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97
Focus Volume 58 (4) : April, 2005
Irish Veterinary Journal
CONTINUING EDUCATION Volume 59 (2) : February, 2006
Irish Veterinary Journal
Detection dogs for non-biological scents
Dogs trained to detect explosives and land mines are now the largest
group of working scent-detection dogs in the world (Gazit and Terkel,
2003). They are considered to be the most reliable, versatile and cost
efficient explosives-detectors (Furton and Myers, 2001; Lorenzo et al.,
2003). The ability of dogs to locate their target scents while ignoring
the many non-target scents encountered in their search environments
(e.g., airports) is claimed to be better than that of instruments (Furton
and Myers, 2001). There are over 100 million laid land mines around
the world. They block access to productive land, curb economic
growth, and kill and maim people (McLean, 2001). Mine-detection
dogs search for buried land mines and are used to confirm that areas
are free from mines (Phelan and Webb, 2003). They are trained to
detect the explosive chemicals in land mines but also to recognise the
scent of tripwires (Fjellanger, 2003; Hayter, 2003). Experts believe that
the detection abilities of land mine-detection dogs are superior to all
comparable methods (Bach and McLean, 2003).
Accelerant-detection dogs are trained to locate the residual scent of
flammable products used as accelerants by arsonists and to ignore
the smell of pyrolysis products such as burned carpet or wood (Katz
and Midkiff, 1998). Dogs find vestiges of accelerants at fire scenes
more quickly and precisely than humans (Kurz et al., 1994). When
dogs are used to locate accelerants, fewer samples from a scene
need to be submitted for analysis, and this improves the efficiency
of investigations and saves time and money (Tindall and Lothridge,
1995; Katz and Midkiff, 1998). Dogs can detect extremely low volumes
(5.0 to 0.005μL) of accelerants, levels which are at or beyond the
sensitivity of laboratory techniques and equipment (Kurz et al., 1994;
Tindall and Lothridge, 1995; Kurz et al., 1996).
Dogs can be trained to identify areas contaminated with hazardous
chemicals, such as toluene (Arner et al., 1986). They are capable
of locating very small (0.1g) quantities of these chemicals over
large distances where instruments have failed to detect them. This
improves human safety by identifying the outer limits of a polluted
area before dangerously high levels of toxins are encountered and
can determine point sources for more efficient sampling (Arner et al.,
1986). Organochlorine residues have been found in beef exports from
Australia and dogs are now used routinely to detect aldrin, dieldrin,
and DDT contamination on farmland. The level of contamination in
the soil can be very low (1 part per million and less) (Crook, 2000)
and trained dogs can identify point sources of organochlorines with
sensitivity levels of up to 99%. Using dogs saves time and reduces
the number of soil samples required to identify contaminated sites
(Crook, 2000).
Dogs are used by customs services to find illegal drugs including
cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine and marijuana (Lorenzo et al.,
2003) and are used routinely to screen the millions of people and
items crossing international borders through airports, seaports and
by post (Adams and Johnson, 1994; Rouhi, 1997). Drug-detection dogs
are also used by police and in schools and workplaces to detect and
deter the use and trading of illicit substances (Ritz, 1994).
Detection dogs for biological scents
Human scents
Dogs are able to identify an individual’s scent even when it is mixed
with the scent of another person or with other strong smelling
substances (Kalmus, 1955). Police in some countries use dogs to
identify criminals by matching the scent of a perpetrator at a crime
scene to the scent of a suspect. To some police forces this is the
The use of scent-detection dogs
Clare Browne1, Kevin Stafford2 and Robin Fordham1
1 Ecology Group, Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
2 Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) can detect substances at much lower concentrations than humans (Thorne, 1995) and their area of
olfactory epithelium (18 to 150 cm2 ; Dodd and Squirrel, 1980, cited in Thorne, 1995) is much greater than that of humans (3 cm2;
Albone, 1984). Dogs are used by humans to locate a range of substances because of their superior olfactory acuity. This paper reviews
the use of scent-detection dogs to detect non-biological scents (explosives, chemical contaminants, illegal drugs) and biological scents
(human odours, animal scents) and their role in conservation.
