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Dirasat, Engineering Sciences, Volume 37, No. 1, 2010
- 27 -
Nabataean Architectural Identity and its Impact
on Contemporary Architecture in Jordan
Shaher Rababe’h
*
ABSTRACT
This paper draws attention to the crucial problem of how to approach to design issues based on cultural
identity within a global world, by referring to Petra and Nabataean architecture. This issue is related to the
Nabataean architectural style and its impact as a cultural identity on the built environment in Jordan. The
purpose of this article is to help architects and owners to identify the Nabataean architectural features or
elements that give the modern buildings their visual character. These features should be considered in
modern design in order to preserve them to the maximum extent possible. It aims to analyse the Nabataean
architectural vocabulary and to create a system that would enable architects and owners to create future
architecture from these deep solid roots. It also illustrates and presents some of the experiments by
contemporary architects in Jordan who used some of the Nabataean architectural vocabulary in an attempt
to revive this heritage. Pursuing this research will be through contextual analysis of texts, material, and
visual culture from a wide range of settings. Consequently, after reviewing the link with the richness of the
ancient past from a perceptual and analytical perspective, the research will conclude that the Nabataean
architectural heritage is one of the prominent primordial roots from which the architects of Jordan can
inspire its cultural codes in order to create an atmosphere with a culturally sensitive identity.
Keywords: Architectural Heritage; Contemporary Architecture; Architectural Vocabulary; Place-
Identity; Petra; Jordan.
INTRODUCTION
This paper addresses the Nabataean architectural style
and its impact on the identity of the built environment in
Jordan. It identifies and classifies the different elements
of the Nabataean architectural vocabulary. The topic is of
great scientific and stylistic interest, not only for
understanding Nabataean architectural features
concerning their origin and development but also
providing some indications for possible inclusion of these
features as cultural codes in new buildings. These codes
can create architecture that is rooted in culture, and has a
distinguished identity.
The paper will present a framework of architectural
vocabulary that regulates and organises the recent
Jordanian architectural identity. This framework will
contribute to the wider study of the necessity for linking
the recent architectural identity with the sustainable
development of the buildings' surroundings. The paper
comprises the following sections’ sequence: The first two
sections mainly report the research problems, objectives
and methodology. As for the third section, it deals mostly
with identity and architectural heritage on general and
architectural review of literature which are found suitable
for the paper purpose. Section four tackles the
contemporary architecture in Jordan, particularly the
architectural identity as an issue of debate over the last
three decades. Concerning section five, which is
considered to be the major outcome of the paper, includes
the study of the Nabataean architectural style. Indeed,
section six, dealing with Jordanian trials using Nabataean
architectural characteristics, includes detecting several
different types of the Nabataean architectural vocabulary
which are used in current architecture in Jordan. Finally,
the analysis provided in section seven shows that the
Nabataean architectural heritage is one of the important
roots from which the Jordanian architects can draw their
* Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, The
Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan. Received on 16/7/2009
and Accepted for Publication on 21/1/2010.
© 2010 DAR Publishers/University of Jordan. All Rights Reserved.
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
- 28 -
inspiration in order to produce buildings with identity.
1. RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND OBJECTIVES
It is believed that architecture is a powerful cultural
indicator and that “in no art are the modes as clearly
identifiable as in architecture” (Onians, 1979).
Architecture is a visual indicator, reflecting what was
thought at the time it was built. The desire of architects
with global aspirations to create overbearing signature
buildings that disregard their environment is the problem.
How to achieve the cultural and urban architectural
continuities, between the past, the present and the future
is the task of the architect. Therefore, the role of the
architect in developing cultural identity is vital. Except
for a few trials that could be classified as unique, the
modern Jordanian architectural scene is undergoing a
severe dilemma that lacks identity due to the absence of a
national expression.
Petra has hardly been considered as part of the
Jordanian architectural heritage. It is hoped that this
research will demonstrate the importance of this heritage
in shaping modern buildings, and adding identity to them.
It is hoped also that this research will present a
framework of architectural vocabulary that regulates and
organises the recent Jordanian architectural identity. This
framework will contribute to the wider study of the
necessity of linking the recent architectural identity with
the sustainable development of the buildings'
surroundings. The aims of carrying out this research are:
1. To investigate the significance of Nabataean
architecture;
2. To shed light on the importance of the
architectural form when it comes to studying Nabataean
architecture as a traditional morphologic model in
heritage;
3. To discuss how to properly regulate the needs
for modernisation of our architecture, while at the same
time safeguarding the irreplaceable heritage that
Nabataean architecture constitutes;
4. To present some of the architectural experiments
of contemporary architects who use some of the
Nabataean vocabulary as a source of cultural identity in
the built surroundings;
5. To show architects and the public understand
and appreciate the idea of identity that can be found in
Nabataean architecture;
6. To show the ways of accommodating the needs
for modernisation and investment in architectural
projects, without compromising Nabataean character and
identity, and to clarify the limits of acceptable change and
criteria to apply for evaluation and assessment;
7. To suggest an appropriate vocabulary for the
Nabataean architecture that can be used in current
architecture in Jordan.
The paper draws attention to the critical problem of
cultural identity, which is a key issue of contemporary
debate. This research is important because of the need to
provide an awareness for both Jordanian architects and
the public about the importance of the Nabataean cultural
product, not only historically or archaeologically, but also
as a cultural resource from which some architectural
elements can be used to inspire our future architectural
identity.
2. METHODOLOGY: AN APPROACH TO
OUR GOAL
This research will be carried out using the following
methods:
1. Preliminary research of an up-to-date literature
review of some publications related to this research
concerning identity and architectural heritage, and those
on Nabataean architectural style;
2. A preliminary survey and documentation of the
Nabataean sites, including evaluation and assessment of
the significance of monuments and historic buildings of
those sites;
3. A preliminary survey and documentation of the
recent Jordanian monuments that includes the use of
Nabataean architectural features;
4. Conclusions and recommendations will be made.
3. IDENTITY AND ARCHITECTURAL
HERITAGE: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The term 'identity', as defined in the Oxford English
Dictionary (Crowther, 1995), as the state of being very
like or the same as something or somebody, or the state
of being closely involved with a part of something. The
core meaning of any national identity is a sense of
sameness over time and space. Today it seems that
everyone claims a right to their own identity. Nations
demand identity as if it were a necessity of life itself; a
sacred object, because it brings power by sustaining
certain subjective positions and social boundaries (Saliya,
Dirasat, Engineering Sciences, Volume 37, No. 1, 2010
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1986). Identity is a huge part of who we are. Many
factors combine to shape identity such as genetic, social,
cultural factors, and the built environment.
Hayden (1995) expresses a strong relationship
between identity, memory and place. He states that
"Identity is intimately tied to memory: both our personal
memories (where we have come from and where we have
dwelt) and the collective or social memories
interconnected with the histories of our families,
neighbors, fellow workers, and ethnic communities …
Urban landscapes are storehouses for these social
memories, because natural features such as hills or
harbors, as well as streets, buildings, and patterns of
settlement, frame the lives of many people and often
outlast many lifetimes" (Hayden, 1995). Mellon (2008)
also states that "Communities expect to see their identity
expressed in their cities in such elements of urban form as
architecture…". Therefore, we should find the proper
sphere to enhance local memories and experiences that
make it understood by inhabitants as well as other users.
