design, including usefulness and usability, and implementation are shared.

Sign systems, technologies, and the acquisition of knowledge

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2001

Wolfgang Schnotz

Book's abstract : "With the increased dissemination of information technologies in education, the issue of how learners deal with multimedia information systems has become critical. New research questions have emerged such as: How well do people learn from multimedia documents? How do they achieve integration between text and any other media? How can you make computerised information systems fit user information processing strategies and styles? And what is the potential of hypermedia applications for education, training and work? This volume is based on a selection of papers presented at the first International Seminar on Using Complex Information Systems held in Poitiers, France. The volume presents a comprehensive overview of research issues related to multimedia usage considered from cognitive and instructive perspectives. It relates theories of mental representations, information processing and learning to issues of design and use of multimedia technologies." (http://books.emeraldinsight.com/display.asp?K=9780080438542&cur=GBP&sf1=series&sort=sort_date/d&st1=Advances%20in%20Learning%20and%20Instruction&m=11&dc=19)

Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2007

Many innovative approaches to education such as problem-based learning (PBL) and inquiry learning (IL) situate learning in problem-solving or investigations of complex phenomena. Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)45. Kirschner , P. A. , Sweller , J. and Clark , R. E. 2006. Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist., 41: 75–86. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]View all references grouped these approaches together with unguided discovery learning. However, the problem with their line of argument is that IL and PBL approaches are highly scaffolded. In this article, we first demonstrate that Kirschner et al. have mistakenly conflated PBL and IL with discovery learning. We then present evidence demonstrating that PBL and IL are powerful and effective models of learning. Far from being contrary to many of the principles of guided learning that Kirschner et al. discussed, both PBL and IL employ scaffolding extensively thereby reducing the cognitive load and allowing students to learn in complex domains. Moreover, these approaches to learning address important goals of education that include content knowledge, epistemic practices, and soft skills such as collaboration and self-directed learning.

Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design: Recent Developments

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2010

Cognitive load theory (CLT) originated in the 1980s and underwent substantial development and expansion in the 1990s by researchers from around the globe. As the articles in this special issue demonstrate, it is a major theory providing a framework for investigations into cognitive processes and instructional design. By simultaneously considering the structure of information and the cognitive architecture that allows learners to process that information, cognitive load theorists have been able to generate a unique variety of new and sometimes counterintuitive instructional designs and procedures.

The Efficiency of Instructional Conditions: An Approach to Combine Mental Effort and Performance Measures

Article

Full-text available

Dec 1993

This article reports on a calculational approach for combining measures of mental workload and task performance that allows one to obtain information on the relative efficiency of instructional conditions. The method is based on the standardization of raw scores for mental effort and task performance to z scores, which are displayed in a cross of axes. Relative condition efficiency is calculated as the perpendicular distance to the line that is assumed to represent an efficiency of zero. We conclude that the method for calculating and representing relative condition efficiency discussed here can be a valuable addition to research on the training and performance of complex cognitive tasks.

Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2003

This paper discusses cognitive load measurement techniques with regard to their contribution to cognitive load theory (CLT). CLT is concerned with the design of instructional methods that efficiently use people's limited cognitive processing capacity to apply acquired knowledge and skills to new situations (i.e., transfer). CLT is based on a cognitive architecture that consists of a limited working memory with partly independent processing units for visual and auditory information, which interacts with an unlimited long-term memory. These structures and functions of human cognitive architecture have been used to design a variety of novel efficient instructional methods. The associated research has shown that measures of cognitive load can reveal important information for CLT that is not necessarily reflected by traditional performance-based measures. Particularly, the combination of performance and cognitive load measures has been identified to constitute a reliable estimate of the mental efficiency of instructional methods. The discussion of previously used cognitive load measurement techniques and their role in the advancement of CLT is followed by a discussion of aspects of CLT to which measurement of cognitive load is likely to be of benefit. Within the cognitive load framework, we will also discuss some promising new techniques.

The Impact of Job Demands and Workload on Stress and Fatigue

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2003
AUST PSYCHOL

Wendy Macdonald

“Workload” is a hypothetical construct which has been developed and is widely applied within the domain of human factors (HF) psychology, and various workload measurement techniques are typically used to evaluate equipment or work systems in terms of the workload experienced by people using them. This workload construct emerged from extensive, task-specific research on the capacities and limitations of the human information processing system; it reflects the perceived margin between task demands and an individual's motivated coping capacity. In the domain of occupational stress, however, workload is equated with job demand, which is simply one of a hetereogeneous set of “psychosocial hazards” which may contribute to the development of stress, related illness or injury. In a recent empirical study, workload in the HF psychology sense was demonstrated to be a key determinant of stress and fatigue levels among employees performing repetitive, manufacturing work tasks. It is argued that application of this conceptual framework to the measurement and management of job demands would serve to delineate more clearly the separate effects of employee capacity-limited and motivation-limited factors on their work performance and associated affective states such as stress. This approach would enhance the ability of managers to monitor and manage workload levels as part of a proactive approach to stress management within the broader context of occupational health and safety.

Task Complexity: A Review and Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Oct 1988

Donald J Campbell

A topology of complex tasks is derived from four fundamental task attributes; and implications for both basic and applied research are examined.

Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1977

Tested the 2-process theory of detection, search, and attention presented by the current authors (1977) in a series of experiments. The studies (a) demonstrate the qualitative difference between 2 modes of information processing: automatic detection and controlled search; (b) trace the course of the learning of automatic detection, of categories, and of automatic-attention responses; and (c) show the dependence of automatic detection on attending responses and demonstrate how such responses interrupt controlled processing and interfere with the focusing of attention. The learning of categories is shown to improve controlled search performance. A general framework for human information processing is proposed. The framework emphasizes the roles of automatic and controlled processing. The theory is compared to and contrasted with extant models of search and attention. (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Development of expertise in mathematical problem solving

Article

Full-text available

Dec 1983

Investigated the distinctive strategies employed by expert and novice problem solvers (forward-chaining and means–ends, respectively) in 7 experiments using 14 mathematics graduates and 162 9–12 yr olds. Exp I studied the course of development of expertise using a subset of kinematics problems. Ss demonstrated the switch from a means–ends to a forward-chaining strategy. This was associated with the conventional concomitants of expertise such as a decrease in the number of moves required for solution. Ss appeared to categorize problems according to the order in which equations would be required. Exps II and III tested the hypothesis that the means–ends strategies used by novices retarded the acquisition of appropriate schemata. The use of nonspecific rather than specific goals was found to enhance the acquisition of expertise, the number of moves required for solution, and the number of equations written without substitutions. Exps IV and V, using geometry problems, duplicated the enhanced rate of strategy alteration found with reduced goal specificity. Results of Exps VI and VII indicated that reduced goal specificity also enhanced the rate at which problem solvers induced appropriate problem categories. It is concluded that in circumstances in which the primary reason for presenting problems is to assist problem solvers in acquiring knowledge concerning problem structure, the use of conventional problems solved by means–ends analysis may not be maximally efficient. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Guidance During Mathematical Problem Solving

Article

Full-text available

Dec 1988

Researchers have suggested that often, having students study worked examples may be superior to active problem solving. The guidance provided by such examples reduces cognitive load compared with that imposed by the means–ends strategy used by most novice problem-solvers. This may facilitate schema acquisition. The guidance provided by worked examples or other sources of information, such as subgoals, must not themselves require significant cognitive resources for effective processing. In many areas of mathematics, conventional methods of presentation may result in a splitting of attention between multiple sources of information that must be mentally integrated. The cognitive load imposed may eliminate any benefit of a worked example or other form of guidance. A series of 5 geometry experiments provided evidence for this hypothesis. When guidance in the form of subgoals or worked examples was provided using a conventional format requiring attention to 2 sources of information, Ss' performance was no better and possibly worse than when solving conventional problems. Presenting information using a format that did not split attention resulted in a superiority of worked examples over conventional problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Effects of Schema Acquisition and Rule Automation on Mathematical Problem-Solving Transfer

Article

Full-text available

Dec 1987

Hypothesized that schema acquisition would precede rule automation and that it would have a strong effect on problems similar to initial acquisition problems. We further hypothesized that rule automation would have its primary effect on transfer and that the use of worked examples could facilitate both transfer and performance on similar problems. Experiments 1 and 2 contained simple algebra transformation problems involving the changing of the subject of an equation. The results indicated that subjects whose training included a heavy emphasis on worked examples or an extended acquisition period were better able to solve both similar and transfer problems than were those subjects trained with conventional problems. In Experiment 3, the use of verbal protocols gave some support to the hypotheses. Experiment 4, using algebra word problems, yielded data supporting the hypotheses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

On the Use of a Concurrent Memory Load to Measure Attention and Automaticity

Article

Full-text available

May 1979

Gordon D. Logan

The concurrent-memory-load technique identifies attention demands with interactions between reaction-time-task parameters and the size of the load. Three experiments with a total of 18 undergraduates are reported in which a multiple-choice reaction time task involving 2, 4, and 8 stimulus–response (S–R) alternatives was performed alone and in the retention interval of a short-term memory task involving ordered recall of 8 digits. In Exp I assignment of stimulus letters to response buttons (S–R mapping) was consistent for 6 days but varied on the 7th. Memory load and number of alternatives interacted early in practice, but the interaction diminished over days, and the effects were additive on Day 6. When the S–R mapping changed on Day 7, the interaction returned. In Exp II, S–R mapping varied daily for 6 days, and the interaction remained stable throughout practice. In Exp III, S–R mapping was consistent for 6 days and varied on the 7th, but the memory task was not introduced until Days 6 and 7. The interaction between memory load and number of alternatives was stronger on Day 7, after the mapping had changed, than it was on Day 6, after practice with consistent mapping. (69 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

What Do Students Learn While Solving Mathematics Problems?

