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61
An Asphaltum Coiled Basket
Impression, Tarring Pebbles,
and Middle Holocene Water
Bottles from San Miguel Island,
California
TODD J. BRAJE
Dept. of Anthropology, University of Oregon,
Eugene, Oregon 97403-1218
JON M. ERLANDSON
Dept. of Anthropology, University of Oregon,
Eugene, Oregon 97403-1218
JAN TIMBROOK
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History,
Santa Barbara, California 93105 USA
A stratified and deeply buried Middle Holocene shell
midden (CA-SMI-396) on San Miguel Island recently
produced evidence of the earliest securely dated water
bottle and tarring pebbles in southern California. Several
asphaltum basketry impressions, including what appears
to be a fragment of a coiled basket, and two tarring
pebble features were found eroding from shell midden
deposits dating as early as 5130 cal BP. We suggest that
water bottle production may have developed during the
Middle Holocene on the Channel Islands, where fresh
water resources were scarce, as a response to the relatively
warm and dry periods of the Middle Holocene. The coiled
basketry impression is unique for this time period in the
Chumash area and its implications are difficult to assess.
Southern California contains some of the earliest
and most diverse evidence of basketry technology in
North America (Adovasio 1977; Connolly et al. 1995;
Vellanoweth et al. 2003). San Miguel Island’s Daisy Cave
and Cave of the Chimneys, for example, have yielded
twined basketry and cordage fragments from Early
Holocene deposits dating between 9900 and 7500 cal B.P.
Connolly et al. (1995) and Vellanoweth et al. (2003) have
interpreted these as possible fragments of sandals, straps,
belts, fishing nets and lines, or bags.
Among the Chumash and Tongva, a distinctive type
of basket was bottle-shaped and sealed with bitumen
(asphaltum) (see Blackburn 1963; Hudson and Blackburn
1983). Gamble (2005) has suggested that such water
bottles were an important component of strategies
designed to cope with arid landscapes, especially during
drought periods.
At European contact, a variety of large and small
bottles were used by both island and mainland peoples.
Missionaries described these as vessels, flasks, or pitchers
(Bolton 1916:88; Wagner 1929:237) in which water was
stored. An early description comes from Costansó in A.D.
1769, who noted:
…the large vessels which contain water are made of
a very strong texture of rushes, coated inside with
pitch, and they give them the same shape as our jars
[Hemert-Engert and Teggart 1910:45].
Historical accounts describe water bottles in a variety
of shapes and sizes constructed from processed reeds,
rushes, grasses, juncus, or sumac. These items have been
classified into two general types: small bottles with a
rounded body and (often) a neck, used for individual
consumption, and large bottles with a tubular body and a
small neck, used by a household (Hudson and Blackburn
1983:39 –54). Both types were normally twined and
internally sealed with asphaltum, readily available from
onshore or offshore oil seeps (see Dedera 1976; Dittman
1973; Grant 1962; Heizer 1940).
Ethnographic accounts also describe the water-
sealing process (see Craig 1966:210, 1967:98). Nidever
described the process used by the “Lone Woman” of San
Nicolas Island:
I came across her lining one of the vessels she used
for holding water. She had built a fire and had several
small stones about the size of a walnut heating in it.
Taking one of the vessels, which was in shape and
size very like a demijohn, excepting that the neck and
mouth were much longer, she dropped a few pieces
of asphaltum within it, and as soon as the stones were
well heated they were dropped in on top of the asphal-
tum. They soon melted it, when, resting the bottom of
the vessel on the ground, she gave it a rotary motion
with both hands until its interior was completely cov-
ered with asphaltum. These vessels held water well,
and if kept full may be placed with safety in a hot sun
[1973:14].
R E P O R TS
Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology | Vol. 25, No. 2 (2005) | pp. 61–93
62 Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology | Vol. 25, No. 2 (2005)
Except under rare preservational conditions,
archaeological evidence of this process is found as
negative impressions of the woven fiber preserved in
asphaltum or as small, round stones (tarring pebbles) with
traces of asphaltum on their surfaces. Our recent research
on San Miguel Island yielded both tarring pebbles and
basketry impressions— including an impression of coiled
basketry— dated to the Middle Holocene. These appear
to be among the earliest such remains that have yet been
found in the region.
THE ANTIQUITY
OF SEALED WATER BOTTLES
Although ethnographic examples are well documented,
the antiquity of sealed water bottles among the Chumash
and Tongva is poorly known. Tarring pebbles are
relatively common constituents of archaeological sites
along the southern California Coast and asphaltum
basketry impressions have been found in many sites.