Architecture can be best defined as the art and science
of integrating the physical environment within a socio
space-time organisation. It can be also seen as a gesture
and its insertion within any context should be
aesthetically relevant (Vale, 1997). Aesthetics, a Greek
word meaning perceptions and feelings, are the feelings
that this integration process and their arrangements
prompt us to have. This argument raises the question of
the morality of architecture: that is considering
architectural heritage in modern designs. Heritage can be
understood as a pure human instinct that comes from the
knowledge and benefiting ways that nature revealed
through trials and experiences. Heritage sites are
considered as our tangible and intangible identity and
collective memory. It is sustained by remembering; and
what is remembered is defined by the assumed identity.
Architectural heritage is important and worth preserving
because it is the storehouse of memories; a link with the
past, and because of its universal aesthetic and historic
value. In Archibald’s (2004) words: “memory is a
dynamic process of using the past to define and redefine
who we are, what we believe, what we like and dislike,
and the values we hold dear”. Therefore, the loss of
heritage as storehouse of memories will lead to a loss of
memory and then a loss of identity, because, as Gillis
states, identity is "something that can be lost as well as
found" (Gillis, 1994). However, Loewenberg (1996)
argues for adopting psychoanalysis in historic studies in
order to recognise and utilise the patterns of feelings,
attitudes and behaviours that shape history. This
argument is derived from the fact that “history is not the
collective memory of mankind; rather, it is the
reformation and reinterpretation of that memory by each
historian according to his time, social circumstance,
method, and subjective past” (Loewenberg, 1996).
Living in or close to historic sites, especially World
Heritage sites requires emphasising the influence of the
physical environment on identity and self-perception. In
this process, the place-identity theory has provided
important contributions to the field of architecture
(Hauge, 2007). It proposes a new integrative model of
place in both built and natural environments. The
influence place has on identity is seen as a result of the
interaction between people and their physical
environment; people affect places, and places influence
how people see themselves. Relph (1976) argues that
“there is for virtually everyone a deep association with
and consciousness of the places …This association seems
to constitute a vital source of both individual and cultural
identity and security, a point of departure from which we
orient ourselves in the world”. The physical features and
settings of the place, together with activities and
functions carried out in it, are acknowledged by Relph
(1976) as a source of identity of place. Places are an
integral part of human experience. For Relph (1976), the
essential quality of place was its power to order and to
focus human intentions, experience, and behaviour
spatially. It is related to the place where people grew up,
taking into account the emotional connections between
human beings and their environment; their sense of place.
When attachment to places grows, we start to identify
ourselves with these places. Elkadi (2006) identified the
term identity as stemming from the cultural dialogue
between users of the place and their surrounding built
environment. The places in which people have lived
influence their environmental preferences and affect the
kind of environment they may prefer to live.
The discussion of architectural heritage is now
considered a popular phenomenon (Abel, 2000; Taylor,
1986). As Aylin Orbaşli (2000) points out, "The
interaction of human beings with the past and the present,
with buildings, spaces and one another produces an urban
dynamism and creates a spirit of place". Society passes
on identity with a place from one generation to another,
leaving a legacy in the physical environment. From this
phenomenon, the present generation can gain an
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
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awareness of the cultural and environmental values of the
past on which to build for the oncoming generations
(Çelik, 2003). They must realise that maintaining their
architectural heritage means maintaining the continuity of
a culture.
The question poses itself whether it is possible to
maintain the continuity of a culture within a world where
everything is changing so rapidly or not. The answer lies
in understanding how cultural identity is formed, which is
a key issue of the contemporary debate. Cultural identity
which refers to local values is definitely a very important
concept in architecture, balancing the dominance of
globalization. However, it needs an awareness not to
walk into a trap of material culture which uses the
concept of “cultural identity” as a marketing strategy.
Cultural identity cannot be created; it can only emerge
spontaneously from the place-memory which exists in
any geographical location. This place-memory
materialises a true “cultural identity”; when it is created
by the architects it becomes too easily a stereotype that
can be used in marketing their buildings.
Architecture, as mentioned above, is a very distinct
tool for shaping identity (Çelik, 2003; Abel, 2000).
Architectural heritage can be the shadow behind today's
production. A nation's architectural heritage is an
important part of its identity. Its components are
architecture, identity and history (Lahoud, 2008).
Architecture can regenerate the past, prefigure the future,
and articulate the present. This is how one can bridge the
gap between the past and the present. The integration will
lead to the creation of new buildings which are faithful to
the inspiration provided by the inherited cultural heritage.
Contemporary architecture in this context is understood
as a reference to all significant planned and designed
interventions in the historic built environment, including
open spaces, new constructions, additions to or
extensions of historic buildings and sites, and
conversions. The central challenge of contemporary
architecture is to respond to developmental dynamics in
order to facilitate socio-economic changes and growth on
the one hand, while simultaneously respecting the
inherited built environment on the other.
4. CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE
IN JORDAN
Jordan presents a remarkable diversity. It is a land of
diversity and civilisations, surrounded by modern
architecture and the clear remnant of a rich ancient
history. This ancient land encompasses sea and
mountains, waterfalls and desert. It abounds in
archaeological riches, from the Paleolithic to the present.
It has been home to the earliest settlements and villages,
and has relics of many of the world's great civilizations.
Because of its central location, it was included in the
dominions of ancient Iraq, including the Sumerian,
Babylonian, and Assyrian empires. From the west,
Pharaonic Egypt extended its power and culture into
Jordan. The Nabataeans, as an Arab people (Bowersock,
2003; Ball, 2000; Parr, 1990; Healey, 1989; Lawlor,
1974; Hammond, 1973), built their kingdom in Jordan
after migrating probably from the north Arabian
Peninsula (Rababeh, 2005). Finally, Jordan was
influenced by Persia and the classical civilizations of
Greece and Rome, the relics of which are scattered across
the Jordanian landscape. Since the mid-seventh century
AD, the land of Jordan has remained almost continuously
in the hands of various Arab and Islamic dynasties. This
diversity of land and the continuity of occupation have
molded Jordan into a land with a high density of cultural
resources, where different architectural styles are
represented. Each style is sufficient as a type of its own to
define Jordan.
However, architectural identity in Jordan has been an
issue of debate over the last three decades. During this
period, Jordanian culture underwent comprehensive
changes, many of which had deep implications for the
formation of modern Jordanian national identity. In the
trend of modernisation, the Western mode started its
encroachment on the territory of the greatest local
cultural heritage (Kultermann, 1991). As a result Jordan,
one of the world's richest storehouses of architectural
heritage, has lost many of its historic styles; and the
impact of modernisation has led to a break in continuity
between the inherited morphology and the more recent
urban structure. The role of architecture in this dynamic
and extraordinarily complex process has never previously
been systematically explored.
Several philosophical questions have been raised with
no clear answers. What is Jordanian architecture? Are we
looking for identity or acceptance? What is the local
context for an architect working in Jordan? Are the
colonnades of Gerasa of equal significance to the rock-
cut monuments of Petra or the Islamic Desert Palaces?
Would it be one with Nabataean influences? Nabataean
monumental architecture was for more spiritual purposes,
Dirasat, Engineering Sciences, Volume 37, No. 1, 2010
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like temples and tombs, not for daily life. However, the
Nabataeans as all other cultures had simple housing,
which but has perished. From most early cultures only the
more solidly built monuments have survived, but that
does not mean that they only built those. Would it be
Islamic or vernacular, or could it be a style that combines
them all? How does one establish ownership of heritage
and the choice of models one employs to generate form in
contemporary architecture? The need to answer these
questions has been increased in the past few years to
create an identity that confronts globalisation.
