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Historical overview of wound ballistic research
Abstract
Ballistics involves the study of the scientific properties of projectiles, their behavior and their terminal effects on biological tissues and other materials. Wound ballistics deals with the analysis of injuries caused by projectiles and the behavior of projectiles within human or other biological tissues. The nineteenth century witnessed the development of both of these areas with Kocher's hydrodynamic theory and the understanding of the significance of bullet deformation in causing tissue injury. The degree of traumatic disruption of tissues and organs was also related to direct energy transfer from projectiles. While subsequent research has concentrated on elucidating further mechanisms of injury, the exact cause of remote tissue damage from high energy projectiles is still the subject of ongoing research. Much of the contemporary literature regarding wound ballistics concentrates on the forensic aspects and their application for legal purposes, in particular the investigation of shooting scenes. There have been many advances in this area, particularly in relation to the identification of various types of gunshot wounds and how their appearance can be used to establish if a shooting was accidental, deliberate (homicidal) or self inflicted (suicidal).
... 36 Internal bodily impact may result in simultaneous bullet disintegration and bone fragmentation, forming numerous secondary missiles causing additive damage, increasing the cavitation volume and severity of the wound. 20,24,36 Fragments of less than a gram can penetrate a depth of up to 10-15 cm within soft tissue. As an additional complication, fragmentation can result in a mix of a partially retained bullet with accompanying exit wounds. ...
... 43,44 Internally, bullets cause crushing or laceration injury leaving "permanent" tissue cavitation along their course. 19,24,45 The magnitude of this permanent cavity is determined by the bullet caliber and its deformation or fragmentation within the body. 24,46 A small and intact bullet traveling at a lower velocity will create a permanent cavity similar to its caliber or entry orientation. ...
... 19,24,45 The magnitude of this permanent cavity is determined by the bullet caliber and its deformation or fragmentation within the body. 24,46 A small and intact bullet traveling at a lower velocity will create a permanent cavity similar to its caliber or entry orientation. 37,47 Additionally, a "temporary" cavity is created surrounding the primary cavity as the bullet stretches and strains tissues past their elastic limit. ...
As the epidemic of gunshot injuries and firearm fatalities continues to proliferate in the United States, knowledge regarding gunshot wound (GSW) injury and management is increasingly relevant to health-care providers. Unfortunately, existing guidelines are largely outdated, written in a time that high-velocity weapons and deforming bullets were chiefly restricted to military use. Advances in firearm technology and increased accessibility of military grade firearms to civilians has exacerbated the nature of domestic GSW injury and complicated clinical decision-making, as these weapons are associated with increased tissue damage and often result in retained bullets. Currently, there is a lack of literature addressing recent advances in the field of projectile-related trauma, specifically injuries with retained bullets. This review aims to aggregate the available yet dispersed findings regarding ballistics, GSW etiology, and treatment, particularly for cases involving retained projectiles.
... This includes positioning of the traces and relevant ballistic evidence, like spend cartridge cases or bullets, trajectory estimation and representation, gunshot residues (GSR) samples as well as wound ballistic findings. However, the integration of wound ballistics findings into the scene needs a correct interpretation of gunshot wounds characteristics [1][2][3][4]. Because of the big variety of the existing ammunitions and firearms, the projectiles have different properties (energy, velocity, form, composition, etc.) and behave differently in the human body [2] creating different types of wounds [5][6][7]. ...
... The "spherical" model has already been used in several ballistic studies, especially in forensic science [5,33,43]. Similar head models have also already been used in wound Table 2 Individual modelling of the questioned injuries A and B by the mean of the "open shape" models (1) Distance between the bone walls along the trajectory (2) Path length in soft tissues after the ricochet on the bone wall (3) 0.1 cm cowhide, semi-finished chrome tanned upholstery "crust" [27] (4) Gelatine 10% (5) Distance between the polyurethane plates in the model along a straight trajectory (4) 0.5 11.7 (5) ballistics tests [23,25]. Its concept has been slightly adapted to the needs of our ballistic tests. ...
... Wound track A 0.5-0.8 0.4-0.5 11.7 (1) + 8.2 (2) 0.3 125 45 Model C 0.1 (3) + 0.5 (4) 0.5 13.5 (5) 0.5 125 50 (6) ...
In shooting crimes, ballistics tests are often recommended in order to reproduce the wound characteristics of the involved persons. For this purpose, several “simulants” can be used. However, despite the efforts in the research of “surrogates” in the field of forensic ballistic, the development of synthetic models needs still to be improved through a validation process based on specific real caseworks. This study has been triggered by the findings observed during the autopsy performed on two victims killed in the same shooting incident, with similar wounding characteristics; namely two retained head shots with ricochet against the interior wall of the skull; both projectiles have been recovered during the autopsies after migration in the brain parenchyma. The thickness of the different tissues and structures along the bullets trajectories as well as the incident angles between the bullets paths and the skull walls have been measured and reproduced during the assemblage of the synthetic head models. Two different types of models (“open shape” and “spherical”) have been assembled using leather, polyurethane and gelatine to simulate respectively skin, bone and soft tissues. Six shots have been performed in total. The results of the models have been compared to the findings of post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT) and the autopsy findings.Out of the six shots, two perforated the models and four were retained. When the projectile was retained, the use of both models allowed reproducing the wounds characteristics observed on both victims in terms of penetration and ricochet behaviour. However, the projectiles recovered from the models showed less deformation than the bullets collected during the autopsies. The “open shape” model allowed a better controlling on the shooting parameters than the “spherical” model. Finally, the difference in bullet deformation could be caused by the choice of the bone simulant, which might under-represent either the strength or the density of the human bone. In our opinion, it would be worth to develop a new, more representative material for ballistic which simulates the human bone.
... Thus, the leading edge of the bullet penetrates the tissue according to a composite mechanism provided by the triple action of hammer, i.e. the projectile crushes the contacted tissue due to the overpressure created in its proximity, wedge, i.e. the projectile diverges the surrounding tissue parts determining the so-called wound channel, and drill, that facilitates penetration and transmits to the tissues the projectile rotational movement [3,26]. The resultant effect is the generation of pressure (or "shock") waves, lasting milliseconds, which act on the neighbouring tissues for a distance proportional to the calibre of the projectile [3,26,27,28]. ...
... Since the literature on the GSW injury to the cervical spine regards neurological patients, we can only speculate about the aspect of histopathological findings related to the present case. Several studies attempted to establish a scientific rationale behind the wound ballistics theories [ [27], 26,28]; thus, the remote effects seen in tissue as the result of shock waves, rather than the most frequently observed temporary cavitations, has been already prompted as the cause of nerve stimulation and histological changes upon an extremely rapid increase in pressure, followed by a sudden reduction in pressure [27 and refs in it]. Accordingly, studies on simulant animal models demonstrated that the ballistic pressure wave alone can lead to brain injury [ 27,29]. ...
... Several studies attempted to establish a scientific rationale behind the wound ballistics theories [ [27], 26,28]; thus, the remote effects seen in tissue as the result of shock waves, rather than the most frequently observed temporary cavitations, has been already prompted as the cause of nerve stimulation and histological changes upon an extremely rapid increase in pressure, followed by a sudden reduction in pressure [27 and refs in it]. Accordingly, studies on simulant animal models demonstrated that the ballistic pressure wave alone can lead to brain injury [ 27,29]. Moreover, a relationship between traumatic brain injury and ballistics pressure waves originating in the thoracic cavity and extremities has been established in neurological patients [29]. ...
... There are numerous fields in the study of biomechanics including sport and motion, biomechanical modeling of the circulatory system (Li, 2017) [2], and traumatic injuries under impacts (Finan et al., 2018) [3]. In this latter framework and in order to investigate the behavior of human parts and organs under dynamic loadings, the literature lists studies conducted on animals, humans or cadavers in order to identify the response of tissues impacted by rigid materials (Bond et al., 1998), (Bush et al., 2009) (Maiden 2009), (Shergold et al., 2004) [4][5][6][7]. Although these tests can provide data for the behavior of the body, they are complicated to conduct and conflict with serious ethical issues. ...
... There are numerous fields in the study of biomechanics including sport and motion, biomechanical modeling of the circulatory system (Li, 2017) [2], and traumatic injuries under impacts (Finan et al., 2018) [3]. In this latter framework and in order to investigate the behavior of human parts and organs under dynamic loadings, the literature lists studies conducted on animals, humans or cadavers in order to identify the response of tissues impacted by rigid materials (Bond et al., 1998), (Bush et al., 2009) (Maiden 2009), (Shergold et al., 2004) [4][5][6][7]. Although these tests can provide data for the behavior of the body, they are complicated to conduct and conflict with serious ethical issues. ...
... This latter material, hereafter referred to as gelatin or BG, has two well-known formulations, based on a mixture of gelatin powder and water by volume, which are respectively Fackler (10% BG) and NATO gelatin (20% BG) (Fackler and Malinowski, 1988) [10]. These materials are suitable in studies aiming to understand the effects of the projectile that penetrates the human or animal body (Maiden, 2009), (Moy, 2009) [6,11]. ...
This study aims to investigate the penetration of a projectile into a human tissue surrogate using meshless-based numerical method (SPH method). The ballistic gelatin being considered in the literature as a biofidelic human tissue simulant, 10% Ballistic Gelatin (BG) is impacted by a steel rigid sphere, and penetration time history as well as velocity are investigated, and compared to existing results of the literature. In addition, due to the paucity of experimental results to validate the numerical model, validation data are extended to analytical comparisons, giving interesting results for the analysis of the perforation of biological tissues by a projectile. Discussion of the simulations are also conducted based on existing results on 20% ballistic gelatin, coupling both 10% and 20% BG for an investigation of a multi-layered target, in order to approach the multi-layered behavior of the human body.