Article

Full-text available

Jun 1985

Evidence is accumulating that the means–ends problem-solving strategies used conventionally by novice problem solvers are relatively ineffective as vehicles for the acquisition of schemata characteristic of experts. It is suggested that a means–ends strategy places a heavy load on cognitive processing capacity and that this load retards knowledge acquisition. A series of 3 experiments using trigonometry problems and a total of 20 10th-grade and 42 9th-grade students as Ss was carried out. The problem goal was modified with the intention of disrupting the strategy used by novices. It was hypothesized that the development of adequate cognitive representations of the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios would be enhanced as a consequence. Results indicate that preventing novice problem solvers from using means–ends analysis resulted in fewer mathematical errors both during acquisition and on subsequent problems, including transfer problems. This provided some evidence for the contention that a means–ends strategy places a heavy load on cognitive processing capacity, which retards knowledge acquisition. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Training Strategies for Attaining Transfer of Problem-Solving Skill in Statistics: A Cognitive-Load Approach

Article

Full-text available

Dec 1992

Fred Paas

Studied the differential effect on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load for 3 computer-based training strategies. The conventional, worked, and completion conditions emphasized, respectively, the solving of conventional problems, the study of worked-out problems, and the completion of partly worked-out problems. The relation between practice-problem type and transfer was expected to be mediated by cognitive load. It was hypothesized that practice with conventional problems would require more time and more effort during training and result in lower and more effort-demanding transfer performance than practice with worked-out or partly worked-out problems. With the exception of time and effort during training, the results supported the hypothesis. The completion strategy and, in particular, the worked strategy proved to be superior to the conventional strategy for attaining transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1977

A 2-process theory of human information processing is proposed and applied to detection, search, and attention phenomena. Automatic processing is activation of a learned sequence of elements in long-term memory that is initiated by appropriate inputs and then proceeds automatically--without S control, without stressing the capacity limitations of the system, and without necessarily demanding attention. Controlled processing is a temporary activation of a sequence of elements that can be set up quickly and easily but requires attention, is capacity-limited (usually serial in nature), and is controlled by the S. A series of studies, with approximately 8 Ss, using both reaction time and accuracy measures is presented, which traces these concepts in the form of automatic detection and controlled search through the areas of detection, search, and attention. Results in these areas are shown to arise from common mechanisms. Automatic detection is shown to develop following consistent mapping of stimuli to responses over trials. Controlled search was utilized in varied-mapping paradigms, and in the present studies, it took the form of serial, terminating search. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

A comparison of cognitive load associated with discovery learning and worked examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 334-341

Article

Full-text available

Jun 1999

This article reports experimental work comparing exploration and worked-examples practice in learning to use a database program. Exploration practice is based on discovery learning principles, whereas worked-examples practice arose from the development of cognitive load theory. Exploration practice was expected to place a considerable load on working memory, whereas a heavy use of worked examples was hypothesized to lead to more effective processing by reducing extraneous mental load. Students with no previous domain familiarity with databases were found to substantially benefit from worked examples in comparison to exploration. However, if students had previous familiarity with the database domain, the type of practice made no significant difference to their learning because the exploration students were able to draw on existing, well-developed domain schemas to guide their exploration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Variability of Worked Examples and Transfer of Geometrical Problem-Solving Skills: A Cognitive-Load Approach

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1994

Studied 4 computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condition, in which conventional practice problems had to be solved (followed by worked examples), were compared with a low- and a high-variability worked condition, in which worked examples had to be studied. Results showed that students who studied worked examples gained most from high-variability examples, invested less time and mental effort in practice, and attained better and less effort-demanding transfer performance than students who first attempted to solve conventional problems and then studied work examples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Cognitive Technology: Some Procedures for Facilitating Learning and Problem Solving in Mathematics and Science

Article

Full-text available

Dec 1989

John Sweller

An argument is detailed for modifications to some traditional procedures of mathematics and science instruction. It is suggested that cognitive research findings, in revealing the essential domain specificity of problem-solving skills, have pointed to negative aspects of some traditional emphases. As a major example, conventional problem solving frequently can interfere with the acquisition of knowledge. Alternatives to problem solving such as studying worked examples can be equally ineffective unless they are designed in accordance with current findings. It is concluded that if material is structured with learning rather than goal attainment in mind, problem-solving skills can be enhanced substantially. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Instructional Aids to Support a Conceptual Understanding of Multiple Representations

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2009

The main goals of this study were to test whether multiple representations, such as diagrams and equations, per se help to acquire conceptual understanding in probability, and to investigate whether learners need instructional support to utilize the potentials of multiple representations. The authors conducted an experimental study with 8 conditions in which high school students (N = 170) studied worked examples from probability. The authors varied the type and number of representations and the availability of 2 support procedures: (a) a relating aid that used color codes and flashing to help learners see which elements in different representations corresponded to each other on a surface level and (b) self-explanations prompts to ensure that learners integrate corresponding parts in different representations on a structural level. The authors found that multiple representations per se did not foster conceptual understanding, however, both support procedures enhanced it. Yet, the self-explanation prompts did not only foster conceptual understanding by eliciting elaborations directed to domains principles but also incorrect elaborations that hindered the acquisition of procedural knowledge. Hence, self-explanation prompts are an instructional support procedure that can have conflicting effects on learning outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Optimizing cognitive load for learning from computer-based science simulations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 902-913

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2006

How can cognitive load in visual displays of computer simulations be optimized? Middle-school chemistry students (N = 257) learned with a simulation of the ideal gas law. Visual complexity was manipulated by separating the display of the simulations in 2 screens (low complexity) or presenting all information on 1 screen (high complexity). The mode of visual representation in the simulation was manipulated by presenting important information in symbolic form only (symbolic representations) or by adding iconic information to the display (iconic + symbolic representations), locating the sliders controlling the simulation separated from the simulation or integrating them, and graphing either only the most recent simulation result or showing all results taken. Separated screen displays and the use of optimized visual displays each promoted comprehension and transfer, especially for low prior-knowledge learners. An expertise reversal effect was found for learners' prior general science knowledge. Results indicate that intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load in visual displays can be manipulated and that learners' prior knowledge moderates the effectiveness of these load manipulations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Information-Processing Demands of Transitive Inference