Intellectuals, architects, and designers in Jordan find
themselves dealing with a paradox needing to project a
certain image of themselves through their built
environment (Steele, 1991; 2005; Al-Faqih, 1989). This
has led to some attempts which express the local identity.
These trials approached the dilemma of cultural identity
in different manners. Concentration is based heavily on
the architectural heritage of Islamic buildings.
Taking a quick review over some examples, one can
notice how critical the issue is. Rasem Badran’s practices,
for example, ranged from engaging to local context’s
physical environment to exploring Islamic cultural
heritage and the culture of place (Steele, 2005; Mahadin,
1994; Abu Hamdan, 1987). Jafar Tukan, on the other
hand, approached the issue of identity through
vernacularism and experimentation in construction details
(Mahadin, 1994). One noticeable case is his SOS village
in Aqaba Jordan which received the Aga Khan Award
(Correa, Frampton & Robson, 2001). Another example is
Ayman Zuaiter whose experiments were attached to local
and Islamic traditions, social dimensions and integrating
nature into design (Al-Abbasi, 2003). Finally, Bilal
Hammad celebrated the court yard house through his post
modernist practices and integrating the outdoor spaces.
His late practices are characterized by introducing the
previous concepts using pure shapes (Al-Abbasi, 2003).
The clash of styles that exists in the built environment
is a product of the tension between globalisation and
localisation processes, and that the dichotomy between
the cultural forces currently shaping the built
environment, i.e. modern versus traditional, Islamic
versus Western, and local versus international, is the
result of this tension. While some architects attempt to
integrate local architecture into global cultural trends,
others try to revive the traditional architectural style to
protect the local identity and heritage. An example of this
trend can be found in the clear thought of Rasem Badran
in making the best use of the cultural heritage of a society
that meets the requirements of the contemporary life
(Steele, 2005; Badran, 1988). To be more specific, the
confrontation concerning the issue of globalization versus
local identity throughout history always occurred with
continuous attempts to develop a national identity in
architecture, but the outcome in the end was a mixture.
Much of the debate about this architecture remains
bogged down in the dichotomy of "modernity versus
tradition" (Kuban, 1983). The resulting built environment
is chaotic and lacks identity and spirit of place.
The debate is not only about styles; it is also about
meeting the needs, contextual constraints, and cultural
aspirations. Architects do not need to turn their sights
globally to architecture that will be unfaithful to their
culture, nor is this necessary to demonstrate their passion
or validate their modernity. All they need to pursue is a
scholarship in architectural history (Badran, 1988),
theory, and criticism. This should be based on conserving
heritage architecture, such as that on which this paper is
based.
Within the sphere of this clash Nabataean architecture
has not previously been considered. The previous
examples clearly demonstrate that none of the above
mentioned Jordanian architects approached the Nabataean
architecture as a possible source of inspiration for
provoking contemporary identity. This could be due to
the time distance and relevancy that separates us from the
Nabataean heritage in comparison to the closer Islamic
and local ones. Another reason may be attributed to the
misconception of the Nabataean architecture as Roman
site or as architecture of the dead (Negev, 1986).
The characteristics of historic buildings defined by
Feilden (2003) for a historic site can obviously be seen in
Nabataean buildings. These buildings, as will be
discussed below, have both historic and architectural
significance. They give us a sense of wonder. As cultural
property, they have specific messages and values. The
architectural continuity with the Nabataeans for the sake
of our cultural identity will reflect our capability to select
architectural forms to, or inspire modern architecture. If
Nabataean architecture has a meaning for us, it should
find a way to express itself in the present organisation of
form and space. In making value-based decisions about
what is worth preserving for future generations,
Nabataean architectural character should be part of the
design process. Consequently, Petra should influence
Jordanian environmental preferences and the resultant
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
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architecture. For this reason, this article will help to solve
many difficult problems in the integration process.
5. PETRA’S HISTORICAL VALUES
Petra, situated in modern day Jordan, recently achieved
a world-wide fame by being recognised as one of the new
Seven Wonders of the World by the New Open World
Corporation. Lauded famously as the "rose-red city half as
old as time" (Burgon in Lawlor, 1974), Petra was re-
discovered by the Swiss explorer Burckhardt in 1812. It
was placed on the list of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites
in 1985. It was selected on the bases of the UNESCO's
criteria c (i), (iii), and (iv); (http://whc.unesco.org/
en/list/326) (i) to represent a masterpiece of human
creative genius; (iii) to bear a unique or at least exceptional
testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is
living or which has disappeared; (iv) to be an outstanding
example of a type of building, architectural or
technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a)
significant stage(s) in human history. Consequently, Petra
is inscribed on the basis of the Statement of Outstanding
Universal Value and that the preservation of this value
should be at the centre of any conservation policy and
management strategy for it.
Jordan has been blessed to be the land of Nabataean
civilisation, one of the greatest civilisations in terms of its
ongoing impact on human life. The entire world links
Jordan to the Nabataean capital, Petra. Moreover, I see
that most Jordanians refer to themselves abroad by
anchoring themselves to Petra. After two thousand years,
Petra still gives the place and the people their character
and identity, expressing its strength and success as an
ancient architectural testament. It clearly shows that our
civilization is engraved in the subconscious mind of the
human race in the form of its rock-cut monumental
facades such as el-Khazneh (Fig.4).
Petra gives us a sense of wonder and encourages us to
know more about the Nabataean culture that produced it.
It has artistic and human messages. Architects,
archaeologists, and historians spent much effort studying
this civilisation as history but rarely analysed its
architectural vocabulary to create a traditional
morphologic model that would enable architects to
develop architecture that express its own spiritual values.
5.1 Nabataean Architectural Style: Origins
Petra was under Nabataean control, for which we
have written records, from approximately 312 BC to AD
106. The Nabataeans also possessed another city with
similar rock-cut tomb facades, Medain Saleh, now
located in northern Saudi Arabia (Fig.1). Archaeological
evidence for Nabataean architecture has not survived
from before the end of the second or beginning of the first
century BC (Schmid, 2001). Relying on the architectural
details of the facades (McKenzie, 2001; 1990) and
archaeological excavations, we are able to establish at
least some basic concepts of the architectural styles of
Nabataean buildings.
Earlier studies which offer an analysis of the
architectural styles at Petra have been broadly based on
the features of the tomb facades, and they have used two
main tools of analysis: determining stylistic
developments and detecting stylistic influences. The
study of the stylistic choices reveals the affect of cultural
influences. Additionally, as has been suggested, this was
the essential element in a typological development of the
rock-cut monumental facades, based on the details of
their architectural decoration. During the last hundred
years a number of attempts have been made to divide the
rock-cut facades into typological groups. Brünnow and
von Domaszewski (1904) divided them into seven
groups. The first type, the Pylon Tombs, have one or two
rows of crowsteps, and are followed by the Step, Proto-
Hegr, and Hegr type tombs (Figs.2, 3). The crowstep was
the most widespread geometrical form on the tomb
facades. In addition to Petra, the capital, Medain Saleh
(Hegra) is the richest Nabataean site of these elements
(Anderson, 2003; Healey, 1989). Kennedy (1925) and
Browning (1989) established typologies similar to the
system of Brünnow and von Domaszewski, while
Browning divided facades into five groups. Although he
only named the first type Assyrian because only it has
crowsteps, the other four types have single or band of
multiple crowsteps in addition to a cornice (Rababeh,
2005). McKenzie (1990) established a new system of
chronology for the main classical monuments of Petra,
both tombs and public buildings, based on the details of
the architectural decoration. Ball (2000) divided the rock-
cut facades into two categories, the first of which forms
the bulk of the rock-cut monuments in Petra and Medain
Saleh, and is labelled as the Assyrian style. The second is
classical, but also includes crowsteps. Schmid (2001)
divided the facades roughly into two groups “more
Oriental” and “more Hellenistic”. Netzer (2003) followed
the basic divisions of the facades established by von
Dirasat, Engineering Sciences, Volume 37, No. 1, 2010
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Domaszewski. The results of such analyses show that the
basic styles seen in the rock-cut facades have some
features of Hellenistic appearance, but in other cases the
Nabataeans tried to orientalise the style, as on the
crowstep tombs (Fig.2, 3) and ed-Deir (Fig.5) (Stewart,
2003; Lyttelton, 1974). Besides these features, there are
some details which are Egyptian, Syrio-Phoenician,
Assyrian, Parthian, as well as Roman (Schmid, 2001).