... From the literature reviews on HVB injuries, most are reports about the location of wounds on the body [1], nature of injuries and clin-ical courses [2] of each location affected, e.g. head [3], chest [4], and extremities, or studies of wound ballistics [5,6] from animals [7][8][9][10] and gelatin block [11,12] experiments and so on. Most describe just the size of the wound (large or small), such as a small entrance wound and a large exit wound [13][14][15][16]. ...
... In general, the mechanism of the entrance wound is the result of projectile penetration leading to tissue destruction and tissue compression brought about by the skin's radially spreading reaction to the impact [20]. The tissue destruction or the wound effect is reduced when the bullet is of a smaller caliber, copper jacketed and has an increase in velocity [16,21]. Due to the HVB having been designed with a streamlined spitzer tip shape, a small diameter and being full metal jacketed [8,15,6] it reduces drag. ...
... So, the entrance wounds are mostly small and abrasion rings are rarely found, because abrasion rings are mostly found in wounds from low velocity round nosed bullets. The mechanism of the abrasion ring [22] is from the raw rubbing of the bullet [15] or the overstretching/dilatation of the skin adjacent to the penetration area, not from the rotation of the bullet [16,20]. Most HVB entrance wounds were found with contusions around the wound and these are likely to be semicircular shaped, which may be the result of oblique angle hits to the skin, leading to tears in the blood capillaries in the subcutaneous surface around the bullet impact point [19]. ...
Fatal mass casualties by high velocity bullets (HVBs) are rare events in peaceful countries. This study presents 27 forensic autopsy cases with 32 shots fired by 5.56 × 45 mm. HVB (M-16 rifle bullets) during the dispersing the mass rally in Bangkok Thailand, May 2010. It was found that twenty-three (71.88%) typical entrance HVB wounds had round sizes less than the bullet diameters. Most entrance wounds had microtears but no collar abrasion since a HVB has a small streamlined spitzer tip and full metal jacket. For exit wounds, there were various sizes and shapes depending on which section of wound ballistics presented when the bullet exited the body. If a bullet exited in the section of temporally cavity formation, there would be a large size exit wound in accordance with the degree of bullet yaw. This is different from civilian bullets whereby the shape looks like a cylindrical round nose and at low velocity that causes entrance wounds with a similar size to the bullet diameter and is usually round or oval shape with collar abrasion. The temporary cavity is not as large as in a HVB so exit wounds are not quite as large and present a ragged border compared to a HVB. We also reported 9 out of 32 shots (28.13%) of atypical entrance wounds that had various characteristics depending on site of injury and destabilization of bullets. These findings may be helpful to forensic pathologists and to give physicians, who need to diagnose HVB wounds, more confidence.
... Ballistics is the science of the motion of projectiles. Ballistics as it relates to firearms can be divided into Internal ballistics, the study of projectiles within a firearm External ballistics, the study of projectiles in the air, from firearm to target Terminal ballistics, the study of projectiles within its target [6][7][8] Wound ballistics is a subset of terminal ballistics that deals with the behavior of projectiles within living tissue and an analysis of the injuries they cause. 7,8 Although all 3 subcategories of ballistics will affect the wound potential of a projectile, 6 ballistics is a complex topic that cannot be covered in its entirety here. ...
... Ballistics as it relates to firearms can be divided into Internal ballistics, the study of projectiles within a firearm External ballistics, the study of projectiles in the air, from firearm to target Terminal ballistics, the study of projectiles within its target [6][7][8] Wound ballistics is a subset of terminal ballistics that deals with the behavior of projectiles within living tissue and an analysis of the injuries they cause. 7,8 Although all 3 subcategories of ballistics will affect the wound potential of a projectile, 6 ballistics is a complex topic that cannot be covered in its entirety here. Wound ballistics is briefly discussed. ...
... The exact mechanisms of energy transfer and the relative importance of each in wound potential remain controversial. [7][8][9] Mechanisms, as depicted in Fig. 1, include Direct tissue laceration and contusion will occur along the trajectory, referred to as the permanent cavity. An initial ballistic pressure wave, often referred to as a shockwave, will precede the bullet, although its capacity and contribution to injury is debated. ...
This article discusses the role of radiology in evaluating patients with penetrating injuries to the chest. Penetrating injuries to the chest encompass ballistic and nonballistic injuries and can involve superficial soft tissues of the chest wall, lungs and pleura, diaphragm, and mediastinum. The mechanism of injury in ballistic and nonballistic trauma and the impact the injury trajectory has on imaging evaluation of penetrating injuries to the chest are discussed. The article presents the broad spectrum of imaging findings a radiologist encounters with penetrating injuries to the chest, with emphasis on injuries to the lungs and pleura, diaphragm, and mediastinum.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
... It also deals with the study of injuries inflicted by projectiles (Owen-Smith, 1981;Maiden, 2009). The degree of damage that is inflicted upon living tissue by a bullet (or other projectile) is highly variable and depends on a number of factors. ...
... A contact gunshot wound occurs when there is contact between the muzzle of the firearm and the skin. This type of wound is commonly seen in suicide victims (Karger, et al., 2002a;Blumenthal, 2007;Maiden, 2009). Contact wounds have unique characteristics due to the close proximity between the skin and the muzzle. ...
... Contact wounds have unique characteristics due to the close proximity between the skin and the muzzle. The margins of the wound will often be seared by the hot muzzle gases and soot will be deposited around the wound, producing a characteristic blackening of the skin (Godley and Smith, 1977;DiMaio, 1999;Maiden, 2009). This is often present as a ring around the central defect or hole with its diameter dependent on how firmly the muzzle is pressed against the skin (DiMaio, 1999). ...
... It should not be taken as certainty that full metal jacket ammunition inflicts only minor injuries and causes a regular and not too vast wound channel. The projectile-target (especially a live target) interaction is a very complex phenomenon with unpredictable consequences (Fackler et al., 1988; Cooper and Ryan, 1990; Hollerman et al., 1990a; Rossiter, 1996; Korać et al., 2000; Maiden, 2009; Alexandropoulou and Panagiotopoulos, 2010; Felsmann et al., 2012). The necessity to use a full jacket in military projectiles is enforced by law (Maiden, 2009). ...
... The projectile-target (especially a live target) interaction is a very complex phenomenon with unpredictable consequences (Fackler et al., 1988; Cooper and Ryan, 1990; Hollerman et al., 1990a; Rossiter, 1996; Korać et al., 2000; Maiden, 2009; Alexandropoulou and Panagiotopoulos, 2010; Felsmann et al., 2012). The necessity to use a full jacket in military projectiles is enforced by law (Maiden, 2009). The stability of projectiles and maintaining their integrity is not covered by international law. ...
... Thus, the kinetic energy being directly proportional to the mass of a projectile and exponentially to the velocity, only determines the potential capacities of a given type of ammunition to inflict specific injuries. This phenomenon was observed after the introduction of full metal jacket ammunition at the end of the 19 th and the beginning of the 20 th century (Woodruff, 1898; Maiden, 2009). It should be noted that jacket-less projectiles of the ammunition that was commonly used in the 19 th century (Fig. 1b) caused, even at a stable penetration of the soft tissues (without tumbling or fragmentation), greater temporary cavities than full metal jacket projectiles which travelled much faster. ...
Uses of small firearms inflict gunshot wounds posing a risk to the health and life of
animals. Different aspects associated with the evaluation and treatment of gunshot
wounds, therefore, must be known by veterinarians. Due to the fact that gunshot
wounds are received by soldiers on battlefields, saving the injured and treatment of
such wounds is usually in the realm of battlefield medicine (field surgery). Despite,
extensive experience gained during military conflicts and numerous criminal events,
the investigation of factors affecting gunshot wounds have recently aroused much
controversy. It has been attempted to elucidate and evaluate the complexity of
bullet-organism (human or animal) interactions based on numerous experiments
involving shooting materials that mimic live tissues and organs, human cadavers or
live animals. Even though a series of these experiments has confirmed the
complexity and unpredictability of each shot, many publications, as indicated in the
present review, contained numerous errors and distortions which could not be
confirmed in reliable experiments and in vivo observations. These errors are often
copied unquestioningly by authors of other publications. As veterinarians are forced
to gain knowledge on gunshot wounds mainly from human medicine literature, this
review attempted to compile the major subjects on gunshot wounds in animals.
... It should not be taken as certainty that full metal jacket ammunition inflicts only minor injuries and causes a regular and not too vast wound channel. The projectile-target (especially a live target) interaction is a very complex phenomenon with unpredictable consequences (Fackler et al., 1988;Cooper and Ryan, 1990;Hollerman et al., 1990a;Rossiter, 1996;Korać et al., 2000;Maiden, 2009;Alexandropoulou and Panagiotopoulos, 2010;Felsmann et al., 2012). The necessity to use a full jacket in military projectiles is enforced by law (Maiden, 2009). ...
... The projectile-target (especially a live target) interaction is a very complex phenomenon with unpredictable consequences (Fackler et al., 1988;Cooper and Ryan, 1990;Hollerman et al., 1990a;Rossiter, 1996;Korać et al., 2000;Maiden, 2009;Alexandropoulou and Panagiotopoulos, 2010;Felsmann et al., 2012). The necessity to use a full jacket in military projectiles is enforced by law (Maiden, 2009). The stability of projectiles and maintaining their integrity is not covered by international law. ...
... Thus, the kinetic energy being directly proportional to the mass of a projectile and exponentially to the velocity, only determines the potential capacities of a given type of ammunition to inflict specific injuries. This phenomenon was observed after the introduction of full metal jacket ammunition at the end of the 19 th and the beginning of the 20 th century (Woodruff, 1898;Maiden, 2009). It should be noted that jacket-less projectiles of the ammunition that was commonly used in the 19 th century (Fig. 1b) caused, even at a stable penetration of the soft tissues (without tumbling or fragmentation), greater temporary cavities than full metal jacket projectiles which travelled much faster. ...