Article

Full-text available

Oct 1986

Investigated the information-processing demands of transitive inference problems with a probe reaction-time (RT) secondary task. Two versions of a primary task were used: the standard 3-term inference problem and a matched verification task that did not require premise integration. In the 1st 2 experiments, with a total of 40 undergraduates, the premise and target-matching components of the primary task were presented sequentially. Results indicate that for the transitive inference task, probe RT was especially slow when the probe occurred during the 2nd premise phase, but no such effect was found with the matched verification task. This implies that premise integration imposed an increased load on processing resources. A 3rd experiment with 10 undergraduates showed that the processing demand associated with premise integration also occurred with simultaneous presentation. Other variations in problem form (e.g., premise markedness, negation, and pivot search) did not influence probe RT, although they are known to affect solution time. It is concluded that solution time and measures of processing load may be independent. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Why Minimally Guided Teaching Techniques Do Not Work: A Reply to Commentaries

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2007

In this reply to commentaries on the Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)3. Clark , R. C. , Nguyen , F. and Sweller , J. 2006. Efficiency in learning: Evidence-based guidelines to manage cognitive load, San Francisco: Pfeiffer. View all references paper, we not only reemphasize the importance of randomized, controlled experimental tests of competing instructional procedures, but also indicate that altering one variable at a time is an essential feature of a properly controlled experiment. Furthermore, we also emphasize that variable must be relevant to the issue at hand with its effects explainable by our knowledge of human cognitive architecture. We reject the view that the presentation of relevant information should be reduced in favor of teaching learners how to find information. Lastly, we indicate that we believe a new educational psychology has been developed that has the potential to rapidly change our field.

Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2005

Traditionally, Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) has focused on instructional methods to decrease extraneous cognitive load so that available cognitive resources can be fully devoted to learning. This article strengthens the cognitive base of CLT by linking cognitive processes to the processes used by biological evolution. The article discusses recent developments in CLT related to the current view in instructional design that real-life tasks should be the driving force for complex learning. First, the complexity, or intrinsic cognitive load, of such tasks is often high so that new methods are needed to manage cognitive load. Second, complex learning is a lengthy process requiring learners motivational states and levels of expertise development to be taken into account. Third, this perspective requires more advanced methods to measure expertise and cognitive load so that instruction can be flexibly adapted to individual learners needs. Experimental studies are reviewed to illustrate these recent developments. Guidelines for future research are provided.

Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2004

Within the cognitive load theory research community it has become customary to report theoretical and empirical progress at international conference symposia and in special issues of journals (e.g., Educational Psychologist 2003; Learning and Instruction 2002). The continuation of this custom at the 10th European Conference for Research on Learning and Instruction, 2003, in Padova, Italy, has materialized in this special issue of Instructional Science on the instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Since the 1990s this interaction has begun to emerge as an explicit field of study for instructional designers and researchers. In this introduction, we describe the basics of cognitive load theory, sketch the origins of the instructional implications, introduce the articles accepted for this special issue as a representative sample of current research in this area, and discuss the overall results in the context of the theory. It is generally accepted that performance degrades at the cognitive load extremes of either excessively low load (underload) or excessively high load (overload) – see e.g., Teigen (1994). Under conditions of both underload and overload, learners may cease to learn. So, whereas learning situations with low processing demands will benefit from practice conditions that increase the load and challenge the learner, learning situations with an extremely high load will benefit from practice conditions that reduce the load to more manageable levels (Wulf and Shea 2002). Cognitive load theory (CLT; Paas, Renkl and Sweller 2003; Sweller 1988, 1999) is mainly concerned with the learning of complex cognitive tasks, where learners are often overwhelmed by the number of information elements and their interactions that need to be processed simultaneously before meaningful learning can commence. Instructional control of this (too) high load, in order to attain meaningful learning in complex cognitive domains, has

How Fading Worked Solution Steps Works – A Cognitive Load Perspective

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2004

In order to facilitate the transition fromlearning from worked examples in earlier stagesof skill acquisition to problem solving inlater stages, it is effective to successivelyfade out worked solution steps – in comparisonto the traditional method of employingexample-problem pairs that is frequently usedin cognitive-load research. In the presentstudies, the learning processes and mechanismsthat occur when learning in a computer-basedlearning environment containing faded workedsolution steps were examined across twoexperiments. The first experiment showed thatthe position of the faded steps did notinfluence learning outcomes; instead,individuals learned most about those principlesthat were faded. This suggested that specificself-explanation activities are triggered byfaded steps. The second experiment investigatedthis hypothesis directly by collecting andanalyzing thinking-aloud protocols generated bythe learners during their interaction with thelearning environment. No effect on productivelearning events including self-explanationscould be found. It could, however, be shownthat fading is associated with fewerunproductive learning events and, thereby,lends itself to better learning outcomes.