It is possible to suggest that the introduction of the
crowstep element into the Nabataean rock-cut facades
may have been a two dimensional symbol for the
Assyrian and Babylonian ziggurat, and that its intensive
use by the Nabataeans may have been a gesture of tribal
solidarity (Rababeh, 2005), like the stylistic choice of the
classical orders in Greek architecture during the fifth and
the fourth centuries BC (Onians, 1979). The crowstep
motifs (Fig.2, 3) were probably the earliest architectural
feature of the Nabataeans (Wenning, 2003; Schmid,
2001), and that the Nabataeans probably inherited this
basic idea from Mesopotamia. The sculptors carved the
crowstep in relief as modeled form which projects out of
a flat background, and giving a three-dimensional effect.
This work may be described as a bas relief or low relief
abstracted form of a fully three-dimensional Ziggurat.
Some scholars note that the number of steps differs from
this found on the original Assyrian version of this motif
with only three steps, whereas the number of steps in
Petra and Medain Saleh varies between 4 and 6
(Browning, 1989).
Along with a motif of two half crowstep, some
facades, the Proto-Hegr and Hegr types, have a large
cavetto cornice (Fig.3). This is a feature of Egyptian
architecture (Wenning, 2003; Browning, 1989). The same
feature, however, can also be found in Persian
architecture, assumed to be a result of Egyptian influence
(Rababeh, 2005). It is possible, therefore, that the concept
also came from that direction.
Another example of Egyptian influence is the
obelisks, as on the Obelisk Tomb (Fig.6) which has a
plain lower part and is decorated with four obelisks in its
upper part; cut free from the rock behind. There is also a
pair of rock-cut obelisks at the High Place.
The larger, and more richly decorated, facades are
more complicated and show stronger classical influences
(Fig.4). Several scholars (e.g. Lyttelton, 1974; Wright,
1962; Robertson, 1943) have noted that the architectural
images of some of Petra’s monuments are shared with
other Hellenistic and Roman buildings or monuments.
McKenzie (1990) concluded that the 'baroque'
architecture of Ptolemaic Alexandria, as also depicted in
Second Style Pompeian wall-paintings (phase 1), is
reflected in the classical architecture of Petra. The
decorative stuccos and wall paintings in temples, rock-cut
facades, and private houses were very rich (Kolb, 2003).
Some scholars (Wenning, 2003; Schmid, 2001;
McKenzie, 1990; Lyttelton, 1974) have connected the
architectural composition of el-Khazneh (Fig.4) with that
of Palazzo delle Colonne in Ptolemais, Cyrenaica, the
Northern Palace of Masada (30-29 BC), the description of
the famous river boat of Ptolemy IV, and Qasr al-Abd
(182-173 BC) (Will and Larché, 1991). Since there is no
support for direct cultural influence between Pompeii and
Petra, scholars have tended to accept Alexandria as the
source of these influences. Alexandria was the source of
inspiration for all these examples.
Further architectural influences can be found in the
results of the archaeological surveys and excavations of
temples and houses at Petra and other Nabataean sites.
Some scholars have divided Nabataean temples into
typological groups according to the form of their
architectural plans (Netzer, 2003; Wright, 1961). Netzer
prefers to concentrate on the main features of the design
rather than on typology. He defines some of the
characteristics of Nabataean temples as: a plan in the
form of a square within a square, an ambulatory, a broad
naos and a tripartite adyton, a temenos with an external
altar, and a forecourt with benches (McKenzie, 2004;
Netzer, 2003; Wright, 1961). Other characteristics such
as the roof terrace, an ascent to the roof, and a naos open
to the sky cannot be confirmed without careful study of
the roof structure. Moreover, Nabataean temples are
typically more square shaped than rectangular in plan.
The huge courtyards with porticoes in front of the
temples, like the “Great Temple”, the Qasr el-Bint, and
the Temple of the Winged Lions are a typically
considered a Roman feature, but could also reflect
Egyptian and Mesopotamian influences. This feature can
be seen in every Egyptian temple from the Ptolemaic
period. The tripartite adyton, the additional shrine, the
inner courtyard and the square plan also possibly show
South Arabian influences. Other scholars have attributed
the source of the square form to Parthian architecture,
such as the temples at Kuh-i Khwaja, Hatra and Ai
Khanum (c. 300-250 BC) (Colledge, 1986). The square
plan and the tripartite adyton can also be seen in the
temple of Jebel Khalid on the Euphrates (Clarke, 2003;
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
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2000; 1999).
In the private houses at Petra there are clear features
indicating that the Nabataeans were inspired by late
Hellenistic houses and palaces in the Near East. One of
the most characteristic features in this context is the
courtyards seen in the two storied houses at az-Zantur
(Kolb, 2003), and even in the rock-cut houses, such as the
house opposite to the Main Theatre. Moreover, the
houses of al-Katute have a further aspect of this feature
with the cistern under the main courtyard. It should be
mentioned that a peristyle courtyard can be seen also in
the Nabataean rock-cut monuments, such as the Urn
Tomb and the structure between the Roman Soldier
Tomb and the triclinium opposite (Schmid, 2001).
Therefore, the Nabataeans developed their
architecture in a milieu containing Hellenistic and later
Roman cultures in addition to Eastern ones. The major
interest is in how the dialogue between different cultural
traditions shapes the construction of ideologies and
identities. It can be said that the simpler rock-cut facades
show stronger Oriental influences, while the more
complicated ones show more Western influences. It is
probable that the shift from crowstepped facades to
classical ones, as seen by the Khazneh replacing the Hegr
tombs below it, represents the shift of the Nabataean
cultural orientation from East to West (Rababeh, 2005).
Beside these influences, some architectural features
which are characteristically Nabataean can be found, such
as the Nabataean capital (Fig.7) (McKenzie, 2001).
Moreover, the combination of the elements together in
the Nabataean monuments gives them their own
character, as seen in the simplicity of el-Deir compared to
the complexity of al-Khazneh (Fig.4, 5).
Nabataean buildings can be studied as examples of
function and form. Some of these qualities are feelings
conveyed by the sense of time and place. Relph (1976)
defines terms like ‘spirit of place’, ‘sense of place’, and
‘genius of place’ that are used to express the intangible
dimension as much as the uniqueness and mystery that
can enclose a place, and that are derived from people’s
emotional and mental attachment to place. Consequently,
Nabataean buildings can also be considered as examples
of a historical period, which is often related to a specific
architectural style. It is their tangible elements that
embody its significance for association with specific
events or persons, and it is those tangible elements both
on the exterior and interior facades that should be
clarified. Nabataean architecture incorporated geometric
forms, lively colors, materials and construction
techniques that contribute to its historic qualities or
significance as well as its aesthetic considerations.