Uses of small firearms inflict gunshot wounds posing a risk to the health and life of
animals. Different aspects associated with the evaluation and treatment of gunshot
wounds, therefore, must be known by veterinarians. Due to the fact that gunshot
wounds are received by soldiers on battlefields, saving the injured and treatment of
such wounds is usually in the realm of battlefield medicine (field surgery). Despite,
extensive experience gained during military conflicts and numerous criminal events,
the investigation of factors affecting gunshot wounds have recently aroused much
controversy. It has been attempted to elucidate and evaluate the complexity of
bullet-organism (human or animal) interactions based on numerous experiments
involving shooting materials that mimic live tissues and organs, human cadavers or
live animals. Even though a series of these experiments has confirmed the
complexity and unpredictability of each shot, many publications, as indicated in the
present review, contained numerous errors and distortions which could not be
confirmed in reliable experiments and in vivo observations. These errors are often
copied unquestioningly by authors of other publications. As veterinarians are forced
to gain knowledge on gunshot wounds mainly from human medicine literature, this
review attempted to compile the major subjects on gunshot wounds in animals.
... It should not be taken as certainty that full metal jacket ammunition inflicts only minor injuries and causes a regular and not too vast wound channel. The projectile-target (especially a live target) interaction is a very complex phenomenon with unpredictable consequences (Fackler et al., 1988; Cooper and Ryan, 1990; Hollerman et al., 1990a; Rossiter, 1996; Korać et al., 2000; Maiden, 2009; Alexandropoulou and Panagiotopoulos, 2010; Felsmann et al., 2012). The necessity to use a full jacket in military projectiles is enforced by law (Maiden, 2009). ...
... The projectile-target (especially a live target) interaction is a very complex phenomenon with unpredictable consequences (Fackler et al., 1988; Cooper and Ryan, 1990; Hollerman et al., 1990a; Rossiter, 1996; Korać et al., 2000; Maiden, 2009; Alexandropoulou and Panagiotopoulos, 2010; Felsmann et al., 2012). The necessity to use a full jacket in military projectiles is enforced by law (Maiden, 2009). The stability of projectiles and maintaining their integrity is not covered by international law. ...
... Thus, the kinetic energy being directly proportional to the mass of a projectile and exponentially to the velocity, only determines the potential capacities of a given type of ammunition to inflict specific injuries. This phenomenon was observed after the introduction of full metal jacket ammunition at the end of the 19 th and the beginning of the 20 th century (Woodruff, 1898; Maiden, 2009). It should be noted that jacket-less projectiles of the ammunition that was commonly used in the 19 th century (Fig. 1b) caused, even at a stable penetration of the soft tissues (without tumbling or fragmentation), greater temporary cavities than full metal jacket projectiles which travelled much faster. ...
Uses of small firearms inflict gunshot wounds posing a risk to the health and life of
animals. Different aspects associated with the evaluation and treatment of gunshot
wounds, therefore, must be known by veterinarians. Due to the fact that gunshot
wounds are received by soldiers on battlefields, saving the injured and treatment of
such wounds is usually in the realm of battlefield medicine (field surgery). Despite,
extensive experience gained during military conflicts and numerous criminal events,
the investigation of factors affecting gunshot wounds have recently aroused much
controversy. It has been attempted to elucidate and evaluate the complexity of
bullet-organism (human or animal) interactions based on numerous experiments
involving shooting materials that mimic live tissues and organs, human cadavers or
live animals. Even though a series of these experiments has confirmed the
complexity and unpredictability of each shot, many publications, as indicated in the
present review, contained numerous errors and distortions which could not be
confirmed in reliable experiments and in vivo observations. These errors are often
copied unquestioningly by authors of other publications. As veterinarians are forced
to gain knowledge on gunshot wounds mainly from human medicine literature, this
review attempted to compile the major subjects on gunshot wounds in animals.
... Terminal ballistics is the part of forensic ballistics that studies the behaviour and effects that a specific projectile fired with a specific weapon causes on a body [1]. ...
... Wound ballistics studies are carried out using specifically designed targets that behave like a human body against the firing of a projectile. Ballistic laboratories use internationally tested soft tissue simulants, such as ballistic gelatine and glycerine ballistic soap [1,3]. Ballistic gelatine is a transparent elastic material in which most of the energy transferred by the projectile produces an elastic deformation. ...
Current methods used in terminal ballistics to determine the volume of temporary cavities created by projectiles in soft tissue simulants (such as ballistic soap) usually involve silicone-casting to obtain the cavity moulds. However, these methods have important drawbacks including their little sensitivity and precision, besides the fact that they are destructive. Imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT) might not only overcome those limitations but also offer useful tools for digitally reporting the scientific results. This work accomplished the 3D digital reconstruction of the cavities created by different projectiles in ballistic soap blocks. This way, the total volume of the cavities, the projectile penetration depths, and other measurements were determined, rendering better capabilities when compared to the current silicone method. All these features were achieved through the CT analysis and 3D Slicer imaging software. In addition, it is worth mentioning that the method can preserve the evidence by digitally obtaining, signing, and storing the infographic videos displaying the 3D-reconstructed cavities.
Graphical abstract
... The forensic application of wound ballistics is commonly used by forensic pathologists and forensic firearm examiners to perform shooting incident reconstructions. The combination between a correct interpretation of gunshot wound characteristics and empirical researches is necessary in the investigation of cases involving firearms [1]. Such domain can be particularly complex because of the large variability of the projectiles involved in forensic cases. ...
... In the past, several types of simulants have been considered from the researchers to reproduce the human body characteristics in ballistic tests: the human body itself through the use of cadavers [5][6][7], animal's tissues [4,8] and synthetic or natural material derivatives [1,9,[10][11][12]. According with Kneubuehl et al., "a simulant is a material that reacts to bullets in a manner similar to tissue as regards elasticity, capacity to absorb energy, strength, etc. simulants serve to model the physical ballistic aspect of wound ballistics" [2]. ...
Synthetic models, also called “surrogates”, are commonly used in wound ballistics in order to simulate human tissues. Despite several surrogates are worldwide accepted and used; some of them have not been yet fully validated and their limits for forensic reconstructions have not been deeply investigated yet. In this work we present a homicide/suicide case involving three gunshots to the head with bullets retained in the skull or beneath the scalp. Reconstruction of these cases was performed preparing three individual synthetic head models based on post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT) measurements. Ballistic soap, polyurethane plates and 10% ballistic gelatine at 4 °C were used as simulants in individually adapted thickness. Ballistic tests were performed using the questioned firearm and ammunition type. The damages on the synthetic models have been compared to the findings in PMCT and autopsy of the victims. Although the results highlighted general similarities in terms of injury characteristics, some of the experimental shots overpenetrated. Furthermore, the bullets recovered in the synthetic models did not show the same quality of deformations as the questioned bullets. This lack of bullet deformation in the synthetic models might be mainly attributed to the physical difference between real bones and polyurethane surrogate.
... By the middle of the nineteenth century the improvements in the technology of handguns, when the technology of handguns made it possible to hit targets at a much greater distance (Maiden, 2009). There were a number of interrelated reasons for this. ...
... The introduction of smokeless powder made it possible to propel the bullet at much greater speed. Furthermore, the rifling of the barrel made it possible to shoot farther and much more precisely than before (Maiden, 2009). These weapons also underwent a dramatic change from the smoothbore flintlock gun to the initially repeating, later semi-, and ultimately fully automatic rifle, and from the one-or two-barreled pistol to the revolver with 5-12 cartridges and the semiautomatic/ self-loading pistol, which in its basic form may contain 13-15 cartridges. ...
Wound ballistics is the specialty in ballistics dealing with the interaction of bullet and tissue, resulting in lesions when humans or animals are hit. The lesions depend on the velocity and mass of the bullet as well as its design. Bullets are divided into low- and high-velocity bullets. Military bullets are by law fully jacketed whereas hunting, police and self-defense bullets are mostly expanding bullets. Shotguns use cartridges containing up to several hundred pellets and are predominantly used for hunting. Their short range and the fact that the pellets rarely perforate the target make them attractive for police work.
... Many problems in the interpretation and reconstruction of the trajectory of the bullets have been reported in the Literature [6,7]; a high index of suspicion should drive the diagnostic work-up, based on knowledge of ballistics and wounding potential of firearms; the goal is to anticipate the severity of a wound and detect earlier occult but severe internal lesions [8,9]. In many cases, site of entrance and direction of bullet path could help the clinician to determine the potential of severe internal lesion. ...
... Firearm wounds are increasingly observed in Emergency Department even in areas with classically low incidence of urban warfare, especially in Europe; they often raise new problems in interpretation both for denial by patients of firearm involvement [6] and for atypical clinical presentation [7]. The possibility of gunshot fired throughout natural orifices, such as anus, should be always taken into account in case of retained bullet without clear entry hole and, more important, the members of the trauma team should always keep in mind that a digital rectal exploration is mandatory in cases of abdominal gunshots wounds with unclear dynamics. ...
The presence at CT scan of more retained bullets than expected could be a very difficult interpretation challenge in the early management of gunshot wounds. The modern non operative management of haemodinamically stable patients without peritonitis requires that the trajectory of the bullet is clearly recognized. This clinical case reporting of a gunshot wound without evident entry hole, allows to discuss the diagnostic and therapeutic implications in the management of gunshot wounds cases with atypical entry and/or exit holes.
... He attributed these pathologic effects to Duret's 'choc cephalorachidien', a mechanism by which the respiratory and vagal centres of the medulla oblongata were compressed by the displacement of the brain and the crushing effect of the cerebrospinal fluid via the ventricular system. Despite the similarities observed in these experiments, ballistics studies [2,[4][5][6][7] from the same period described injury characteristics unique to penetrating TBI. Tissues were disrupted by projectiles in a variety of ways, including the deformation of projectiles after skull collision, the creation of secondary projectiles from bullet or bone fragments, the formation of a permanent cavity after crushing of the soft tissues and the powerful expansion of a temporary cavity [4]. ...