Due to stratigraphic disturbance from gophers, plowing,
and other processes, it is often difficult to be certain of
the age of tarring pebbles or basket impressions found
in mainland sites. This problem is compounded by the
fact that even where preserved fiber from possible water
bottles is recovered, direct dating is problematic due to
oil contamination. Fortunately, the stratigraphic integrity
of many Channel Islands sites allows a relatively secure
determination of the age of in situ artifacts.
Prior to our research, the earliest archaeological
evidence for water bottles in coastal southern California
came from San Nicolas Island, where asphaltum impres-
sions from CA-SNI-40 may date to as early as 3550 –3800
cal BP and at CA-SNI-11 to about 4450
-
4850 cal BP
(Bleitz 1991; Erlandson 1997). Other early evidence comes
from San Miguel Island, where an asphaltum basketry
impression recovered by Vellanoweth et al. dated to ca.
4100 cal BP and extensive asphaltum processing features
dated to about 3000 cal BP (Rick 2004:92). On Santa
Cruz Island, basketry impressions and tarring pebbles
were found in CA-SCRI-333 midden deposits dated
between about 3300 and 4000 cal BP (Wilcoxon 1993;
Figure 1. Map of southern California and the adjacent offshore Channel Islands and the location of CA-SMI-396 (by R. Gerke).
Northern Channel Islands
Southern Channel Islands
San Nicolas
Santa Barbara
Catalina
San Clemente
Santa Rosa Santa Cruz
San Miguel Anacapa
�
Kilometers
50
0
CA-SMI-396
Connolly et al. 1995). On the Santa Barbara coast, tarring
pebbles at CA-SBA-2067 were found in a buried shell
midden dated between about 3900 and 4200 cal BP
(Erlandson 1997:98; Erlandson et al. 1993). North of San
Luis Obispo, CA-SLO-977 produced numerous pebbles,
cobbles, and flat rocks coated in asphaltum, described by
Dallas (1993:338) as “asphaltum spreaders” and dated to
ca. 3750– 4000 cal BP.
In 2004, two asphaltum basketry impression
fragments and two tarring pebble features were identified
eroding from a deeply buried component in a large shell
midden at CA-SMI-396 on San Miguel Island (Figure
1). Three radiocarbon (14C) dates on well-preserved
marine shells from this midden produced calibrated
ages ranging between 5130 and 4490 cal B.P. (Table 1),
somewhat extending the antiquity of asphaltum-sealed
basketry along the California coast. One of the asphaltum
basket impressions appears to be from a coiled basket, an
unusual find for basketry remains from the Chumash area
at such an early date, and perhaps the earliest example of
coiled basketry yet discovered from southern California.
Here, we describe the setting of CA-SMI-396, our initial
findings, and their implications.
SITE SETTING AND BACKGROUND
CA-SMI-396 is located on a prominent dune ridge
overlooking Simonton Cove on the northwest coast of
San Miguel Island, the westernmost of the Northern
Channel Islands (Figure 1). The site is large, extending for
approximately 300 meters north-south and 250 meters
east-west. There appear to be two major shell midden
strata in eroding dune exposures, each between 20 and
50 cm. thick, eroding from prominent paleosols. The
lower midden component, embedded in what Johnson
(1972) referred to as the Abalone soil, is deeply buried by
dune sand capped by midden deposits dating to the Late
Holocene. The Middle Holocene Abalone soil stratum is
eroding from the north side of a flat ridge approximately
three-fourths of the way up the dune, at about 60 m.
in elevation. Here we defined three archaeological
loci — east, central, and west —within a horizontally-
continuous shell midden soil. Below the site, a shallow
sea cliff overlooks a mosaic of sandy beaches and rocky
intertidal habitats. A small intermittent spring is located
in a canyon about 100 m. to the west, and a large offshore
oil seep located about three kilometers to the northwest
deposits large amounts of asphaltum on nearby beaches
(see Heye 1921:20).
Except for reconnaissance, no archaeological
work had been conducted at CA-SMI-396 prior to
our investigations. In 2004, University of Oregon
archaeologists visited the site to surface collect artifacts
and ecofacts, gather 14C samples, and excavate two 25-liter
bulk samples from eroding midden exposures, rich in
shells of large red abalone, black abalone, mussel, owl
limpet, stone artifacts, and other site constituents.
Our research revealed the remnants of what appear
to be two water bottle production features, both clearly
in situ in the Middle Holocene component at CA-SMI-
396. The western midden locus produced two asphaltum
basketry impressions and a cluster of sandblasted tarring
pebbles, eroding from the dense shell midden deposit.