Research on cognitive load theory and its design implication for E-learning

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2005

This introduction to the special issue provides a context for the contributing articles. for readers who are not familiar with cognitive load theory (CLT), it provides a very brief description of assumptions regarding memory systems and learning processes, different types of cognitive load (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane), and design implications. Whereas traditional CLT research focused on instructional methods to decrease extraneous cognitive load that is not directly relevant for learning, contributions to this special issue represent wider perspectives that reflect new developments in CLT. These articles have been organized into three categories: (a) methods to decrease intrinsic cognitive load, and deal with high-element interactivity materials, (b) methods to increase germane cognitive load that is directly relevant for learning, and (c) methods to deal with differences in learner's individual levels of expertise and expertise development. To conclude, design implications for (adaptive) e-learning are discussed.

Syntactic Structures

Book

Dec 1957

Noam Chomsky

Mental Workload: Its Theory and Measurement

Book

Jan 1979

Neville Moray

Kindergartners play lining up the 5s: A card game to encourage logico-mathematical thinking

Article

Jul 2006

Social cognitive theory

Chapter

Jan 2012

A. Bandura

The mind's eye in chess

Chapter

Feb 1973

This chapter describes the progress made toward understanding chess skill. It describes the work on perception in chess, adding some new analyses of the data. It presents a theoretical formulation to characterize how expert chess players perceive the chess board. It describes some tasks that correlate with chess skill and the cognitive processes of skilled chess players. It is believed that the demonstration of de Groot's, far from being an incidental side effect of chess skill, actually reveals one of the most important processes that underlie chess skill—the ability to perceive familiar patterns of pieces. In the first experiment discussed in the chapter, two tasks were used. The memory task was very similar to de Groot's task: chess players saw a position for 5 seconds and then attempted to recall it. Unlike de Groot, multiple trials were used—5 seconds of viewing followed by recall—until the position was recalled perfectly. The second task or the perception task for simplicity involved showing chess players a position in plain view.

Multimedia learning and games

Article

Apr 2001

Richard Mayer

For hundreds of years verbal messages - such as lectures and printed lessons - have been the primary means of explaining ideas to learners. In Multimedia Learning Richard Mayer explores ways of going beyond the purely verbal by combining words and pictures for effective teaching. Multimedia encyclopedias have become the latest addition to students' reference tools, and the world wide web is full of messages that combine words and pictures. Do these forms of presentation help learners? If so, what is the best way to design multimedia messages for optimal learning? Drawing upon 10 years of research, the author provides seven principles for the design of multimedia messages and a cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In short, this book summarizes research aimed at realizing the promise of multimedia learning - that is, the potential of using words and pictures together to promote human understanding.

Problem-Based Learning is Compatible with Human Cognitive Architecture: Commentary on Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)

Article

Apr 2007

Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)14. Kirschner , P. A. , Sweller , J. and Clark , R. E. 2006. Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist., 41: 75–86. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]View all references suggest that unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are less effective and efficient for novices than guided instructional approaches because they ignore the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture. While we concur with the authors on this point, we do not agree to their equation of problem-based learning with minimally guided instruction. In this commentary, we argue that problem-based learning is an instructional approach that allows for flexible adaptation of guidance, and that, contrary to Kirschner et al.'s conclusions, its underlying principles are very well compatible with the manner in which our cognitive structures are organized.

Strategies for Computer-Based Programming Instruction: Program Completion Vs. Program Generation

Article

Aug 1992

Two instructional strategies were implemented in a two-and-a-half hour computer-based training program that was designed to teach elementary turtle graphics programming techniques to novice undergraduate students ( N = 40). Learning activities that either emphasized the completion of existing programs or the generation of new programs were studied for the two strategies. In the completion group, the information needed to perform the program completion tasks appeared to be largely available in the to-be-completed programs; in the generation group, students frequently had to search for useful examples while they were performing their program generation tasks. It is hypothesized that during practice, the direct availability of examples in the form of incomplete computer programs facilitates the acquisition of programming language templates, especially because students cannot complete a program without carefully studying it so that “mindful abstraction” is explicitly provoked. Data in this study on learning outcomes support this hypothesis: the completion group showed a superior use of programming language templates in both a program construction test and a multiple choice test that measured the knowledge of language statements.

3. Mental Workload

Conference Paper

Dec 1987

Barry H. Kantowitz

Mental workload is a complex construct. It is most unlikely that a single metric will be able to index mental workload in a wide variety of situations. The class of attention models that postulates a single pool of capacity is better suited for developing indices for mental workload than are multiple-pool models. While multiple-pool models are so powerful that it has been easy to achieve some initial successes with them, in the long run, their lack of parsimony makes them less useful in achieving a practical goal. The mental workload is more than just spare capacity. Additional aspects of mental workload include subjective feelings, effort, individual differences, strategy, and practice. Although theory may not solve a problem immediately, it can reduce the number of alternatives that need to be investigated. The best practical tool is a good theory.

When worked examples don't work: Is cognitive load theory at an Impasse?