... Despite the similarities observed in these experiments, ballistics studies [2,[4][5][6][7] from the same period described injury characteristics unique to penetrating TBI. Tissues were disrupted by projectiles in a variety of ways, including the deformation of projectiles after skull collision, the creation of secondary projectiles from bullet or bone fragments, the formation of a permanent cavity after crushing of the soft tissues and the powerful expansion of a temporary cavity [4]. Now, more than a century later, the lack of studies on the pathophysiology of penetrating TBI and the exclusion of penetrating injuries from a large TBI series [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] has rendered the clinician unable to estimate the effect of many clinical features of penetrating TBI outcomes. ...
... Fig. 1.6 illustrates the clay brick impacted by spherical steel spheres. Compared to silicone rubber and clay, ballistic gelatins are more widely used as soft tissue simulants in biomechanics like penetrating impact, blunt impact and blast loading contexts [46][47][48][49][50]. There are two typical ballistic gelatins according to the mass fraction, i.e. 10% gelatin known as Fackler gelatin and 20% gelatin known as NATO gelatin, and the rest is composed of water [51][52][53]. ...
Thoracic injuries happen frequently in various frameworks of high velocity impact biomechanics. Rib fractures and lung injuries are the most common hard and soft tissue injuries in human thorax. This thesis aims to contribute to the investigation of dynamic responses of human tissues especially ribs and soft tissues under high velocity impacts using finite element modeling. Firstly, a novel strain-rate-dependent elasto-hydrodynamic constitutive law of the synthetic polymer Styrene-Ethylene-Butylene-Styrene (SEBS) gel was proposed and implemented as a user material subroutine in Radioss (Altair Hyperworks) to interpret dynamic behaviors of SEBS gel under various loading configurations. Numerical analysis validates the accuracy of the model and reveals that the strain-rate-dependence effect is significant in SEBS gel especially for high strain rates, which indicates the necessity of taking the strain rate dependence into consideration when modeling the SEBS gel as a human soft tissue substitute. Then, this study numerically investigated the effect of geometrical and mechanical parameters on dynamic behaviors of isolated porcine ribs submitted to high velocity impacts using three point bending (3PB) Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus. Sensitivity studies highlight the significant effect of geometrical parameters on dynamic behaviors of ribs, and the consideration of the effect of mechanical parameters like loading mode and strain rate sensitivity in FE rib models is also needed. Finally, this thesis also developed human rib FE models with various material properties including human rib cortical bone material properties from different loading modes (tension and compression), strain rates and ages as well as porcine rib material properties, in order to better understand rib structural responses and fracture locations under dynamic anterior-posterior bending. Numerical force-displacement relationship, cortical strain, rotation and fracture locations correspond well with published experimental data. Moreover, numerical rib structural responses are found to be sensitive to human cortical bone material properties from different loading modes, strain rates and ages. Therefore, it is necessary to consider these factors when establishing rib FE models. Overall, this thesis helps better understand dynamic responses of human tissues in high velocity impact (HVI) contexts, and the proposed constitutive law of the SEBS gel and the established rib FE models can be employed in a global thorax model for human trauma investigations.
... Two types are readily available: Type A, which is derived from acidtreated collagen found in pig skin, and Type B, which is derived from alkali-treated beef skin [12]. As the human anatomy is more closely aligned to that of porcine anatomy [10,13], the most widely used gelatine is Type A. Type A material consists of an acid-treated collagen protein found in animal products [10] and is manufactured in 10 and 20% mass constructs before being conditioned at specific temperatures before use. Both 10 and 20% constructs' ability to replicate the human body is measured by their strength and stiffness properties, which are referred to as the 'bloom number'. ...
Traditionally, human cadavers and porcine tissue have been used as means to replicate elements of the human body; however, because of the differences in biomechanical properties from the porcine limbs/organs and the potential for degradation of mechanical properties caused by ageing, they do not provide accurate material for either lethality or survivability assessment. In the 21st century and with more ethical ways of working being employed, the use of soft tissue analogues to undertake ballistic testing has become routinely accepted. However, gaps in the literature exist that have identified a difference in material characterisation. Procedurally, every researcher manufactures the gelatine differently, which, when combined with a lack of calibration procedures, can cause inconsistencies in output data, and additional concerns exist surrounding the repeatability of re-mouldable simulants, such as Perma-Gel®. Further, limited information is available on the environmental impact of ‘1 shot’ items, such as ballistic gelatine, which has become a well-known and widely accepted material for survivability assessment. This review identifies key inconsistencies within the literature, the risk associated with survivability assessment, and potential solutions to the issues identified within, with outcomes showing that the current methodologies for survivability assessment do not align with the wider UK government ambition of being Net Zero by 2050 unless changes are made.
... Dynamic responses of soft tissues to high-speed penetration are of fundamental importance for general ballistics and wound ballistics [1][2][3]. In addition, they are instrumental in the forensic pathological study of wounds [4,5], and the evaluation and design of protection gears [6][7][8]. ...
Ballistic gelatin is widely used as a simulant of soft tissues, and its dynamic responses to high-speed projectile penetration are critical for understanding soft tissue damage, wound ballistics, and protection gear design. Here, we investigate penetration dynamics of spherical steel projectiles with different diameters into a ballistic gelatin at different incident velocities. The projectile diameter ranges from 1 mm to 5 mm, and the incident velocity, from 50 m s−1 to 400 m s−1. Penetration dynamics is captured with high-speed photography. A power-law relation is found between the maximum penetration depth and projectile kinetic energy at high incident velocities, but not at intermediate and low velocities. Nondimensional analysis is applied to the penetration depth; a general relation is established for nondimensional maximum penetration depth as a function of projectile density, projectile diameter and projectile incident velocity for low-, intermediate- and high-speed penetration, and this relation can accurately describe the experiments. The drag force of projectile is analyzed to explain the relation between projectile acceleration and velocity. In addition, a calibrated finite element model reproduces well experimental observations such as the maximum penetration depth and projectile trajectory.
... Alternative approaches generally include muscle wounds induced by either direct physical damage (e.g., VML, contusion, laceration, ischaemia, denervation, freeze) or more indirect chemical damage (i.e., myotoxic agents, barium chloride, irradiation) 26 , which have different temporal and spatial consequences for both muscle damage and regeneration that should be carefully considered (as reviewed elsewhere 27,28 ). Other approaches specific to projectile trauma have also used soap or gelatin produced with similar physical properties to human muscle tissue in order to investigate properties of a projectile impact 20,21 . One key aspect to improving muscle injury and regeneration after ballistic trauma is by first understanding how the muscle immediately responds to injury or trauma, which we will now briefly review. ...
One major cause of traumatic injury is firearm-related wounds (i.e., ballistic trauma), common in both civilian and military populations, which is increasing in prevalence and has serious long-term health and socioeconomic consequences worldwide. Common primary injuries of ballistic trauma include soft-tissue damage and loss, haemorrhage, bone fracture, and pain. The majority of injuries are of musculoskeletal origin and located in the extremities, such that skeletal muscle offers a major therapeutic target to aid recovery and return to normal daily activities. However, the underlying pathophysiology of skeletal muscle ballistic trauma remains poorly understood, with limited evidence-based treatment options. As such, this review will address the topic of firearm-related skeletal muscle injury and regeneration. We first introduce trauma ballistics and the immediate injury of skeletal muscle, followed by detailed coverage of the underlying biological mechanisms involved in regulating skeletal muscle dysfunction following injury, with a specific focus on the processes of muscle regeneration, muscle wasting and vascular impairments. Finally, we evaluate novel approaches for minimising muscle damage and enhancing muscle regeneration after ballistic trauma, which may have important relevance for primary care in victims of violence.
... At any range, however, ballistic damage to pontomedullary junction is instantaneously lethal (1). Following the second gunshot, she would have (3,4). In this case, laceration of the brainstem would have caused immediate incapacitation and likely dropped her to the ground (4). ...
... Sellier emphasized that, due to the inertia of the skin fired at, the abrasion collar cannot be caused by any major indenting and consequent overstretching. He rejected the hypothesis that friction causes abrasion collar (8,9). ...
Abrasion collar is usually described as a feature of bullet entry wounds caused by friction and indentation. The present case is that of the peculiar entry wound caused by a piece of flying shrapnel which was ejected from a furnace in a steel plant. The scrap metal which exploded in the plant was sourced from the West Asia region. The entry wound on the chest was circular and had an abrasion collar around it. The projectile was a cylindrical object of obscure origin. The forensic science laboratory put forth the possibility that the projectile was a component of an artillery fuze. A decades old study which employed high-speed photography has rejected the possibility that abrasion collars are produced by friction. High-velocity projectiles other than bullets can also produce abrasion collars as the rubbing of the bullet against the skin or its rotation are not the causative mechanisms.
... Ballistic gelatin, hereafter referred to as gelatin, is often used as a simulant for studying impact damage in soft biological tissues (Maiden, 2009;Nicholas and Welsch, 2004). Gelatin, a protein derived from either skin or bone (Kneubuehl, 2011), is produced by submitting collagen to an irreversible process that renders it water-soluble. ...
... By now, ballistic gelatin (hereafter referred to as gelatin) has become popular as a tissue simulant in wound ballistics [1][2][3][4] after a large number of experimental tests were carried out in different countries. That is because the gelatin is homogeneous and presents the same physical characteristics block after block. ...
An accurate description of the motion of bullets in ballistic gelatin penetration can only be given if a corresponding mathematical model is derived. In this paper, change of the effective wetted area of the bullet is studied well with the increase of angle of yaw in the penetration process. By introducing an area detached ratio and the influence of slenderness, a novel framework is proposed for drag and lift coefficients. Further, a new motion model of rifle bullet is established based on the new frameworks and validated by comparison with the results from experiment data and FEA. The comparative analysis shows that results of the new motion model have a better fit with experiment data than that of the traditional models in previous literatures and the proposed framework for drag and lift coefficients is better than the traditional ones in literatures by comparison with the numerical results. In addition, the calculation of the new motion model is in great accordance with FEA in terms of penetration depth, deflection path, yaw angle, velocity, lift force and drag force at different initial conditions. Benefitting from the motion model based on the new frameworks for drag and lift coefficients, the behavior of rifle bullet in gelatin penetration can be characterized accurately, the prediction of the distribution of energy deposited along the penetration trajectory and the potential for incapacitation of rifle bullets may become possible.