Dogs have
amazing
capacities to
detect
scents.
Author for Correspondence:
Clare Browne
Ecology Group
Institute of Natural Resources
Massey University
Palmerston North
New Zealand
Tel: +64 6 355 9235
Email: clare_browne@yahoo.co.nz
most valuable task a police dog can perform but it is controversial
(Schoon, 1997). Because the information provided by dogs in ‘scent
identification line-ups’ is used as evidence in court (Schoon, 1996),
its reliability has been investigated in several studies. Results indicate
that, with sufficient training, dogs are capable of matching scents from
different parts of the same human body (Schoon and De Bruin, 1994;
Settle et al., 1994). In addition, dogs can follow trails of human scent
through busy urban centres 48 hours after they were laid with 77.5%
average success (Harvey and Harvey, 2003).
Dogs trained for search and rescue are used to search for missing
people, avalanche victims, survivors at disaster sites (such as
earthquakes, floods and plane crashes) and drowned persons (Fenton,
1992; Hebard, 1993). Cadaver-detection dogs are trained to find
decomposing human bodies (Lasseter et al., 2003) and are used to
locate the victims of misadventure. Cadaver dogs are trained to find
traces of human corpses, such as skeletal remains or fluid and tissue
remnants, on the surface, buried underground, or in water (Fenton,
1992; Lasseter et al., 2003). Cadaver dogs can rapidly search large
areas for human remains, saving a considerable amount of human time
and effort (Komar, 1999). Detection rates of cadaver dogs range from
30% to 81% in field trials (Komar, 1999; Lasseter et al., 2003).
Scent detection dogs can aid in the diagnosis of some types of
cancer. They can detect the odour of melanoma cells and that of
urine from people with bladder cancer, with accuracy levels of 100%
and 41%, respectively (Pickel et al., 2001; Pickel et al., 2004; Willis et
al., 2004). Cancerous cells may produce volatile chemicals, enabling
their detection by dogs (Pickel et al., 2004). Edney (1993) described
the behaviour of 37 dogs that responded to their owners’ epileptic
events. Of these dogs, 57% displayed characteristic behaviours prior
to a seizure and 68% performed similar behaviours during a seizure.
Activities of the dogs prior to the onset of a human seizure were
predominantly attention-seeking such as barking, jumping up and
becoming overly attentive; while the behaviour of the dogs reacting
during their owners’ seizures were mainly described as protective,
including sitting and staying beside their owners. Dogs trained to alert
their owners to impending epileptic attacks were able to consistently
indicate to their owners that a seizure was imminent, with warning
times ranging from 10 to 45 minutes (Strong et al., 1999; Brown and
Strong, 2001). It has been suggested that dogs are able to detect
scents exuded by their owners before the epileptic fit and sense
behavioural changes in their owners at this time (Edney, 1993).
More than a third of people with diabetes reported that their
dogs react to their hypoglycaemic attacks (Lim et al., 1992; cited in
Chen et al., 2000). Three case studies described dogs detecting a
hypoglycaemic attack before their owners had noticed any symptoms
(Chen et al., 2000). The dogs displayed a range of abnormal behaviours
prior to and during their owners’ hypoglycaemia, including running
and hiding, barking and preventing the owner from leaving the house.
None of the dogs described resumed normal behaviours until their
owners had eaten food to correct blood glucose concentrations. The
mechanisms by which dogs detect changes in human blood glucose
levels are unknown, but it is suspected that the dogs recognise
olfactory changes attributed to increased sweating, possibly combined
with muscle tremors and behavioural changes (Chen et al., 2000).
Clare Browne’s
dog Apple sniffs
a dead tuatara,
a reptile used in
training.