Article

Apr 2006
LEARN INSTR

Roxana Moreno

stage, learners have developed abstract declarative rules or schemas, which guide them in future problem solving. At the third stage, with sufficient practice, the schemas become proceduralised, leading to the fourth stage of expertise where automatic schemas,and analogical reasoning on a large pool of examples are combined,to successfully solve a variety of problem types. Empirical evidence has shown that learning with worked,examples is most important during initial skill acquisition stages for well-structured domains such as physics, programming, and mathematics (VanLehn, 1996). As can be seen from the four-stage model described, an important condition for successful problem solving is the availability of problem-type schemas, representations of problem categories with their corresponding categoryspecific solution procedures (Gick & Holyoak, 1983; Reed, 1993). Once a problem is identified as belonging to a known problem type, the appropriate schema is retrieved from long-term memory, and the solution procedure that is associated with that problem type is activated in working memory,and used to produce a solution to the new problem. Schemas have been found to account for performance differences between experts and novices (VanLehn, 1996), a finding which led Sweller and colleagues to begin investigating practice-oriented instruction using worked examples to promote the schema acquisition of novice students (Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Sweller & Levine, 1982). In a set of classic studies documenting the effectiveness of learning from worked examples, Sweller and colleagues found that, compared to learning by solving problems, where students are asked to engage in meanseends analyses, learning with exampleeproblem pairs, where one example is followed by isomorphic problems to be solved, increased near transfer (Mwangi & Sweller, 1998; Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988; Ward & Sweller, 1990). The finding that example-based learning is more,effective for problem-solving skill acquisition than the This material is based upon work supported by the CAREER 0238385 and ROLE 0231774 grants from the National Science Foundation. Any

Managing cognitive load - Recent trends in Cognitive Load Theory

Article

Feb 2002
LEARN INSTR

Maria Bannert

The contributions in this special issue have been discussed with regard to the management of CL. In summary, the majority of the contributions investigate the worked example effect in order to reduce ECL. Furthermore, a new way of external management by artificially reducing ICL is discussed as well as the recent trend of managing an increase in GCL so as to redirect the learners' attention. This special issue highlights the crucial role of adequate design of computer-based learning environments which should rely on the recommended CLT-design principles. Finally, it was suggested to not only consider the external management of CL but also learners' internal management strategies. Thus, in order to further develop CLT the question of how learners really deal with CL should be addressed with the help of process analysis in future research. Finally, an important conceptual differentiation should be emphasised, which has neither been discussed in this special issue nor in other CLT-studies. With respect to learning criteria, one may distinguish studies that aim at short term learning performance and studies that aim at long term skill development and competence acquisition. Earlier research mainly investigated ECL-reduction with short time learning periods focusing on learning performance measures within one task. In contrast, more recent work is increasingly studying complex skill development based on several problem tasks. In my opinion for short term learning performance the classical ECL-reduction effects (e.g., split-attention, redundancy, modality) appear to be more significant, whereas for long term skill development deeper elaboration processing induced by external GCL-management and/or effective internal management seem more effective measures. Future research on CLT also needs to consider this conceptually driven distinction.

Some cognitive processes and their consequences for the organisation and presentation of information

Article

Apr 1993
AUST J PSYCHOL

John Sweller

It has been known for a considerable time that when dealing with complex intellectual tasks, the Limited processing capacity of working memory is critical. Nevertheless, many commonly used instructional techniques ignore this factor and consequently impose an excessive cognitive load that interferes with the major learning mechanisms of schema acquisition and automation. For example, when solving unfamiliar problems, strategies are frequently employed that are effective in arriving at a solution but because of the cognitive load imposed, are ineffective with respect to learning. Empirical evidence suggests that if learning is the goal, solving large numbers of conventional problems may not be appropriate. Instead, goal-free problems and worked examples can reduce extraneous cognitive load and facilitate schema acquisition and automation. Similarly, when presenting new material, information structures that require learners to unnecessarily split their attention between multiple sources of information or assimilate redundant material can impose an excessive cognitive load that interferes with learning. Finally, while considerable empirical evidence about these effects is available, it is suggested that they will occur only when material is used which imposes a heavy cognitive load because of its intrinsic structure. Where the intrinsic structure of information imposes a relatively light cognitive load, the cognitive load imposed by instructional design may not be critical.

Capacity Limitations in Children's Reasoning: A Dual-Task Approach

Article

Jun 1986

2 dual-task paradigms, the memory load interference paradigm and the easy-to-hard paradigm, were used as converging operations to study capacity limitations in children's reasoning. The primary task was N-term series reasoning and the secondary task was short-term retention and rehearsal of items. Pilot experiments showed that passive retention of a short-term memory load did not interfere with reasoning. Interference was observed from active rehearsal of large memory loads in Experiment 1, but the results also suggested that interference is probably a function of amount of processing in the secondary task and is not exclusive to mnemonic secondary tasks. The performance of 5-6-year-olds on transitive inference was significantly reduced by a concurrent information-processing task, suggesting a capacity limitation. In Experiment 2, the easy-to-hard paradigm was used and showed that transitive inference scores were predicted by performances on an easier version of the N-term series task performed concurrently with a short-term rehearsal task, when separate performances on the latter 2 were partialed out. It was concluded that transitive inference ability in children is capacity limited.