... T ESTS ON animals, humans, cadavers, and explants have been traditionally used to study materials-skin interactions (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6). Such studies were useful in establishing safety margins and improved the characterisation of skin. ...
For many applications in research, material development and testing, physical skin models are preferable to the use of human skin, because more reliable and reproducible results can be obtained.
This article gives an overview of materials applied to model physical properties of human skin to encourage multidisciplinary approaches for more realistic testing and improved understanding of skin-material interactions.
The literature databases Web of Science, PubMed and Google Scholar were searched using the terms 'skin model', 'skin phantom', 'skin equivalent', 'synthetic skin', 'skin substitute', 'artificial skin', 'skin replica', and 'skin model substrate.' Articles addressing material developments or measurements that include the replication of skin properties or behaviour were analysed.
It was found that the most common materials used to simulate skin are liquid suspensions, gelatinous substances, elastomers, epoxy resins, metals and textiles. Nano- and micro-fillers can be incorporated in the skin models to tune their physical properties.
While numerous physical skin models have been reported, most developments are research field-specific and based on trial-and-error methods. As the complexity of advanced measurement techniques increases, new interdisciplinary approaches are needed in future to achieve refined models which realistically simulate multiple properties of human skin.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
... However, because solid copper bullets are not designed or expected to fragment, shot placement becomes a critical factor if instant or near instant incapacitation is desired. A near miss to the heart may cause the heart to be temporarily displaced (due to the temporary cavity caused by the passage of the bullet) likely resulting in a longer, unpredictable period to incapacitation (MacPhearson 2005, Maiden 2009). ...
In recent years, concern over the use of lead-based ammunition for hunting has been growing, primarily due to consumption of discarded offal by scavengers and donated game meat for human consumption. While there are alternative bullet technologies on the market that are suitable for hunting, these alternatives have not been adequately researched and tested for use in professional wildlife damage management (WDM). Differences between hunting and WDM include an increased level of precision necessary for safe WDM work, potentially greater distances for shots fi red at targets, a need for instant incapacitation, and overall cost-effectiveness. To determine the applicability of lead-free bullets for WDM, we reviewed current lead-free bullet technologies and examined their limitations and benefi ts based on ballistic theory and available research. We found that there has not been suffi cient research or experience with lead-free ammunition in the unique shooting scenarios used in WDM. Some of the issues identifi ed by our review include a reduced theoretical precision of lead-free bullets due to a mismatch between bullet length and twist rate of the rifl e barrel, lower performance of lead-free ammunition at greater ranges compared with lead-based bullets, and greater chance of bullets passing through targets and striking a nontarget object or animal. While some of these defi ciencies may be overcome with new equipment and decreased target ranges, there are still situations where lead-based ammunition may be the safest and most practical option.
Forensic ballistics is one of the most fascinating scientific disciplines. It has great potential in the criminal justice system in resolving crimes, particularly, in the reconstruction of events produced in a shooting incident and firearm identification. It is therefore essential for the forensic experts to acquire basic knowledge of firearms and ammunitions. In this prospect, the current chapter elaborately explains the various types of firearms and ammunitions. The various forensic aspects of resulting phenomena while a firearm is discharged are also discussed relating it to the range of fire estimation. This chapter further talks about firearm identification, gunshot residue examination, and automated firearm identification system.
The article presents soft tissue substitutes that are used to assess the effects of terminal ballisticsof bullets. The influence of factors on the production of ballistic gelatine blocks was analyzed anddescribed, and the results of the production of ballistic gelatine blocks were presented along witha visualization of injuries.
The response of biological phantoms against high velocity impact is actively sought for applications in defense, space, soft robotics and sensing. Towards this end, we study the ballistic response of silicone based skin simulant against fragment impact. Using a pneumatic gas gun setup, six chisel-nosed and three regular shaped (sphere, cylinder, and cube) fragments were impacted on the skin simulant. The resulting skin simulant response was studied in terms of ballistic limit velocities, energy densities, failure pattern, and the mechanics of interaction. The results indicate that the shape of the fragment affects the ballistic limit velocities. The ballistic limit velocities, energy densities of the chisel-nosed fragment simulating projectiles were relatively insensitive to the size (mass), except for the smallest (0.16 g) and largest (2.79 g) chisel-nosed fragment. For the same size (1 g), ballistic limit velocities and failure are dependent on the shape of the fragment. The skin simulant failed by combined plugging and elastic hole enlargement. Failure in the spherical fragment was dominated by the elastic hole enlargement, whereas plugging failure was dominant in all other fragments. The spherical, cylindrical, and chisel-nosed fragments created circular cavities, and the cubical fragment created a square cavity. In the case of the spherical fragment, slipping of the fragment within the skin simulant was seen. Cubical fragments created lateral cracks emanating from the corners of the square cavity. Interestingly, for all the fragments, the maximum deformation corresponding to the perforation was lower than the non-perforation indicating rate dependent, stress driven failure. The maximum deformation was also dependent on the shape of the fragment. Overall, these results provide unique insights into the mechanical response of a soft simulant against ballistic impact. Results have utility in the calibration and validation of computational models, design of personal protective equipment, and antipersonnel systems.
Ballistic trauma is a serious health issue with significant costs to physical, psychosocial, economic, and societal well-being. It may be caused from firearms, explosive devices, or any other projectile forces, and is characterized by severe tissue loss and evolving tissue devitalization. This review covers mechanism, diagnosis, and management of ballistic maxillofacial trauma, specifically. Initial evaluation includes stabilization of airway, bleeding, and circulation, followed by assessment of other injuries. The overall degree of tissue damage is determined by intrinsic patient factors and extrinsic projectile factors. Management of ballistic injuries has shifted toward advocation for early operative repair with the advent of antibiotics and advanced techniques in maxillofacial reconstruction. Appropriate timing and method of reconstruction should be carefully selected on a case-by-case basis. While ballistic trauma research is limited to studies biased by institutional practices, areas for further study identified from current literature include guidelines directing timing of reconstructive surgery; thresholds for free tissue transfer; handling of retained projectiles; incidence of surgical complications; and clinical outcomes for computer-aided surgical repair of these highly destructive injuries.
Advances in radiologic imaging are being applied to the study of wound ballistics. Each of the modalities used (fluoroscopy, radiography, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging) has strengths and limitations. Cross sectional digital based modalities have advantages over traditional radiography and fluoroscopy for localization and recovery of projectiles and documentation of wound tracks. Data from multiplanar two-dimensional and three-dimensional imaging can best be used by the forensic pathologist when combined with pathologic findings. With this information it may be possible to enhance the current understanding of wound ballistics.
Penetrating abdominal trauma comprises a wide variety of injuries that will manifest themselves at imaging depending on the distinct mechanism of injury. The use of computed tomography (CT) for hemodynamically stable victims of penetrating torso trauma continues to increase in clinical practice allowing more patients to undergo initial selective non-surgical management. High diagnostic accuracy in this setting helps patients avoid unnecessary surgical intervention and ultimately reduce morbidity, mortality and associated medical costs. This review will present the evidence and the controversies surrounding the imaging of patients with penetrating abdominopelvic injuries. Available protocols, current MDCT technique controversies, organ-specific injuries, and key MDCT findings requiring intervention in patients with penetrating abdominal and pelvic trauma are presented. In the hemodynamically stable patient, the radiologist will play a key role in the triage of these patients to operative or nonoperative management.
The adaptive finite element material point method (AFEMP) takes advantages of both finite element method (FEM) and material point method (MPM), suitable for dealing with extreme deformation problems. Use AFEMP to simulate the penetration of steel spheres and bullets into ballistic gelatin at high velocities to better understand the damage effects caused by the projectiles to biological soft tissue. Gelatin are initially divided into finite elements and then the elements are converted into MPM particles using the characteristic length ratio and the main direction maximum stretch ratio of element as conversion criteria in order to avoid elements distortion during the solution process. The effect of the background grid size on the calculation results is studied, and the background grid should be slightly smaller than finite element so that it can better describe the severely compressed gelatin. Numerical results are presented to validate the accuracy of AFEMP program of this work, and it can better simulate the temporary cavity than the commercial software LS-DYNA. The propagation of pressure wave can cause crushing and tearing damage of the gelatin. The damaged area caused by pressure wave is larger than the temporary cavity, and its shape is closer to the cylinder with the increase of the speed of the steel sphere. The velocity and shape of projectile play a decisive role in the damage effects.
This paper develops survivability evaluation procedure (KUSAR ST-33 program) for bullet penetration into human body based on the AIS (abbreviated injury scale) and the NISS (new injury severity score). Depending on the energy and geometrical configuration of bullet, the shape of temporary wound cavity inside human body is different and this influences the extent of injury. First, some bullet experiments are carried out to extract representative shapes of temporary cavities according to bullet types, and three-dimensional matrix representing human anatomical structure is constructed from scanned CT images of upper body. By mapping the extracted cavity shapes to the 3D matrix for anatomical structure, volume of damaged tissues of some internal organs including blood vessels and bones are calculated. Finally, the AIS and the NISS scores depending on the trajectories of bullets and energy levels are computed with some random variation effects. Bullet trajectories and consequent damaged anatomical structure are visualized.
Forensic pathologists who autopsy the victims of gun violence are often called upon to answer questions in both criminal and civil proceedings about the relative position of the shooter and the victim. In this case report of an officer-involved shooting incident, the statement of the police officer appeared to be in direct contradiction to the statements of other eyewitnesses, the evidence at the scene, and the final resting position of the decedent's body. Trajectory analysis of two gunshot wound pathways (only one of which was instantaneously incapacitating) was performed to assess the veracity of the officer’s statement and forensic animation was used to create a court exhibit. A discussion of the current peer-reviewed literature is included.