Volume 59 (2) : February, 2006 CONTINUING EDUCATION
Irish Veterinary Journal
98
99
Animal scents
Dogs are used for biosecurity purposes in a variety of circumstances,
including containment and border control. Dogs are used in Guam, for
example, to search outward-bound cargo for brown tree snakes (Boiga
irregularis) and prevent accidental introduction of this pest elsewhere
(Engeman et al., 1998a; Engeman et al., 1998b). These snake-detection
dogs have an average location rate of 62% (Engeman et al., 2002).
Dogs can locate insects that damage plants. The red palm weevil
(Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) can inflict severe damage on date palms
(Phoenix dactylifera L.), the most important fruit crop in the Middle
East (Nakash et al., 2000). Affected trees are extremely difficult to
find, but can be saved if identified in the early stages of infestation
(Nakash et al., 2000). Nakash et al. (2000) reported that two dogs
were trained to respond to the secretions of infested trees and
produced very high success rates in initial tests. Dogs can also be
trained to detect the egg masses of gypsy moths (Porthetria dispar
L.) which are laid close to the ground in leaf litter or debris and are
particularly hard to find (Wallner and Ellis, 1976). Two dogs evaluated
at searching for egg masses had a combined average detection rate of
73%, with the results showing a strong correlation between one dog’s
number of indications and egg mass density (Wallner and Ellis, 1976).
There is potential for calibrating and using a dog to estimate egg mass
density by the number located within a specific time period.
In the USA subterranean termite damage and control are estimated
to cost up to US$2 billion per annum (Culliney and Grace, 2000).
Early infestations are often impossible to detect visually and can cause
significant damage before they are discovered (Brooks et al., 2003).
Trained termite-detection dogs can locate eastern subterranean
termites (Reticulitermes flavipes Kollar) with average success rates of
over 95%, and can discriminate between termites, other insects (ants
and cockroaches) and termite-damaged wood (Brooks et al., 2003).
When the ability of dogs to detect western subterranean termites
(Reticulitermes hesperus Banks) was compared with electronic odour
detection devices, the dogs correctly identified 98% of artificially
set-up infestations while the electronic device had a low detection
rate (Lewis et al., 1997). However, the dogs also produced 28%
false positives, where there was no infestation, although this may be
attributable to training techniques (Brooks et al., 2003).
Screwworms (Cochliomyia hominivorax) are obligate parasites that
can kill warm-blooded animals and cause significant economic losses
(Welch, 1990). A dog trained to detect both screwworm pupae
and screwworm-infested wounds on animals had an extremely high
success rate (99.7%) at finding them (Welch, 1990).
Dogs may even be used to detect microorganisms. Some
cyanobacteria species in commercial catfish ponds produce odorous
compounds which accumulate in the flesh of the fish, causing an
unpleasant flavour (Shelby et al., 2004). The cost of rejecting affected
fish ranges from $15 to 23 million annually for catfish producers in
the United States (Hanson, 2003; cited in Shelby et al., 2004). Shelby
et al. (2004) showed that dogs could identify the two most common
‘off-flavours’, 2-methylisoborneol and geosmin, in pond water samples
with high levels of accuracy. Three dogs detected the off-flavours at
levels of 1μg/L with 79% to 93% accuracy and 10ng/L with 37% to 49%
success. Trained dogs are a practical method of detecting off-flavours
and are a reliable alternative to chemical analysis or human taste-
testers (Shelby et al., 2004). Microbial growth in buildings can have
detrimental effects on human health and cause costly deterioration
of construction materials. The initial detection of microbial growth
is extremely difficult and Kauhanen et al. (2002) tested the efficacy
of dogs trained to find rot fungi, typical building moulds and bacteria.
They found that their two study dogs were able to locate 75% of
hidden microbial growth samples.