Embedded in the surface of the midden in the east locus,
25 – 30 tarring pebbles were found in a cluster with a
heavy concentration of asphaltum. In 2005, several small
RE POR T | An Asphaltam Coiled Basket Impression, Tarring Pebbles, and Middle Holocene Water Bottles from San Miguel Island, California | Braje / Erlandson / Timbrook 63
TABLE 1
14C DATES FROM CA-SMI-396
Provenience Material Lab # Measured 14C Conventional Age Range
Age Age (calBP)
Abalone paleosol, Black abalone Beta-181392 4220 ±70 4650±70 4780 – 4440
western area
Abalone paleosol, Marine shell Beta-194508 4240 ±70 4650 ±70 4710 –4490
northeast area
Abalone paleosol, Marine shell Beta-194509 4580 ±50 4990 ±50 4900 –5130
southeast area
Notes. Dates were calibrated using Calib 5.0.1 (Stuiver and Reimer 1993, 2000) using a ΔR of 225 +35 years was used for all shell collected, 13C/12C ratios were either determined by the radiocarbon lab, or
an average of +430 years was applied. All 14C dates in table and text are given with ranges at one sigma.
64 Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology | Vol. 25, No. 2 (2005)
and poorly preserved fragments of an asphaltum-sealed
basket were also found near the tarring pebble feature
in this eastern site area. Unfortunately, these impressions
were too fragile and fragmentary to recover for analysis.
The two basketry impressions from the western
site area were examined by Timbrook at the Santa
Barbara Museum of Natural History. One of these basket
impressions appeared to be of twined weave but was
badly degraded, limiting any definite conclusions about
the materials or methods used in the construction of
the basket. The other specimen produced an impression
approximately 50 mm long and 26 mm wide, with a well-
preserved surface texture of the stitches (Figure 2). It
appears to be from a coiled basket sewn with split Juncus
stems, similar to the basketry of the historic Chumash.
The exposed foundation appears to be constructed from
a bundle of grass stems or of slender Juncus rods.
In addition to its unusually early date, the basket’s
origin and function are problematic. Although Craig
(1966:209–210) cited ethnographic evidence that the
base of Chumash water bottles may sometimes have
been coiled, all known ethnographic and archaeological
specimens were made by twining. Coiled basketry
technology is generally considered to have spread into
California from the western Great Basin during the
Middle Holocene (Adovasio 1986:200; Dawson 1990;
Jolie and Hattori 2005), but not adopted by the Chumash
and Tongva (Gabrielino) until sometime after AD 1200
(L. E. Dawson, personal communication to J. Timbrook
1978, 1990). Recent research suggests that southern
California coiled basketry may have a separate origin,
possibly in northern Mexico at a somewhat earlier date
(E.A. Jolie, J.K. Polanich, personal communications to
J. Timbrook 2005). The fragment from CA-SMI-396
suggests that coiled baskets may have been used by
the Island Chumash as early as the Middle Holocene.
Whether the coiled basket was made on the Northern
Channel Islands, where Juncus textilis is not known to have
grown (Timbrook 1993:50), or in the larger Santa Barbara
Channel area remains uncertain. It could have originated
elsewhere, as Middle Holocene trade links with interior
tribes of California and the western Great Basin are well
documented.
Asphaltum was used in combination with a variety of
basketry technologies along the southern California coast.
For example, bottomless baskets were glued onto hopper
Figure 2. Asphaltum coiled basket impression from CA-SMI-396 (photo by T. Braje).
mortar bases with asphaltum. Asphaltum impressions of
mortar hoppers might well be preserved, but the rows
of coiling would be expected to have a greater radius
of arc than the SMI-396 specimen. This fragment has a
tighter curve and appears to have come from an area
near the center of the basket, an area absent in the
bottomless hoppers. On the other hand, the exteriors of
some large, coiled Chumash storage baskets were coated
with asphaltum to protect them from moisture (see
Craig 1966:212; Hudson and Blackburn 1983:65), and the
coiled asphaltum impression from CA-SMI-396 could be
a fragment of such a basket. Ethnohistoric accounts also
describe tar-lined coiled baskets used to hold offerings
or water for ritual purposes (Hudson and Blackburn
1986:243–246).
Tarring pebbles, while well documented for
waterproofing basket interiors, are unlikely to have been
used to coat the exteriors of baskets with asphaltum.