The mechanical and optical characteristics of a transparent tissue surrogate ballistic polymer gel were measured at different loading rates. This included measurement of tension and shear responses of the gel. Due to the compliant nature of the material, special strategies had to be developed for sample preparation, specimen gripping and deformation measurement. The digital speckle correlation method was used for measuring 2D strains in uniaxial tension tests. Subsequently, the Mooney-Rivlin description was used to extract the material characteristics from measured stress-strain data. Using a newly introduced optical method called Digital Gradient Sensing (DGS), the elasto-optical constants for the material were evaluated at different loading rates.
Objective:
To retrospectively analyse the surgical management and outcomes of non-missile open head injuries (NMOHI).
Methods:
Forty-four patients who suffered from NMOHI were included. The Glasgow outcome score (GOS), computed tomography (CT), aetiology and outcomes and complications at discharge and during a 6-month follow-up were analysed. All patients underwent debridement. Intracranial haematoma evacuation, decompressive craniectomy (DC) or replacement were performed.
Results:
Motor vehicle accident and struck by/against were the most common causes (43.2% each). At admission, 33 patients had Glasgow coma scores (GCS) > 8 and 27 of them had a GCS score of > 13. Mean follow-up was 8.7 ± 4.3 months. All patients underwent debridement, 20 underwent bone fracture replacement and 27 underwent haematoma evacuation; 11 patients underwent haematoma evacuation and DC and one had bilateral DC. Twenty-seven patients showed good recovery; 11 patients had moderate disability; three patients had severe disability; and three patients died. After 6 months, 32 patients had good recovery and the morbidity of severe disability had decreased to 13.6%. Thirteen patients developed intracranial infection. Post-traumatic epilepsy and hydrocephalus was detected in three patients. Cerebrospinal fluid fistula was found in five patients. Only one patient developed a brain abscess after 6 months.
Conclusions:
NMOHI yielded satisfactory recovery and achieved good outcomes.
Objective: To study the injury cases of armored biological target by bullet and its causes, and provide references for revealing the wound mechanism of armored human by bullet and the corresponding medical treatment. Methods: A 60 kg live pig was selected as the biological target, and the testing physical quantity and specific location within the biological target were identified by reference to the vulnerability in the head and chest of the soldier with armor. Three rounds of 9 mm Bala Baerum pistols in 25 meter-range were shot, respectively, on the head and chest of the biological live target with armor, and the multi-mechanical parameters (acceleration, pressure, loads, etc.) that played an important role in blunt trauma of armored biological target under pistol impacts were measured. Results: (1) Blunt injury to the head of the biological target by pistol generated negative pressure pulse inside the calvarium with far reaching effects, and pressure pulse appeared in the spine and carotid; (2) Blunt injury to the chest of the biological target by pistol caused high-G impact on the heart, with high pressure wave in the lungs. Conclusions: The measurement results in this study provided the basis for quantitatively understanding the injury mechanism of the pistol impacted by live armored target. Copyright © 2014 by the Editorial Board of Journal of Medical Biomechanics.
We experimentally and numerically analyze the impact response of ballistic gelatin behind armor comprised of a ceramic plate facing the incoming projectile with a fiber-reinforced composite backing. It is a surrogate model for studying injuries to human torso wearing body protection armor. Experiments were conducted to study the impact performance of each constituent of the armor. Pictures taken with a high speed camera were used to understand the deformation mechanisms in each component and the entire system. Material models used in LS-DYNA for numerically studying the problem are MAT59 for the ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene fiber-reinforced composite, Johnson-Holmquist for the ceramic, and strain-rate dependent hyperelastic for the gelatin. Stress based delamination and composite failure criteria implemented in LS-DYNA are used to simulate the initiation and propagation of failure. It is found that the numerically computed bulge diameter in the fiber-reinforced composite agrees reasonably well with the experimental value but the computed bulge height is less than that found experimentally. The computed evolution of temporary cavity in the gelatin is similar to that seen in experiments. The maximum pressure at a point in the gelatin is indicative of the severity of the bodily injury caused by the impact.
Gunshot wounds to the face and neck region represent devastating injuries. Complex and oftentimes massive soft tissue injuries accompany extensive underlying bone damage making reconstruction in this setting a great challenge. A thorough understanding of ballistics, kinetic energy transfer to tissues and their response to that energy, the complex and intricate three-dimensional anatomy of the region, and long-term effects of the scar and healing process is necessary for proper management of these injuries. Advances in both imaging techniques and reconstructive procedures have greatly improved our capacity and ability to reconstruct these wounds.
Poorly designed experiments and popular media have led to multiple myths about wound ballistics. Some of these myths have been incorporated into the trauma literature as fact and are included in Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS). We hypothesized that these erroneous beliefs would be prevalent, even among those providing care for patients with gunshot wounds (GSWs), but could be addressed through education.
ATLS course content was reviewed. Several myths involving wound ballistics were identified. Clinically relevant myths were chosen including wounding mechanism, lead poisoning, debridement, and antibiotic use. Subsequently, surgery and emergency medicine services at three different trauma centers were studied. All three sites were busy, urban trauma centers with a significant amount of penetrating trauma. A pre-test was administered prior to a lecture on wound ballistics followed by a post-test. Pre- and post-test scores were compared and correlated with demographic data including ATLS course completion, firearm/ballistics experience, and years of post-graduate medical experience (PGME).
One-hundred and fifteen clinicians participated in the study. A mean pre-test score of 34 % improved to 78 % on the post-test with associated improvements in all areas of knowledge (p < 0.001). Years of PGME correlated with higher pre-test score (p = 0.021); however, ATLS status did not (p = 0.774).
Erroneous beliefs involving wound ballistics are prevalent even among clinicians who frequently treat victims of GSWs and could lead to inappropriate treatment. Focused education markedly improved knowledge. The ATLS course and manual promulgate some of these myths and should be revised.
Schussverletzungen sind in Deutschland selten und meist in suizidaler Absicht oder durch den unsachgemäßen Umgang mit Waffen verursacht. Die resultierenden Verletzungen stellen durch die Ausdehnung des Gewebeschadens und den komplikationsträchtigen Verlauf eine eigene Entität dar, die ein differenziertes Vorgehen erfordert. Da jedes Traumazentrum mit einer Schussverletzung jederzeit konfrontiert werden kann, gilt es, die Grundzüge der Behandlung präsent zu halten und regelmäßig zur Diskussion zu stellen.
Durch die Auslandseinsätze der Bundeswehr und resultierend aus der Versorgung von Patienten aus anderen Krisenregionen konnten wir zwischen 2005 und 2011 85 Schussverletzungen bei 64 Patienten versorgen. In der Mehrzahl der Fälle war die untere Extremität betroffen, und wir konnten ein extremitätenerhaltendes Behandlungsregime realisieren. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Originalarbeit berichten wir über die Erfahrungen und Ergebnisse in der Versorgung von Schussverletzungen an der unteren Extremität.
Dieser Teil der Arbeit setzt sich mit der Epidemiologie und Pathophysiologie einer Schussverletzung an der unteren Extremität auseinander. Anhand der Auswertung mikrobiologischer Befunde einer Subgruppe mit Patienten aus einer Bürgerkriegsregion (n = 10) wird das Problem der Kontamination, Besiedelung und Infektion mit multiresistenten Keimen erläutert. Neben der Darstellung der Erst- und Notfallversorgung einer Schussverletzung werden die erforderlichen Maßnahmen zur weiteren Versorgung und Dekontamination dargelegt. Abschließend werden diese Ergebnisse mit der hierzu vorliegenden Literatur verglichen.
Wound ballistics is a science that has been gaining attention in wildlife management because of the movement toward non-lead bullets for hunting and wildlife management projects. Wildlife biologists and managers are interested in evaluating new bullet technologies and using traditional bullets outside of their initial design parameters; however, much of the background and science that is involved in a wound ballistic study is outside of a typical wildlife biologist's training. I present a review of major wound ballistic history and background, including theories of how bullets wound and kill, and I review the primary techniques used for wound ballistic research. I found that most of the wound ballistic literature is found in a wide range of publications in both gray and primary literature; however, little work has been published that uses these techniques to investigate wound ballistics for wildlife management. Many of the techniques described for assessing the terminal ballistic for medical, military, and law enforcement purposes can be applied in the wildlife management field. © 2013 The Wildlife Society.
Prehospital management of gunshot-wounded (GW) patients influences injury-induced morbidity and mortality.
To evaluate prehospital management to GW patients emphasizing the protocol of patient transfer to appropriate centers.
This prospective study, included all GW patients referred to four major, level-I hospitals in Mashhad, Iran. We evaluated demographic data, triage, transport vehicles of patients, hospitalization time and the outcome.
There were 66 GW patients. The most affected body parts were extremities (60.6%, n = 40); 59% of cases (n = 39) were transferred to the hospitals with vehicles other than an ambulance. Furthermore, 77.3% of patients came to the hospitals directly from the site of event, and 22.7% of patients were referred from other medical centers. EMS action intervals from dispatchers to scene departure was not significantly different from established standards; however, arrival to hospital took longer than optimal standards. Additionally, time spent at emergency wards to stabilize vital signs was significantly less in patients who were transported by EMS ambulances (P = 0.01), but not with private ambulances (P = 0.47). However, ambulance pre-hospital care was not associated with a shorter hospital stay. Injury Severity was the only determinant of hospital stay duration (β = 0.36, P = 0.01) in multivariate analysis.
GW was more frequent in extremities and the most patients were directly transferred from the accident site. EMS (but not private) ambulance transport improved patients' emergency care and standard time intervals were achieved by EMS; however more than a half of the cases were transferred by vehicles other than an ambulance. Nevertheless, ambulance transportation (either by EMS or by private ambulance) was not associated with a shorter hospital stay. This showed that upgrade of ambulance equipment and training of private ambulance personnel may be needed.