5.2 Nabataean Architectural Vocabulary
The most important point is that Nabataean
architecture and construction techniques show amazing
exploitation of the possibilities of the Nabataeans foreign
contacts and the available materials from which different
characters can be shaped (McKenzie, 1990; Rababeh,
2005). Examination of Petra should include the physical
determinism, where the environment, dimensions,
colours, texture, and stylistic form are seen as having
direct effects on architectural identity. Nabataean
monuments, based on the structural techniques used in
preparing them, can be divided into three groups, namely:
freestanding buildings, rock-cut monuments, and mixed
monuments which were built in some parts and carved in
others. The freestanding buildings are not well preserved,
except for the Qasr el-Bent, but the archaeological corpus
of excavation is full of architectural details from which
the holistic image can be reconstructed. However, most
of the rock-cut monuments are to some extent well
preserved, and can be considered as a rich source for
some architectural elements.
5.2.1 The Visual Aspects of the Main Characteristic of
the Nabataean Architecture
Our appreciation of the visual aspects of the main
characteristics of the Nabataean monuments or parts of
them can be assisted by an understanding of the character
values within each monument. It is important that a
distinction is made between heritage significance on the
one hand and the aesthetic value on the other. In order to
determine the visual aspects of the main characteristic of
the historic monuments at Petra the three steps
recommended by Lee H. Nelson (2008) are used to
identify them: the overall visual aspects (shape), the
visual character at close range (materials, colours and
craft details), and the visual character of interior spaces
(surface materials and finishes). The following sections
will examine each of these steps.
5.2.1.1 Overall Visual Character: Shape
The shape of a building is an important aspect of its
overall visual character. The Nabataeans, in constructing
their tombs, added many symbols and signs of
geometrical forms, plants and animals. The symbols of
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crowstep as a geometrical form were the most common
among these symbols. Obviously, most of the Nabataean
rock-cut monuments in both Petra and Medain Saleh
contain crowsteps carved in relief (Figs.2, 3). As
mentioned above, the crenellations of the crowstep create
a shape possibly an abstraction of a ziggurat. It is done by
the creation of bas relief or low relief carving. The shape
is squeezed onto a nearly flat two-dimensional surface
while maintaining as much as possible the perception of
the full three-dimensional form. The thickness of the
relief can be expressed as the range between two-
dimension crowstep and full three-dimension of the
ziggurat.
Other monuments show mixed geometric forms;
western and eastern styles. The best and the most
famous example of these monuments is the Khazneh
(Fig.4) which is the best preserved and the most
elaborately carved facade. The facade is approximately
30 m wide and 42 m high (McKenzie, 1990). It consists
of two storeys; the lower has six Corinthianising
columns and a frieze. The centre four columns are
surmounted by a pediment, and forms the entrance to
the rock-cut tomb chambers. The upper storey has
tholos in the centre placed between two projecting bays,
which are crowned by the two halves of a broken
pediment. The tholos is topped by an urn, which is 3.5
m high (Figs.4, 8).
Other examples with a similar overall shape are al-
Deir (Fig.5) and the Corinthian Tomb. They have
horizontal and vertical elements with the middle portion
of the tholos surmounted by the urn flanked by two
masses of broken pediment. The monuments have other
visual aspects that help define their overall character,
including the pattern of vertical columns, the decorative
horizontal entablature which separates the lower floor of
the building from the upper one, the red-rose color of the
rock, the large openings including the entrance way, and
the urn surmount the tholos as a crown (Figs.4, 5, 8). The
Obelisk Tomb, named after the four obelisks that
decorate the top of the tomb, has two stories. The upper
storey is distinguished by its visual character of the four
vertical obelisks (Fig. 6). The lower storey, known as the
Bab el-Siq Triclinium, which contains a traditional dining
hall for Nabataean funerary rites, is decorated in a more
classical style than that of the upper storey.
5.2.1.2 Visual Character at Close Range
This step involves looking at the building at close
range; where it is possible to identify the visual aspects of
the exterior by moving up very close to see all the surface
qualities of the materials, such as their color and texture,
or surface evidence of craftsmanship or age.
5.2.1.2.1 Materials and Colours
At close range, the visual character is most often
determined by the surface qualities of the materials and
craftsmanship. And while these aspects are often
inextricably related, the original choice of materials often
plays the dominant role in establishing the character at
close range because of the colour, texture, and/or shape of
the materials. The variety and arrangement of the
materials and craftsmanship are very important in
defining the visual character.
Building materials play a definite role in the
architecture and the style of Nabataean buildings.
Sandstone was the most readily available construction
material to hand for the Nabataean masons. The
sandstone, which is encompasses most parts of the Petra
area, led to its early description as mentioned above as “a
rose red city, half as old as time” (Burgon in Lawlor,
1974). The Nabataean architects used the benefits of the
availability of sandstone. They obtained whatever they
needed of stone for architectural purposes and for
monumental work (Rababeh, 2005). This was especially
applicable to residential buildings. However, in public
buildings, a variety of imported materials can be seen
occasionally in use such as wood, granite, and marble.
These were brought to Petra by means of the Nabataeans’
extensive trade network. Nonetheless, by far the largest
volume of building material used was of sandstone. The
rock-cut monuments were carved in different sandstone
layers, and these layers were also used to provide blocks
for freestanding buildings. It is worth noting that the
softness of sandstone allows for very easy carving.
Rockwell (1993) states that tools normally associated
with wood carving, such as gouges, are very frequently
used in carving sandstone.
5.2.1.2.2 Details of Craftsmanship
There are many instances in Petra where details of
craftsmanship dominate the close visual character. These
are especially noticeable because the stones are
individually of a uniform colour, but their surfaces were
worked with different tools and techniques to create a
great variety of textures. This texture is very important at
close range. It was a deliberately contrived surface that is
an important contributor to the visual character of the
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monuments. The traces of chiselled lines tilted at 35 to 55
degrees to the horizontal are the most common feature
resulting from the Nabataean sandstone dressing (Fig.9).
In fact two types of these lines can be observed: coarse
and fine lines.
Rababeh (2005) analysed the coarse lines, he assumed
that either a point or a claw chisel “gradine” with a mallet
has been used for the coarse type. However, he
distinguished a single point or pick from a toothed chisel
by the regular spacing, as well as the fineness of the lines
(Rababeh, 2005). This is suggested by the width of the
grooves and the number of them per cm, as the distance
between the grooves depends on the distance between the
teeth of the claw chisel. As today, it is likely the three or
four-toothed chisel was used in Petra by the Nabataeans.
For the regularly spaced coarse lines, Rababeh (2005)
argues that a claw chisel with pointed teeth was used
rather than a rectilinear teeth or a pointed chisel. He
observes the craftsmen using both claw chisels with four
teeth to produce both of these types of lines, but
preferring the use of a claw chisel with four sharp teeth in
the restoration work in the “Great Temple”. Rababeh
(2005) tried to produce lines like these by using a claw
chisel with four rectilinear teeth and a metal mallet. The
same pattern of lines was produced, although he did it on
limestone.