Consequently, the presence of tarring pebble features
at CA-SMI-396 suggests that water bottles were being
manufactured (or at least sealed) at the site between
about 5100 and 4500 years ago, using a process well
documented for the ethnographic Chumash and Tongva.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The tarring pebble features and asphaltum basketry
impressions found at CA-SMI-396 add to our current
knowledge of the development of traditional technologies
in southern California. The excellent preservation
conditions at the site provide glimpses into the daily
lives of coastal Californian residents and early maritime
technologies. Basketry impressions and tarring pebbles
have been found at many mainland and Channel Islands
sites, but to our knowledge the CA-SMI-396 examples
are the earliest securely dated specimens yet documented.
Although it seems unlikely that we have found the
earliest examples, excavations at several island and single-
component mainland sites dated between about 7500
and 10,000 years old have produced no similar artifacts.
The lack of earlier finds suggests that asphaltum-sealed
baskets and water bottles were probably not a part of
technologies along the southern California Coast during
the Early Holocene (see Erlandson 1994).
The presence of multiple tarring pebble features at
CA-SMI-396 around 5100–4500 years ago suggests the
possibility that asphaltum-sealed water bottles may have
been developed during the Middle Holocene on
California’s Channel Islands before they came into use
on the adjacent mainland. Water was probably always a
scarce and valuable commodity on the Channel Islands,
especially on San Miguel, Anacapa, Santa Barbara, San
Nicolas, and San Clemente islands. Asphaltum-sealed
water bottles may have been developed in response to
the relatively warm and dry conditions that characterized
much of the Middle Holocene. Although the
“Altithermal” of the Middle Holocene encompassed
considerable climatic variability (see Kennett 2005:70),
a general decrease in rainfall and increase in temper-
ature probably affected the number and productivity of
fresh water springs and the reliable availability of fresh
water in seasonal drainages. Sealed water bottles may
have developed as people needed to travel increased
distances to water sources and to store fresh water for
prolonged periods.
Water storage technologies were an important part
of maritime lifeways along the arid southern California
Coast no less than for people living in the arid interior of
eastern California and the Great Basin, who apparently
kept water in containers other than baskets until
relatively late in prehistory (Catherine S. Fowler, personal
communication to J.Timbrook 2005). Nevertheless,
conclusions concerning the antiquity of sealed water
bottles in southern California must be made with caution,
as much remains to be learned about Middle Holocene
peoples along the California coast. The development of
asphaltum-sealed basketry among Channel Islanders
between at least 5100 and 4500 years ago adds to the
evidence of a well-established basketry tradition among
Middle Holocene peoples of California.
The use of ancient coiled basketry on the Northern
Channel Islands also suggests that woven technologies
may have been more diverse than currently represented
in archaeological assemblages, where basketry is rarely
preserved. Until additional examples of similar age may
be discovered, however, there is a strong possibility that
the SMI-396 coiled basket was obtained through trade
rather than made in the local Chumash region. Although
its size, shape, and purpose are impossible to determine
from the fragment, one can speculate that the basket
may have had its asphaltum coating applied at the site to
make it suitable for holding water.
RE POR T | An Asphaltam Coiled Basket Impression, Tarring Pebbles, and Middle Holocene Water Bottles from San Miguel Island, California | Braje / Erlandson / Timbrook 65
66 Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology | Vol. 25, No. 2 (2005)
Although they are often fragmentary and difficult to
interpret, asphaltum basketry impressions are frequently
found in archaeological sites along the southern and
central California Coast. The systematic study of such
finds may help fill some of the gaps in our knowledge of
ancient coastal basketry traditions in the area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our research was supported by Channel Islands National Park,
a Mia Tegner Memorial Grant from the Marine Conservation
Biology Institute, the Western National Parks Association,
and the University of Oregon. Funds for 14C dating of the
CA-SMI-396 samples came from a Knight Professorship
(Erlandson) from the College of Arts and Sciences at the
University of Oregon. We thank Ann Huston, Kelly Minas,
and Ian Williams for their time and support. Special thanks to
Channel Islands National Park and the Chumash community
for their continued support of our research. We are also grateful
to Torben Rick, Doug Kennett, Lynn Gamble, Tom Blackburn,
Tom Connolly, Catherine Fowler, Edward Jolie, Judith Polanich,
and an anonymous reviewer for their comments and assistance
in the final revisions and production of this paper.
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RE POR T | An Asphaltam Coiled Basket Impression, Tarring Pebbles, and Middle Holocene Water Bottles from San Miguel Island, California | Braje / Erlandson / Timbrook 67