Background: Prehospital management of gunshot-wounded (GW) patients influences injury-induced morbidity and mortality. Objectives: To evaluate prehospital management to GW patients emphasizing the protocol of patient transfer to appropriate centers. Patients and Methods: This prospective study, included all GW patients referred to four major, level-I hospitals in Mashhad, Iran. We evaluated demographic data, triage, transport vehicles of patients, hospitalization time and the outcome.
Gunshot backspatter comprises biological material expelled backward through bullet entry holes. Crime scene investigators analyze backspatter patterns to infer wounding circumstances. An understanding of the mechanism of backspatter generation, and the relationship between spatter patterns and bullet and tissue characteristics, would enhance the predictive value of such analysis. We examined soft-tissue ballistic wounding responses to determine the underlying components and how these might be relevant to the generation of backspatter. We identified five mechanistic components to ballistic wounding (elastic, viscous, crushing, cutting, and thermal), each related to mechanical disciplines (respectively, solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, fracture mechanics, rheology, and thermodynamics). We identified potential roles for these five components in backspatter formation and provide a scenario whereby a sequence of events incorporating these components could lead to backspatter generation and expulsion. This research provides a framework for the mathematical representation, and subsequent computational predictive modeling, of backspatter generation and pattern formation.
Identifying patients at risk of traumatic brain injury (TBI) is important because research suggests prophylactic treatments to reduce risk of long-term sequelae.
This review considers results from the lateral fluid percussion model of TBI, ballistic experiments in animal models and analyses of human studies.
Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that bullet impacts distant from the brain produce pressure waves that travel to the brain and can retain sufficient magnitude to induce brain injury.
The link to long-term sequelae could be investigated via epidemiological studies of patients who were gunshot in the chest to determine whether they experience elevated rates of epilepsy and other neurological sequelae.
This is the English translation of a book published, in German, by a different publisher (Springer, Berlin) in 1992. Unfortunately, the translation is seriously flawed. It varies from the stilted and comical to the incomprehensible.
This book is generated from the authors' numerous years of conducting courses and seminars on the subject of shooting incident reconstruction. It thoroughly addresses matters from simple to complex in providing the reader an explanation of the factors surrounding ballistics, trajectory, and shooting scenes. 420 pp. Pub. 7/11.
PURPOSE: To collect in and present in one place all twenty-six original wound profiles from the Wound Ballistics Laboratory of the Letterman Army Institute of Research METHOD: Various projectiles were shot into 10% ordnance gelatin blocks at a block temperature of 4° C. Measurements of the gelatin disruption and projectile deformation were taken. These data, with projectile velocity, weight, and type were shown on each wound profile. RESULTS: Wound profiles illustrate projectile penetration depth, deformation, and fragmentation. They show the temporary cavity, and have a scale for quantification of the profile. CONCLUSION: The wound profile illustrations can be used to predict damage profiles for the bullets shown and also to interpolate the damage profiles for similar projectiles.
Attempts to explain wound ballistics (the study of effects on the body produced by penetrating projectiles) have succeeded in mystifying it. Fallacious research by those with little grasp of the fundamentals has been perpetuated by editors, reviewers, and other investigators with no better grasp of the subject. This report explains the projectile-tissue interaction and presents data showing the location of tissue disrupted by various projectiles. These tissue disruption data are presented in the form of wound profiles. The major misconceptions perpetuated in the field are listed, analyzed, and their errors exposed using wound profiles and other known data. The more serious consequences of these misconceptions are discussed. Failure in adhering to the basic precepts of scientific method is the common denominator in all of the listed misconceptions. Keywords: Wound Ballistics; Gunshot Wounds; High Velocity; Kinetic Energy.
The systemic and rational approach used by Kocher, coupled with his interest in research of wound ballistics for more than 40 years, resulted in a clear elucidation of the principles that form the basic scientific foundation of modern wound ballistics. The validity of his work has been proved repeatedly on the battlefields of the world for more than a century. Presently, more than ever before, the sound scientific precepts revealed by Kocher are essential to keep technologic investigation within the framework of good judgment.
The nature and severity of a bullet wound depend on the characteristics of the bullet and of the tissues through which it travels. In addition to the mass and velocity of the bullet, its orientation and whether it fragments or deforms affect the nature of the wound. Two major mechanisms of wounding are described: crushing and stretching of tissue. Understanding the mechanisms by which bullets disrupt tissue can help physicians to evaluate and treat wounds.
Wound ballistics research has contributed much to the understanding of the pathophysiology of missile injury that now exists. From this store of knowledge treatment regimes have evolved which have greatly improved the lot of the soldier wounded in war. However, research must keep pace with changes that are taking place in weapons research and development so that the particular needs of the Army Medical Services on a future battlefield can be met. The differing needs of civilian and military medical services are highlighted. The marked differences that exist between the missile wound seen and treated in a late twentieth century hospital and the wounds likely to be encountered on the modern battlefield are enumerated and discussed.
Attempts to explain wound ballistics (the study of effects on the body produced by penetrating projectiles) have only succeeded in mystifying it. This review explains the projectile-tissue interaction and presents data showing the location, type, and amount of tissue disruption characteristically produced by various projectiles. Data on tissue disruption are presented graphically as wound profiles. The major misconceptions in the field are listed, analyzed, and disentangled. Failure in adhering to the basic precepts of scientific method is the common denominator in all of the listed misconceptions; the result has been diversion of attention from the element essential to understanding and properly treating the gunshot wound--objective evaluation of the wound itself.
The aim of the present study was to investigate pressure changes and possible damage to the central and peripheral nervous system induced by a high-energy missile striking a peripheral extremity. Anesthetized pigs were shot with a high-velocity missile (1,500 ms-1) in their left thigh. Transducers placed in the abdomen and brain recorded short-lasting bursts (1.0 to 1.5 ms) of oscillating pressure waves of high frequency. The amplitude of the pressure waves within the brain was about 125 KPa, and in the abdomen about 270 KPa, with a mean value of transferred energy from the missile of about 700 joules. Concomitantly, there were one or two apneic periods with a duration of a few seconds during the first minute after the shot. No significant changes in the heart rate, blood pressure, or other circulatory parameters were detected. Minor blood-brain and blood-nerve barrier damage occurred. It is concluded that the pressure waves caused by hits of peripheral parts of the body by high-energy missiles may be of such a large magnitude that distant damage to nervous tissue may result.
A review of the ballistics and mechanisms of gunshot wounds is presented. Problems of wound management and complication are also discussed, together with a resume of pertinent literature.
Projectiles hitting the human body cause shock waves spreading throughout the tissue. To verify a presumed interaction between these shockwaves and nervous tissue electrophysiological experiments have been performed showing the following results: 1. Compound action potentials (CAPs) are provoked in the peripheral nerves by the shockwaves. 2. The amplitude of the CAPs correspond to the magnitude of the shockwaves. 3. There is no electrical activity in the peripheral nerves below a certain threshold pressure. 4. "Saturation effect" is occurring beyond a certain pressure limit.
There are two distinct mechanisms of ballistic injury. Crushing of tissue resulting in a permanent tract is the primary factor in wounding of most tissues and most body regions. Temporary cavitation causes radial tissue displacement and subsequent shearing, compression and especially stretching of tissue analogous to blunt trauma. In contrast to the effect in elastic tissue, temporary cavitation can contribute substantially to wounding of inelastic tissue, such as the brain. This is the case in penetrating gunshot wounds to the head. Additionally, the penetration of the bony cranium can produce secondary missiles in the form of bone or bullet fragments and a tendency of the bullet to deformation and early yaw. Most important, wounding resulting from temporary cavitation is greatly augmented by the confined space provided by the unyielding walls of the skull. Bone contact and enhanced effects of temporary cavitation result in an enlarged zone of disintegrated tissue and in high intracranial peak pressures. Morphological signs of powerful intracranial pressure effects are cortical contusion zones, indirect skull fractures and perivascular haemorrhages remote from the tract. Depending on ballistic and anatomical parameters, the intracranial effect varies from slightly more severe injury than in isolated soft tissue to an "explosive" type of injury with comminuted fractures of the skull and laceration of the brain. Incapacitation is the physiologically based inability to perform complex and longer lasting movements independent of consciousness or intention. Immediate incapacitation is possible following cranio-cerebral gunshot wounds or wounds that disrupt the upper cervical spinal cord only. Rapid incapacitation can be produced by massive bleeding from major vessels or the heart. Immediate incapacitation is the result of primary intracranial effects of the bullet. A mechanism similar to commotion cerebri applied extracranially does not exist in cases of penetrating gunshot wounds to the head.
Because of the enhanced intracranial tissue disruption (see companion paper) and the functional significance of the central nervous system, penetrating gunshot wounds of the head commonly result in immediate incapacitation. However, in the last century numerous publications reported sustained capability to act following penetrating gunshot wounds of the head. These are reviewed. A large number of case reports had to be excluded from re-examination because of doubtful capability to act or lack of morphological documentation. There remained 53 case reports from 42 sources for systematic analysis. Favourable conditions for sustained capability to act are present in cases where the additional wounding resulting from the special wound ballistic qualities of the head (see companion paper) are minimized. Thus, more than 70% of the guns used fired slow and lightweight bullets: 6.35 mm Browning, .22 rimfire or extremely ineffective projectiles (ancient, inappropriate or selfmade). A centrefire rifle or a shotgun from close range were never employed in cases involving intracerebral tracts. A coincidence of several lucky circumstances made sustained capability to act possible in two cases of military centrefire rifle bullets passing longitudinally between the frontal lobes without direct contact with brain tissue. Only two large handguns resulting in intracerebral wounding were used: one firing a .38 special bullet, which solely wounded the base of the right temporal lobe and one firing a .45 lead bullet, which seriously injured the left frontal lobe but whose trajectory was limited to the anterior fossa of the skull.