Dogs can identify dairy cows that are in oestrus from the scent of
vaginal fluid, urine, milk and blood plasma, with accuracies ranging
from 78% to 99% (Kiddy et al., 1978; Kiddy et al., 1984). Dogs can also
discriminate between the milk of cows in pre-oestrus, oestrus and
dioestrus (Hawk et al., 1984).
Detection dogs used for conservation
Dogs are used to locate and monitor a number of endangered
mammals and birds and are a comparatively unobtrusive method for
researchers and conservationists to use when studying rare species.
Dogs can offer safer methods of studying potentially dangerous
animals, reduce some sample collection biases and decrease the
time spent searching for animals. It is often difficult to collect
information on endangered species due to their low densities and
the large, remote areas they commonly inhabit. The use of scat
(animal droppings)-detection dogs is becoming increasingly popular in
many countries due to the problems inherent in traditional methods
of researching threatened species. Mark-recapture techniques
and attaching radio-tracking devices, for example, are invasive and
potentially harmful to the animals (Long et al., 2002). Using dogs to
find scats is a non-invasive method of studying rare animal populations,
and it can increase sample numbers while reducing collection bias
(Wasser et al., 2004). The information that can be extracted from
scats is comparable to data provided by traditional methods.
Applying molecular techniques to scats provides information on the
species, sex, individual identity, diet and parasitology of animals (Kohn
and Wayne, 1997; Mills et al., 2000). Reproductive and stress hormones
from scats can indicate reproductive productivity and impacts of
disturbance on physiological condition (Wasser et al., 2000; Wasser
et al., 2004). By systematically sampling scats over a large geographic
area, population characteristics such as sex ratio, relatedness, habitat
and home ranges may be estimated (Kohn and Wayne, 1997; Kohn
et al., 1999; Wasser et al., 2004). Scats may provide more information
and be a more accessible source of DNA than materials such as hair,
skin, feathers, nails, bones, or saliva (Kohn and Wayne, 1997). The
distribution of animals determined by dog-assisted scat sampling has
been found to correspond well with methods such as hair sampling
and GPS radio-tracking (Wasser et al., 2004).
Apple at work in
the New Zealand
countryside.
Focus Volume 58 (4) : April, 2005
Irish Veterinary Journal
CONTINUING EDUCATION Volume 59 (2) : February, 2006
Irish Veterinary Journal
101
Dogs are used to locate bears in North America for management of
game populations and conservation purposes. A study by Wasser et al.
(2004) described the use of scat-detection dogs to assess the impacts
of human disturbances on black bear (Ursus americanus) and grizzly
bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) populations in Canada. The dogs were
trained to locate bear scats along transects within a 5,200km2 area
and DNA was extracted from the scats to determine species and
individual identities. By using scat-detection dogs, Wasser et al. (2004)
were able to effectively and non-invasively identify land use patterns
for both black and grizzly bears. Mark-recapture methods, using dogs
trained to locate bear scent along transect routes, are also used to
estimate bear population in North America (Akenson et al., 2001); and
dogs can be trained to discriminate between black and grizzly bear
scats, reducing the need for laboratory tests (Hurt et al., 2000).
Dogs trained to find the scats of endangered San Joaquin kit foxes
(Vulpes macrotis mutica) in the US are more efficient than humans at
finding scats for demographic and population studies (Smith et al.,
2003). Trained dogs are able to find up to four times more kit fox
scats along transects than an experienced person, and even the dogs’
worst detection rate in difficult scenting conditions was as good
as that of humans (Smith and Ralls, 2001; Smith et al., 2003). Dogs
searching for kit fox scats must distinguish them from coyote (Canis
latrans), skunk (Mephitis mephitis) and badger (Taxidea taxus) scats, and
have been found to be 100% correct in their species identification
(Smith and Ralls, 2001; Smith et al., 2003). Kit fox latrines (areas where
one or more individuals repeatedly defaecate) can also be found by
dogs (Ralls and Smith, 2004). As the cost of extracting DNA from
faecal samples and using laboratory methods to determine species is
expensive, this extremely accurate species identification ability of scat-
detection dogs saves thousands of dollars.