The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra

Article

Mar 1985
COGNITION INSTRUCT

The knowledge required to solve algebra manipulation problems and procedures designed to hasten knowledge acquisition were studied in a series of five experiments. It was hypothesized that, as occurs in other domains, algebra problem-solving skill requires a large number of schemas and that schema acquisition is retarded by conventional problem-solving search techniques. Experiment 1, using Year 9, Year 11, and university mathematics students, found that the more experienced students had a better cognitive representation of algebraic equations than less experienced students as measured by their ability to (a) recall equations, and (b) distinguish between perceptually similar equations on the basis of solution mode. Experiments 2 through 5 studied the use of worked examples as a means of facilitating the acquisition of knowledge needed for effective problem solving. It was found that not only did worked examples, as expected, require considerably less time to process than conventional problems, but that subsequent problems similar to the initial ones also were solved more rapidly. Furthermore, decreased solution time was accompanied by a decrease in the number of mathematical errors. Both of these findings were specific to problems identical in structure to the initial ones. It was concluded that for novice problem solvers, general algebra rules are reflected in only a limited number of schemas. Abstraction of general rules from schemas may occur only with considerable practice and exposure to a wider range of schemas.

Why Are Some Problems Hard? Evidence from Tower of Hanoi

Article

Apr 1985

Investigated the causes for large differences in difficulty of various isomorphic versions of the Tower of Hanoi problem in 6 experiments with 191 undergraduates. Since isomorphism rules out size of task domain as a determinant of relative difficulty, the present experiments identified causes for the differences in problem representation. Results show that (1) the solution process depended on Ss' expertise in utilizing problem rules to make moves, (2) the automation of the rule-using behavior was a necessary precursor to planning behavior, and (3) a small amount of planning capability enabled a rapid solution. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Key Issues in Modeling and Applying Research on Self‐Regulated Learning

Article

Mar 2005
APPL PSYCHOL-INT REV

Philip H Winne

Les études théoriques et empiriques sur l’autorégulation, l’apprentissage autorégulé et les concepts proches telle que la volition constituent désormais un seeteur fécond de la recherche en psychologie appliquée (voir par exemple Boekacrts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Le résumé de Boekaerts et Corno (2005), profond et représentatif de ce travail dans le domaine de l’éducation, présente dans l’espace qui leur est alloué des contributions importantes pour la modélisation de l’apprentissage autorégulé, une discussion de quéstions méthodologiques critiques, une vue d’ensemble des travaux empiriques contemporains et parvient enfin à proposer une orientation pertinente pour les travaux à venir. Comme je dispose moi-même d’un espace limité pour commenter cet article, je me concentre sur quelques questions que j’estime fondamentales. Theoretical and empirical studies of self-regulation (SR), self-regulated learning (SRL), and closely related constructs such as volition have become lively areas of research in applied psycholgy (e.g. see Boekaerts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Boekaerts and Corno's (2005) very thoughtful and representative summary of this work in education packs into their allotted space important contributions to modeling SRL, a discussion of critical methodological matters, a survey of modern empirical research, and manages as well to give useful direction to future research. I, too, have limited space for comment on their article, so I focus on just a few issues that I judge are key.

Cognitive load and the format of instructional aids for coherence formation

Article

Apr 2006
APPL COGNITIVE PSYCH

Learning with multiple representations is a highly demanding cognitive process because learners have to build referential connections between externally presented representations in order to construct a coherent mental representation. Several approaches for supporting coherence formation have been examined, which can be assigned to two types of helping strategies: first, learners can be assisted in recognising corresponding elements and structures on a surface feature level (e.g. by hyperlinking). Second, they can be supported on a deep structure level (i.e. by explaining the relations of corresponding structures more or less explicitly). In a 2 × 2 experimental study the effects on learning performance and cognitive load of both types of help were compared. Results show that coherence formation can be efficiently supported by deep structure level help (DLH) especially in combination with surface level help (SLH). Hyperlinks seem to guide learners' attention to relevant connections that are additionally explained by the deep structure help. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effects of training wheels and self‐learning materials in software training

Article

Oct 2008
J COMPUT ASSIST LEAR

Maria Bannert

Abstract The role of software training is becoming increasingly important due to the growing variety and complexity of modern software products. This paper focuses on the effectiveness and feasibility of two different kinds of individual learners' support in software training in classroom settings. This research question was investigated by analysing 11 text-processing courses which were conducted on the basis of a quasi-experimental research design. Firstly, the user interface was varied, i.e. half of the courses used the regular standard user interface of the software, whereas the other half used a training wheels interface in which all irrelevant functions were blocked. Secondly, in half of the courses all instruction was given by a human tutor whereas the participants in the other half received written self-learning material. A total of 72 university students majoring in different fields participated. Dependent measures were learning time, learning outcome, and learner satisfaction.

Teaching science problem solving: An overview of experimental work

Article

Apr 2001
J RES SCI TEACH

The traditional approach to teaching science problem solving is having the students work individually on a large number of problems. This approach has long been overtaken by research suggesting and testing other methods, which are expected to be more effective. To get an overview of the characteristics of good and innovative problem-solving teaching strategies, we performed an analysis of a number of articles published between 1985 and 1995 in high-standard international journals, describing experimental research into the effectiveness of a wide variety of teaching strategies for science problem solving. To characterize the teaching strategies found, we used a model of the capacities needed for effective science problem solving, composed of a knowledge base and a skills base. The relations between the cognitive capacities required by the experimental or control treatments and those of the model were specified and used as independent variables. Other independent variables were learning conditions such as feedback and group work. As a dependent variable we used standardized learning effects. We identified 22 articles describing 40 experiments that met the standards we deemed necessary for a meta-analysis. These experiments were analyzed both with quantitative (correlational) methods and with a systematic qualitative method. A few of the independent variables were found to characterize effective strategies for teaching science problem solving. Effective treatments all gave attention to the structure and function (the schemata) of the knowledge base, whereas attention to knowledge of strategy and the practice of problem solving turned out to have little effect. As for learning conditions, both providing the learners with guidelines and criteria they can use in judging their own problem-solving process and products, and providing immediate feedback to them were found to be important prerequisites for the acquisition of problem-solving skills. Group work did not lead to positive effects unless combined with other variables, such as guidelines and feedback. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 38: 442–468, 2001