Fine line types of dressings are similar to the coarse
line types, but the density of lines per cm is greater and
the lines are finer. It seems probable that a sharp-toothed
claw chisel was used for this type. However, the
regularity of the carved lines in all of the rock-cut
monuments led Rababeh (2005) to argue for the existence
of a further tool. A rasping tool, made of metal, like a
hairbrush or a comb might have been used. This
alternative tool could be driven by hand or with a wooden
mallet. The reason for suggesting this is the difficulty of
obtaining regular fine lines in sandstone despite its
softness. In principle, it would be difficult to distinguish
the marks of tool from sharp-toothed chisel marks or
marks from the so-called chemin-de-fer (Bessac, 1986;
Rockwell, 1993). The chemin-de-fer exists today, and it
is probable if it was used in antiquity (Ginouvés and
Martin, 1985). But traces of it at Petra can be
distinguished from those of a sharp-toothed chisel, for
example in the façade of Tomb 813, in which the fine
lines are slightly curved, as if a tool like a hand plane or
hairbrush was used. The curved lines show the use of a
tool like a chemin-de-fer rather than a sharp-toothed
chisel. The chief difference between them is that the
sharp-toothed chisel involves more skilled labourers
working over a longer time, while the chemin-de-fer
involves less skilled labourers working and producing a
higher output over a shorter time. As the sandstone in
Petra is fairly soft, this would enable the stone masons to
achieve both regularity and fineness in their work.
5.2.1.3 Visual Character of Interior Spaces: Surface
Materials and Finishes
The surfaces of facades may have evidence of either
handmade or machine made products that are important
contributors to the visual character. When identifying the
visual character of Nabataean interior spaces one should
emphasise the importance of the materials and finishes of
the surfaces of walls, floors and ceilings. As discussed
above, most of the interior rocky surfaces were worked
with different tools and techniques to create a great
variety of textures; including fine line and coarse line
dressings (Fig.9).
To conclude, the survey above leads us to locate the
main characteristics that can define the Nabataean
architecture which are unique to the Nabataean style
(Table 1). The other elements such as the use of
courtyard, classical orders, full pediment, marble
cladding and flooring, and the use of stucco and paintings
on walls and columns were frequently in Greco-Roman
and Islamic architecture. The most significant basic
vocabulary that symbolises the Nabataean architecture
contains the following characteristics or codes (these
characteristics are clarified in Table 1):
1. Crowstep motifs symbol (Figs.2, 3).
2. Broken pediment (Figs.5, 6).
3. Circular structure, Tholos (Figs. 2, 3, 8).
4. Urns (Fig.8).
5. Obelisks (Fig.6).
6. The Nabataean Order (Fig.7).
7. Tilted line dressing (Fig.9).
8. Rose red sandstone colour (Fig.4).
How does the Nabataean architectural vocabulary
shown in Table 1 contribute to heritage revival? Surely
using this vocabulary based on visual configurations which
belong to earlier Nabataean civilisation is not adequate in
itself to revive a sense of cultural heritage when designing
modern buildings. The transformation of cultural codes
into contemporary design is the main problem in
maintaining a sense of collective memory. In particular,
regeneration projects require an understanding of the deep
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meaning of these cultural codes, which have many
parameters and ambiguous aspects, not only in terms of
formal / visual aspects. If the continuity of any culture is
based on only formal / visual aspects; if, in other words, it
would be maintained by borrowing the visual images from
the past for modern architecture, then it raises many
problems for the material culture, in which architecture
may be manipulated as an objectified kind of image.
Although the Nabataean architectural vocabulary refers to
the stylistic forms and represents the visual character of
buildings which are the result of fairly limited types of
technology from about 2000 years ago, it is acceptable to
use this vocabulary in contemporary architecture, given
that the latter can be recreated by the technological
possibilities and resources of the twenty- first century.
Architects absolutely do need to understand and
interpret the deeper meaning of the cultural identity of a
given architectural heritage in relation to its spatial
configuration, and then transform these spatial relations
into contemporary circumstances. Cultural identity can be
redesigned as an archetype, but not as a stereotype, as
seems to be the case in some contemporary architectural
examples from Jordan.
6. JORDANIAN TRIALS USING NABATAEAN
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Some architects practising in Jordan have understood
the importance of the Nabataean architectural
characteristics. Different types of the Nabataean
architectural vocabulary which are used in current
architecture in Jordan can be detected. The examples
themselves can be considered as recommendation to the
types of future architectural projects that may contain
some of the Nabataean vocabulary (Shown in Table 1).
By understanding the vocabulary in depth we can achieve
an architectural alternative that is capable of enhancing
the Jordanian cities identity. The following sections
examine some of these examples.
6.1 Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, near M a'a n
Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, established in 1999,
is located in the southern part of Jordan, where almost all
educational disciplines are taught there, including
Tourism, Hotel Management, Science, Computer
Engineering, Education, and Mining Engineering. The
University's main campus is located 7 Km to the west of
the city of Ma'an and 30 km east of Petra. It was designed
by Consolidated Consultants (CC), Amman.
While desiring to create spaces and places that
facilitate learning, the designers extended the
university's mission with the potentials of the natural
and built environments. They created an atmosphere
suitable for promoting local thoughts. A mixture of both
traditional and contemporary styles were used in
designing the buildings; keeping modern elements such
as, prefabrication and modern references and materials,
while using traditional elements such as orders, urban
and architectural typologies and symmetry without
accepting them as integral parts. This was important for
giving the University users an enjoyable urban fabric
filled with a traditional atmosphere of the region. The
architectural image is derived from the unique nature of
Ma'an as a desert settlement in southern Jordan.
Benefiting from its historic heritage context and
traditional origins, the designers used the crowstep
crenellations, the Urn, and the rose colour to give a
distinctive identity to the University. The designers
applied the crowstep motif, split into two halves in all
the facades of the buildings (Fig. 10). A successful
experiment in using the three elements, the crowstep,
the rose red colour, and the broken pediment images can
be seen in the main gate of the University (Fig.11). In
addition, the designers also placed a grey granite
Nabataean capital supporting an urn as a land mark of
Nabataean heritage in the middle of the roundabout, 40
metres inside the main gate (Fig.12). It is the capital
which makes it Nabataean not the urn.
The whole result can be appreciated for its innovative
approach, which integrates Nabataean architectural style,
planning environmental dimensions to preserve the
treasures of the past and simultaneously to realise the
promise of the future as a response to the need for
cultural continuity and identity. It goes much beyond that,
and provides a powerful statement about contemporary
architecture within the context of a developing country
such as Jordan. This design transcends debate to create its
own modernity and plant the seeds for a new tradition in
the construction industry. Al-Hussein Bin Talal
University is sufficient as an example to show that many
buildings are suitable to adopt aspects of the Nabataean
architectural style.
6.2 Crown Plaza Resort, Wadi Musa
The Crown Plaza Resort is located in Wadi Musa,
very close to the visiting centre of the ancient city of
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
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Petra. The main entrance of the hotel includes the orders
with a steel structure. The colour of the stone used in the
building is rose red, while the dressing of the blocks has
tilted Nabataean lines. The interior of the restaurant has
crowstep symbols used as shelves for artefacts, behind
the main counter (Fig. 13). It is worth mentioning the
Mövenpick Hotel in Wadi Musa, very close to the main
gate of Petra, designed by Rasem Badran (2009). The
designer did not use any of the Nabataean vocabulary,
although he incorporated the crowstep motifs in the
exterior view of the façade including the parapets of King
Abdul Aziz Foundation for Research and Archives
project, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. This use could possibly be
attributed to formal manipulations to indicate the main
entrance by showing integration of mud brick into
concrete frame of the left side of the main entrance
façade (Fig. 17). Another possibility of using the
crowsteps could be attributed to the influence of the local
context language.