Biologists studying the endangered amur tiger (Panther tigris altaica)
in Russia use dogs to identify individual tigers. The dogs identify the
tigers by smelling the collected urine and scat samples and matching
them to a reference collection of known tigers (L. Kerley, personal
communication, 2004). The movements of individual tigers are
monitored using a combination of observation, conventional tracking
and the dog-identified scats (Kerley, 2003). However, information
on the population dynamics of the tigers can be obtained by using
the dogs alone. Tigers new to the area can also be identified by this
method (L. Kerley, personal communication, 2004) and two dogs used
in this project have proved to have accuracy rates of 89% and 96%
(Kerley, 2003).
Trained dogs assist researchers studying ringed seals (Phoca hispida) in
the North American Arctic. Dogs have been relied on to locate these
seals in a number of studies, which assessed the impacts of human
activity and industry on the seals, examined possible links between
lair characteristics and predation success, and obtained measures of
territory size (Lydersen and Gjertz, 1986; Smith, 1987; Furgal et al.,
1996). Specially trained dogs can locate, by scent, subnivean (beneath
the snow) lairs and breathing holes on the ice shelf at distances over
1.5km, through drifted snow up to 2m deep, and in winds of up to 46
km/hour (Smith, 1987).
Dogs traditionally used for hunting game birds are now frequently
employed to locate birds and help carry out studies on threatened
species. Yellow rails (Coturnicops noveboracensis), for example, are
classified as a vulnerable species in Quebec (Robert and Laporte,
1997). Because their patchy, localised distribution makes them
extremely difficult to locate, study, or catch, dogs have been used to
find their nests during research projects (Robert and Laporte, 1997).
Management programs of rare avian species have also benefited
from dogs’ innate behaviour. Border collies, for example, were used
to help capture endangered aleutian canada geese (Branta canadensis
leucopareia) in Alaska for relocation to predator-free islands (Shute,
1990). The terrain of the island inhabited by the geese made catching
them extremely dangerous for humans, and many researchers and
geese sustained injuries. The use of dogs not only made the exercise
much safer, but also much more efficient. Scientists took three weeks
to catch 120 geese; two dogs were able to round up 143 in four days
(Shute, 1990).
Dogs have been used in New Zealand for more than a 100 years
to locate a number of endangered species, such as blue duck
(Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos), kiwi (Apteryx spp.) and kakapo
(Strigops habroptilus) (Browne, 2005). Reliable kiwi-detection dogs are
considered essential to kiwi field research because the birds are so
difficult to locate (Colbourne, 1992).
Surveys of bird carcasses can be used to estimate mortality caused by
disease, poisoning or pollution (Homan et al., 2001). Quick recovery
of carcasses before decomposition or scavenging takes place is
important to obtain accurate population estimates. Homan et al.
(2001) compared the searching efficiency of humans and dogs looking
for house sparrow (Passer domesticus) carcasses amongst vegetation.
They found that dogs were significantly more efficient at detecting
avian carcasses than humans, finding twice as many, even at very low
carcass densities.
Summary
Dogs are reliable and efficient scent-detectors. Numerous studies
have established dogs’ proficiency at locating an extremely wide range
of scents. Trained dogs can significantly reduce the amount of time
spent searching for a target object, chemical or species. Often more
sensitive, reliable and practical than electronic scent-detection devices,
dogs are also easy and cheap to train and put into action. Scent-
detection dogs make a significant contribution to the conservation
programmes of many endangered species. In the future we can
expect to see dogs involved more widely in chemical detection,
conservation and disease diagnosis, both human and veterinary. The
major restriction to the use of trained scent-detection dogs appears
to be human imagination.
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Volume 59 (2) : February, 2006 CONTINUING EDUCATION
Irish Veterinary Journal