Self‐Regulation and Effort Investment

Chapter

Jun 2007

Monique Boekaerts

A clear conceptualization of the way that children and adolescents steer and direct their own learning, motivation, and effort is essential for anybody who is involved in helping children to acquire the many skills that our society deems important. This chapter will provide the reader with a selective overview of work on self-regulation in the classroom. Information specific to an understanding of the issues involved in studying engagement, persistence, and disengagement in the classroom and for thinking about effective interventions will be addressed. This chapter reviews definitions, operationalizations, and measures of self-regulation in the classroom, documenting that it is a process that is meta-cognitively governed and affectively charged. Students' need to have ready access to a large repertoire of cognitive, motivation, and volitional strategies, awareness of these strategies, and knowledge of the contexts in which these strategies are effective is discussed. The utility of acknowledging the development of self-regulation and the factors that influence this development is underscored. Keywords: conditional knowledge; effort; motivation; self-regulation; volition

Cognitive Load While Learning to Use a Computer Program

Article

Apr 1996
APPL COGNITIVE PSYCH

There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that many traditional instructional techniques may unnecessarily overload limited working memory and impede learning. Based on cognitive load theory, it was hypothesised that instructional design only takes on a crucial role when there is a high level of interaction between learning elements resulting in those elements having to be simultaneously held in working memory. When there is little, if any, interaction between individual learning elements, then the format of presentation should be inconsequential. These hypotheses were tested using a computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM) package with trainees from a Sydney company. Results showed that when instructions involved high element interactivity, a self-contained manual that physically integrated disparate information and did not require the use of the computer hardware was vastly superior to instructional formats that involved continual interaction with the computer. No differences were found between instructional formats when the learning material entailed low element interactivity. Evidence that these findings were due to cognitive load rather than other factors came from secondary task analysis. In light of these and previous results, suggestions are made for cognitively guided instructional packages.

Interactive Multimodal Learning Environments

Article

Sep 2007

What are interactive multimodal learning environments and how should they be designed to promote students’ learning? In this paper, we offer a cognitive–affective theory of learning with media from which instructional design principles are derived. Then, we review a set of experimental studies in which we found empirical support for five design principles: guided activity, reflection, feedback, control, and pretraining. Finally, we offer directions for future instructional technology research.

Human Cognitive Architecture

Article

Jan 2004

John Sweller

Evolution by natural selection may becharacterized as a system in which a largestore of genetic information will persistindefinitely while it remains coordinated withits environment but will continuously producesmall random variations that are tested forenvironmental effectiveness. In anyenvironment, effective variations will persistwhile ineffective variations will disappear.Similarly, human cognitive architectureincludes a large store of information held inlong-term memory that coordinates our cognitiveactivities. A very limited working memory teststhe effectiveness of small variations tolong-term memory with effective variationsaltering long-term memory while ineffectivevariations are lost. Both an existing geneticcode and information in long-term memoryprovide a central executive that guidesbehaviour. Such a central executive isunavailable when an environment alters or whenworking memory must be used to deal with novelinformation. A major function of instructionaldesign is to provide the otherwise missingstructure of a central executive when dealingwith novel information and to reduce thatstructural support as knowledge accumulates inlong-term memory. Cognitive load theory bothprovides instructional design principles thatwould be difficult to devise without itsparticular view of human cognitive architectureand throws further light on that architecture.

Cognitive Load Theory, Learning Difficulty, and Instructional Design

Article

Dec 1994
LEARN INSTR

John Sweller

This paper is concerned with some of the factors that determine the difficulty of material that needs to be learned. It is suggested that when considering intellectual activities, schema acquisition and automation are the primary mechanisms of learning. The consequences of cognitive load theory for the structuring of information in order to reduce difficulty by focusing cognitive activity on schema acquisition is briefly summarized. It is pointed out that cognitive load theory deals with learning and problem solving difficulty that is artificial in that it can be manipulated by instructional design. Intrinsic cognitive load in contrast, is constant for a given area because it is a basic component of the material. Intrinsic cognitive load is characterized in terms of element interactivity. The elements of most schemas must be learned simultaneously because they interact and it is the interaction that is critical. If, as in some areas, interactions between many elements must be learned, then intrinsic cognitive load will be high. In contrast, in different areas, if elements can be learned successively rather than simultaneously because they do not interact, intrinsic cognitive load will be low. It is suggested that extraneous cognitive load that interferes with learning only is a problem under conditions of high cognitive load caused by high element interactivity. Under conditions of low element interactivity, re-designing instruction to reduce extraneous cognitive load may have no appreciable consequences. In addition, the concept of element interactivity can be used to explain not only why some material is difficult to learn but also, why it can be difficult to understand. Understanding becomes relevant when high element interactivity material with a naturally high cognitive load must be learned.

Cognitive Load Theory: Historical Development and Relation to Other Theories

Abstract

No full-text available

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