6.3 Al-Jamal Student Accommodation, Irbid
Al- Jamal accommodation is located in Irbid, north
Jordan, about 300 km north Petra. The project was
designed by the author in 1993 to accommodate the
undergraduate female students of Yarmouk University
and the Jordan University for Science and Technology.
The building is of ten storeys high, the first contains the
reception, and the basement contains the sports centre, a
library, laundry, and a restaurant. The other storeys house
the bedrooms; each storey contains 28 rooms. The
designer used a tholos to help shape the main facade, and
crowned the tholos with a row of crowsteps (Fig.14). The
use of different textures of limestone is another
characteristic feature. The inner area of the crowstep has
a fine dressing, while the outer part was dressed roughly
by a point chisel. This creates a contrast between the two
surfaces and makes the visual appearance for the
crowstep lines strong.
6.4 Abu-Alrob Residential Building, Irbid
The Abu-Alrob residential building which is located
in Irbid, was designed by the author in 1995. It consists
of 12 flats. The main facade is crowned by a shape, with
sloping lines separated by a semicircle. This shape
alludes to a broken pediment. The mass in the centre with
a triangular cross-section reflects the image of a tholos
(Fig.15). The articulation of masses and the elements of
the elevation are purely responses to functional
requirements. The overall relative simplicity of the
elevation and the uncomplicated articulation of the facade
elements create an effect of monumentality.
6.5 Antiquated Examples
There are examples of villas that demonstrate the
antiquated use of the Nabataean architectural vocabulary
in modern buildings showing a passion for that heritage.
These facades strive for monumentality (Fig. 16). The
articulation of volumes, masses and elements of the
elevation are all dictated by the requirements of the form.
The central part of the composition was designed as
stereotype because the facade is copied completely from
el-Khazneh, while the framing of the windows is
reminiscent of el-Deir. Although examples of this type
are opportunities for establishing a dialogue with the
Nabataean traditions and contemporary architecture in
Jordan, their detailing is costly and is time consuming.
This makes this approach uneconomic for larger scale
projects.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Nabataean architecture has its own aesthetic, historic,
and symbolic values. The richness of Petra is situated in
specific time–space contexts that call for consideration of
not only the opinion of architects and scholars but also
the awareness of lay people such as residents and user
groups when making their construction projects. It could
be a symbol of cultural identity and continuity.
Consequently, the Nabataean architectural heritage is one
of the important roots from which the Jordanian
architects can draw their inspiration in order to achieve
buildings with identity.
The paper has identified and classified the different
elements of the Nabataean architectural vocabulary.
This subject has international interest and there is
every reason to offer an architectural vocabulary that
could be modified into new designs. The paper
addresses the crucial problem of how to continue this
architectural heritage in the 21st century, and how to
create an effect that can represent or allude to cultural
identity without copying its cultural codes as
architectural stereotypes. It is suggested that using a
vocabulary based on these visual configurations which
belong to earlier Nabataean civilisation is adequate in
itself to revive a sense of cultural heritage when
designing modern buildings.
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The most significant elements that make up the
vocabulary of Nabataean architecture consist of: rows of
crowsteps, the half crowstep motif, broken pediment,
tholos, the Nabataean capital supporting the urn which
makes it Nabataean, Nabataean capitals order, obelisks,
tilted line dressing, and rose red sandstone colour (Table
1). The use of some of these characteristics as images of
the past within a model of nonverbal communication of
the meaning in the built environment is examined. These
examples show the use of the Nabataean architectural
vocabulary in current architecture in Jordan in different
types of projects such as, residential and office buildings,
and gateways. They demonstrate how Jordan’s most
successful modern architectural designs should harmonise
with their rich architectural heritage. However, the
awareness of these characteristics by the Jordanians has
received limited consideration. Jordanian government
could widen and encourage the use of the Nabataean
architectural vocabulary in the future construction
projects to preserve the community identity. The types of
future projects that can incorporate elements of the
Nabataean architectural vocabulary mentioned in this
article include hotels, hospitals, trade centres, palaces,
and embassies, and both public and private projects, both
locally or internationally. They can use the inspiration of
one element or more in an abstracted manner.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As the research required, I have seen many of the chief
buildings and ruins in Jordan. My travels enabled me to
examine buildings and to take many of photographs and to
make drawings. This fieldwork would not have been
possible without travel grants from the Hashemite
University, which I have highly appreciated. This study
would not have been possible without the necessary
permissions for access to material. For permission to work
at Petra and for facilitating my stay there I am most
grateful to Dr. Fawwaz al-Khraysheh, Director General of
the Department of Antiquities of the Hashemite Kingdom
of Jordan, as well as to Suleiman Farajat the inspector at
Petra. The author also acknowledges the anonymous
reviewer for their constructive comments that significantly
improved the final presentation of the paper. For his
generosity in allowing me to examine Al-Hussein Bin
Talal University buildings for inclusion in this paper I
would like to thank the lead architect and urban designer
Dr. Yasser Rajjal. I give special thanks to Dr. Judith
McKenzie, Dr. Shatha Abu-Khafajah, and Rana Aytug
who read most of the first draft and I am very grateful for
their help in editing the paper. I owe my greatest gratitude
to my wife, Nawal, who also spent many hours helping me
in all my fieldtrips to Petra.
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
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Fig.1. Nabataean Kingdom, its extent, ancient trade routes and major centres, Petra and Medain Saleh (After
Rababeh, 2005: Fig.1.13).
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Fig.2. Crowstep motifs; the most widespread geometrical form noted on the tomb facades. With rows of crowsteps
on the left and half crowsteps in the right.
Fig.3. Crowstep (as two halves) and the cavetto cornice motifs.
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
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Fig.4. The large and richly decorated facade of El-Khazneh, complicated
and showing stronger classical influences, Petra.
Fig.5. The large and richly decorated facade of ed-Deir shows a combination of classical and oriental styles, Petra.
Dirasat, Engineering Sciences, Volume 37, No. 1, 2010
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Fig.6. The Obelisk tomb with the upper storey distinguished by its visual character of the four obelisks.
Fig.7. A Nabataean capital, the Blue Church.
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Fig.8. The Tholos topped by an urn on el-Khazneh, Petra.
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Fig.9. The traces of chiselled lines tilted at 35 to 55 degrees to the horizontal are the most common feature resulting
from Nabataean sandstone dressing.
Fig.10. The crowstep split into two halves on the facade of Al-Hussein Bin Talal University.
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
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Fig.11. The main gate of Al-Hussein Bin Talal University using the split crowstep, rose red colour, and the broken
pediment images.
Fig.12. A grey granite urn supported by a Nabataean capital as a land mark of Nabataean heritage in the
middle of the circle of Al-Hussein Bin Talal University.
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Fig.13. Half Crowsteps used as shelves for artefacts behind the main counter of the restaurant, Crown Plaza
Resort in Wadi Musa.
Fig.14. Al- Jamal student accommodation, Irbid, designed by the author, used the row of crowsteps, and the
tholos on the main façade.
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Fig.15. Abu-Alrob residential building in Irbid, designed by the author, shows the use of a sloping broken mass,
which portrays the broken pediment, and the mass in the centre with triangular cross-section reflects the image of
the tholos.
Fig.16. Villa in Mafraq, north Jordan, the whole of the centre part of the composition is copied from el-Khazneh.