Of the trajectories, 28% were outside the neurocranium. At least 70% of the craniocerebral tracts passed above the anterior fossa of the skull, wounding the frontal parts of the brain. Apart from a neurophysiological approach, this preference can be explained by the fact that the base of the anterior cranial fossa and the sella turcica area serve as a bony barrier protecting the parts of the brain located in its “shadow” relative to the trajectory against cavitational tissue displacement and associated overpressures. This is particularly true of the brain stem. Intracerebral trajectories not located above the anterior fossa were caused by slow and lightweight bullets preferring one temporal lobe. Additionally, one parietal and one occipital lobe were each injured once by a very ineffective projectile and by a 7.65-mm bullet reduced in velocity. Not a single case of injury to the brain stem, the diencephalon, the cerebellum or major paths of motor conduction and only one grazing shot of the anterior parts of the nucleus caudatus (basal ganglia) were described. Morphological signs of high intracranial pressure peaks (cortical contusion zones, indirect skull fractures, perivascular haemorrhages) and secondary missiles were poorly documented. It is suggested that these findings are at least very rare and not obvious in cases of sustained capability to act.
There is no serious argument about the wounding potential of various kinds of penetrating projectiles. The laws of physics in concert with modern bullet testing have clarified and quantified the mechanisms by which bullets disrupt tissue. Despite this scientific background, much misinformation persists in the wound-ballistics literature. The article reviews the interaction of penetrating projectiles with human tissue. Understanding of wound allows the emergency physician to become a more informed reader of its literature, as well as a more reliable provider of care to the wounded patient.
Backspatter is the ejection of biological material from a gunshot entrance wound against the line of fire. This phenomenon was investigated experimentally in transverse gunshots to the heads of calves (n = 9) using two types of 9 mm Parabellum ammunition from shooting distances of 0-10 cm. The resulting bloodstains were documented on white paper placed horizontally 60 cm below the impact site. In this report the analysis was restricted to stains with a diameter > 0.5 mm. Backspatter was documented after every gunshot. The number of stains varied from 31-324 per gunshot and appeared to be independent of the shooting distance. The maximum distance droplets travelled varied from 72-119 cm. The majority of droplets accumulated between 0 and 50 cm. The number of droplets and the distances travelled should be higher in man for anatomical reasons. The direction a single droplet can take comprises every possible angle between the most tangential ones to the skin surface. This resulted in a semi-circle of 180 degrees covered with stains. Skin ruptures of the entrance wound were not observed. The succession of events was documented on high speed film and started with the recoil of the firearm, immediately followed by a blow-out effect of the skin. Large droplets exited approximately 0.7-4 ms after the bullet impacted the skin. The calculated minimum initial velocity of these droplets was 13-61 m/s. Backspatter from gunshots to the head likely is caused by the hot gases expanding subcutaneously and by cavitation-related intracranial overpressure and tail splashing. In three out of nine gunshots, secondary backspatter additionally occurred as a result of droplets produced by a stream of blood from the entrance wound impacting the paper surface.
Forensic science uses substitutes to reconstruct injury patterns in order to answer questions regarding the dynamic formation of unusual injuries. Using a case study, an experimental simulation of a finger was designed, for the first time with a combination of hard wood and glycerin soap. With this model as an intermediate target simulation, it was possible not only to demonstrate the "bullet-body (finger) interaction", but also to recreate the wound pattern found in the victim. This case demonstrates that by using ballistic models and body-part substitutes, gunshot cases can be reproduced simply and economically, without coming into conflict with ethical guidelines.
The goal of this study was to document the dynamic effects created within, and the developing mechanisms of a gunshot entrance wound to the skin utilizing high-speed photography and the "skin-skull-brain model". The high-speed photography was taken with an Imacon 468/Hadland-Photonics camera. Full metal jacketed, 9 mm Luger projectiles were fired at the target model from a distance of 10 m. During the evaluation of the "skin-skull-brain model", it was possible to show that injuries inflicted to this model are fully comparable to the morphology of equivalent real gunshot entrance wounds. It has been possible to document and study the dynamic process of the "bullet-skin-interaction" in the gunshot entrance wound. The development of the morphologic terms of the entrance wound are discussed. In combination with high-speed photography, this "skin-skull-brain model" is a perfect tool for the documentation and the study of the dynamic development of gunshot entrance wounds in the skin.
In order to create and study wound morphology, a "skin-skull-brain model" had to be designed which would make the laboratory reproduction of a real ballistic injury possible. To simulate the human skin, an artificial skin (a silicon cap) is used. This silicon scalp contains synthetic fibers (artificial leather) to simulate the collagen and fat of the scalp. The artificial skull is a layered polyurethane sphere (19 cm o.d.; and 5, 6, or 7 mm thick) constructed in a specially designed form with a Tabula externa, Tabula interna, and a porous Diploe sandwiched in between. The periostium of the artificial skull is made of latex. This elastic latex layer prevents the bone fragments from scattering after the model has been struck by gunfire. The brain itself is simulated with ordnance gelatin, 10% at 4 degrees C, a material well known in wound ballistics. Gunshots were fired at a distance of 10 m from the model. During the evaluation of the "skin-skull-brain model", it was possible to show that injuries inflicted to this model are fully comparable to the morphology of equivalent real gunshot injuries. Using the "skin-skull-brain model" has some significant advantages: the model is inexpensive, easy to construct, instantly available for use, and eliminates ethics conflicts. The main advantage of such a model is, in comparison with biological substances, the high reproducibility of inflicted traumas.
A total of 624 consecutive gunshot autopsies from the Institutes of Legal Medicine in Münster and Hamburg was investigated retrospectively. In a subsample of 284 suicides and 293 homicides (n=577), a large variety of features such as firearm, ammunition, number and site of entrance wounds, shooting distance and direction of the internal bullet path were recorded and binary logistic regression analysis performed in the case of bullet paths. Females constituted 26.3% of the homicide victims and 10.6% of the suicides. Short-barrelled firearms outnumbered long arms in homicides by 6:1 and in suicides by 2:1. More than 1 gunshot injury was found in 5.6% of the suicides (maximum 5 gunshots) and in 53.9% of the homicides (maximum 23 gunshots). The suicidal gunshots were fired from contact or near contact range in 89% while this was the case in only 7.5% of the homicides. The typical entrance wound sites in suicides were the temple (36%), mouth (20%), forehead (11%) and left chest (15%) but uncommon entrance wound sites such as the eye, ear, and back of the neck and head were also encountered. In suicidal gunshots to the right temple (n=107), only 6% of the bullet paths were directed downwards and only 4% were directed from back-to-front. In gunshots to the left chest (n=130), bullet paths running right-to-left or parallel occurred frequently in suicides (75%) and infrequently in homicide victims (19%). From 61 suicides who fired the gun inside their mouth, only 1 pointed the gun downwards. Consequently, some bullet path directions cannot be considered indicative of suicide: downwards and back-to-front in gunshots to the temple, left-to-right in gunshots to the left chest and downwards in mouth shots. The isolated autopsy findings can only be indicative of suicide or homicide but the combined analysis of several findings can be associated with a high probability.
Experimenting upon a synthetic, non-biological Skull-Brain Model, our goal was to document and study the bullet-body interaction of grazing (glancing, tangential) gunshots. Thanks to the high-speed study of the dynamic bullet-body interaction it was possible to document the glancing behavior of projectiles with a resolution of 50 million pictures per second. It was possible to demonstrate the differing deformation and fragmentation patterns between the 9mm Luger full metal jacketed projectile and the 38 Smith & Wesson (S & W) lead round nose projectile. In a true-to-life manner the morphologic fracture systems could be documented by utilization of the model in dependence of the projectile's behavior, deformation, and fragmentation. Based on these experimental studies with body models, conclusions could be drawn for surgical and reconstructive forensic questions in real cases. In summary, model substitutes offer a suitable basis for the study of the bullet-body interaction because the experiments are reproducible, totally independent of the biological variances of corpse and animal experiments, and are harmless from the ethical perspective.
The 100th anniversary of the foundation of the German Society of Legal Medicine is a good opportunity to review its contributions to forensic wound ballistics. The present article gives an overview of the scientific development in this field with special emphasis on work pioneering new developments and findings valid up to the present day, for example the presence of carboxyhemoglobin in the vicinity of the entrance wound as a sign of a contact or close-range shot [A. Paltauf, Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 3 (1890) 984-991, 1015-1017]; the correct interpretation of the muzzle imprint [A. Werkgartner, Beitr. Gerichtl. Med. 6 (1924) 148-161] and the retrograde ballooning of the bullet entrance region in contact shots [F. Hausbrandt, Dtsch. Z. ges. Gerichtl. Med. 38 (1944) 45-76; H. Elbel, Med. Welt 20 (1958) 343-345]; wound patterns from captive-bolt livestock stunners [H. Czursiedel, Dtsch. Z. ges. Gerichtl. Med. 28 (1937) 132-133]; singeing of synthetic fiber textiles in close-range shots with nitro powder ammunition [S. Berg, Arch. Kriminol. 124 (1959) 5-8,17-22]; the wound ballistic processes on penetration of the bullet and the origin of the abrasion collar [K. Sellier, Beitr. Gerichtl. Med. 25 (1969) 265-270]. More recently medicolegal research in the German-speaking countries covered the following subjects: studies of the dynamic bullet-target interactions in experimental gunshots to simulants and composite body models; use of modern imaging techniques (CT, MRI) in the pre-autopsy diagnosis of lethal gunshot injuries; injuries from blank guns; mechanisms of incapacitation by gunshot injuries; development of improved methods for the evidence of gunshot residues on the firing hand; backspatter from close-range shots; medicolegal contributions in the discrimination of accidental, homicidal and suicidal gunshot injuries.
Butterworth Heinemann
- Oxford
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Gunshot wounds, practical aspects of firearms, ballistics and forensic techniques
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The “shock wave” myth (and comment)
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- M L Fackler
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Projectile, material interactions: soft tissue and bone
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