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Fig. 17 Exterior view of façade The crowstep motif was functioned to indicate the main entrance by showing
integration of mud brick into concrete frame of the left side of the main entrance façade showing integration of
mud brick into concrete frame, King Abdul Aziz Foundation for Research and Archives, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
(Badran, 2008).
Nabataean Architectural Identity: … Shaher Rababe’h
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Table 1 The most significant basic vocabulary that symbolises the Nabataean architecture contains the following
characteristics or codes.
Dirasat, Engineering Sciences, Volume 37, No. 1, 2010
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ﻭ ﺔﻴﻁﺒﻨﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻭﻬﻟﺍﺃﻥﺩﺭﻷﺍ ﻲﻓ ﺓﺭﺼﺎﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺓﺭﺎﻤﻌﻟﺍ ﻲﻓ ﺎﻫﺭﺜ
ﺔﻌﺒﺎﺒﺭ ﺩﻤﺤﻤ ﺭﻫﺎﺸ *
ﺹـﺨﻠﻤ
ﻭﻫﻭ ،ﻥﺩﺭﻻﺍ ﻲﻓ ﺔﻁﻴﺤﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﺌﻴﺒﻠﻟ ﺔﻴﻓﺎﻘﺜﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻭﻬﻟﺍ ﻲﻓ ﻩﺭﻴﺜﺄﺘﻭ ﻲﻁﺒﻨﻟﺍ ﻱﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﻁﻤﻨﻟﺎﺒ ﻁﺒﺘﺭﻴ ﹰﺎ ﻋﻭ ﻀﻭﻤ ﺙﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﺍﺫﻫ ﺵﻗﺎﻨﻴ
ﻔﻴﺭﻌﺘﺒ ﻙﻟﺫﻭ ،ﻥﻴﻜﻟﺎﻤﻟﺍﻭ ﻥﻴﻴﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻠﻟ ﺓﺩﻋﺎﺴﻤﻟﺍ ﻡﻴﺩﻘﺘ ﻰﻟﺇ ﻑﺩﻬﻴ ﻲﻨﺎﺒﻤﻟﺍ ﻲﻁﻌﺘ ﻥﺍ ﻥﻜﻤﻴ ﻲﺘﻟﺍ ،ﺔﺒﻁﺒﻨﻟﺍ ﺓﺭﺎﻤﻌﻟﺍ ﺭﺼﺎﻨﻌﺒ ﻡﻬ
ﺔﻴﻨﺒﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﺌﻴﺒﻟﺍ ﻲﻓ ﺎﻬﻟﺎﻤﻌﺘﺴﺍ ﺀﺎﻴﺤﺇ لﻼﺨ ﻥﻤ ﺭﺼﺎﻨﻌﻟﺍ ﻙﻠﺘ ﺀﺎﻘﺒ ﻰﻠﻋ ﻅﺎﻔﺤﻟﺍ ﺽﺭﻐﺒ ﺔﻴﺭﺼﺒ ﺔﻴﺼﺎﺨ ﺔﺜﻴﺩﺤﻟﺍ . ﻑﺩﻬﻴ ﺎﻤﻜ ،ﺔﻴﻁﺒﻨﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺕﺎﺤﻠﻁﺼﻤﻟﺍ لﻴﻠﺤﺘ ﻰﻟﺍ ﻲﺘﻟﺍ ،لﺒﻘﺘﺴﻤﻟﺍ ﺓﺭﺎﻤﻋ ﻡﺴﺭ ﻥﻤ ﺎﻨﻨﻜﻤﻴ ﻱﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤ ﻡﺎﻅﻨ ﻕﻠﺨ ﻡﺜ ﻥﻤﻭ ﻥﻭﻜﺘ ﺔﻘﻴﻤﻋﻭ ﺔﺒﻠﺼ ﺭﻭﺫﺠ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺔﻴﻨﺒﻤ . ﺽﻌﺒ ﻡﺍﺩﺨﺘﺴﺎﺒ ﺍﻭﻤﺎﻗ ﻥﻴﻴﻨﺩﺭﺃ ﻥﻴﻴﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟ ﺓﺭﺼﺎﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺕﻻﻭﺎﺤﻤﻟﺍ ﺽﻌﺒ ﺢﻀﻭﻴ ﺎﻤﻜ
ﺙﺍﺭﺘﻟﺍ ﺍﺫﻫ ﺵﺎﻌﻨﺍ ﻑﺩﻬﺒ ،ﺔﻴﻁﺒﻨﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺕﺎﺤﻠﻁﺼﻤﻟﺍ ﻩﺫﻫ .
ﻱﺭﺼﺒﻟﺍ ﻙﺍﺭﺩﻻﺍﻭ ﺔﻴﺩﺎﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﻟﺩﻷﺍﻭ ﺔﻴﺴﺎﺴﻷﺍ ﺔﻴﺒﺩﻷﺍ ﺭﺩﺎﺼﻤﻟﺍ ﻡﺍﺩﺨﺘﺴﺍ ﻡﺘ ﺩﻘﻓ ﻑﺍﺩﻫﻻﺍ ﻩﺫﻫ ﻕﻴﻘﺤﺘ ﺔﻴﻐﺒﻭ
ﺔﺴﻭﺭﺩﻤﻟﺍ ﻲﻨﺎﺒﻤﻠﻟ.
ﻥﻭﻴﻨﺩﺭﻷﺍ ﻥﻭﻴﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﻊﻴﻁﺘﺴﻴ ﺎﻬﻨﻤ ﻲﺘﻟﺍ ،ﺔﻤﺎﻬﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻌﺠﺭﻤﻟﺍ ﻭﻫ ﻲﻁﺒﻨﻟﺍ ﻱﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺙﺍﺭﺘﻟﺍ ﻥﺃ ﻰﻟﺇ ﺙﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﺹﻠﺨ ﺩﻗﻭ
لﻭﺼﻭﻠﻟ ﻱﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ لﻜﺸﻟﺍ ﻁﺎﺒﻨﺘﺴﺍﺔﻴﻭﻫﻭ ﻊﺒﺎﻁ ﺕﺍﺫ ﹺﻥﺎﺒﻤ ﻰﻟﺇ.
ﺔﻟﺍﺩﻟﺍ ﺕﺎﻤﻠﻜﻟﺍ: ﻥﺩﺭﻷﺍ ،ﺀﺍﺭﺘﺒﻟﺍ ،ﻥﺎﻜﻤﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻭﻫ ،ﺔﻴﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺕﺎﺤﻠﻁﺼﻤﻟﺍ ،ﺙﻴﺩﺤﻟﺍ ﺀﺎﻨﺒﻟﺍ ،ﻱﺭﺎﻤﻌﻤﻟﺍ ﺙﺭﻹﺍ.
_
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___ *ﺓﺭﺎﻤﻌﻟﺍ ﺔﺴﺩﻨﻫ ﻡﺴﻗ، ،ﺔﺴﺩﻨﻬﻟﺍ ﺔﻴﻠﻜ ﻥﺎﻤﻋ ،ﺀﺎﻗﺭﺯﻟﺍ ،ﺔﻴﻤﺸﺎﻬﻟﺍ ﺔﻌﻤﺎﺠﻟﺍ . ﺙﺤﺒﻟﺍ ﻡﻼﺘﺴﺍ ﺦﻴﺭﺎﺘ16/7/2009 ﻪﻟﻭﺒﻗ ﺦﻴﺭﺎﺘﻭ ،
21/1/2010.
