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Eat or not eat: An analysis of the status of entomophagy in Botswana
Abstract
In Botswana, mopane worm Imbrasia belina Westwood is culturally accepted as food by people of different age groups from different regions and districts. However, there are several other insect that are anecdotally known to be edible in Botswana. To verify this, a study was conducted by means of a questionnaire and discussions among Batswana of different age groups from six districts in the country to obtain the names of insects that are known to be edible. A total of 27 insect species was identified. The study also investigated methods of collection, processing, precooking preparation, cooking methods, storage and recipes. Chi-square analysis showed that people’s knowledge of edible insects differed with districts and age groups. Older people were more familiar with uncommon edible insect compared to the younger generation. With the exception of mopane worm, the majority of the people interviewed, especially the young, had not eaten any of the species, despite knowing that they were edible. This shows that, apart from the use of mopane worm, entomophagy (the eating of insect by humans) as practiced among Batswana is declining. However, in the light of current decline in food production in Africa, especially in the arid regions of Botswana, insects may make a valuable contribution to the protein and calories of many peoples’ diets. A shift from traditional harvesting to mass production of insects has the potential to provide animal protein to humans through direct consumption or indirectly when used as livestock feed, and could reduce malnutrition.
... The average agreement scores among Baby Boomers ranged from 3.86 to 3.96 with no statistically significant difference between the two groups (p > .05). Older generations have more familiarity with edible insects than younger generations (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). Nonetheless, among Chinese consumers, Generations X, Y, and Z provided average agreement scores that were higher than those of Thai consumers (p > .05) ...
... From the results above that investigated about the factors involved in the development of food products such as culture, location, level of knowledge and generations (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). The results showed that there are differences between China and Thailand in the culinary applications that utilize cricket protein powder as the primary ingredient. ...
... However, Thai Generations X and Z and Baby Boomers were associated with the categories of main dish, bakery product, dessert, dipping sauce product, and beverage. The Thai Baby Boomer generation was slightly more closely related to the main dish category; it is possible that older generations have more familiarity with edible insects than younger generations (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013) and thus can apply cricket powder to every Thai menu. According to , children may consume insects, but they also develop active imaginations about them. ...
This research aims to compare the relationship of factors that influence Thai and Chinese consumers’ perception and emotional responses towards cricket protein powder and to evaluate consumers’ needs for novel food products based on cricket protein powder. The data were collected from 864 participants from Thailand and China. A comparative analysis reveals that generation does not significantly influence consumers’ perception. Chinese consumers, unfamiliar with crickets as food, express negative emotions, yet show positive feelings. In contrast, Thai consumers respond positively, especially when crickets are incorporated into processed products. The study identifies key product concepts, such as food supplements and seasoning, favored by Chinese consumers. Thai consumers prefer cricket powder in main courses, desserts, and beverages, whereas Gen Y leans towards incorporating it into snacks. These findings emphasize the importance of familiarity, generational variations, and emotional responses in shaping consumer preferences, vital factors for designing and marketing innovative food products.
... G. belina has historically provided an important source of nutrition and protein for local communities, who harvest the larvae in large numbers (Stack et al. 2003). These caterpillars are widely eaten across southern Africa, with over 80% of interviewed households in the Limpopo province of South Africa consuming G. belina at least 3-5 times a week (Kozanayi and Frost 2002, Stack et al. 2003, Obopile and Seeletso 2013, Makhado et al. 2014, Baiyegunhi and Oppong 2016, Hlongwane et al. 2021. For example, in Botswana G. belina remains a culturally important food despite the overall decline in entomophagy (Obopile and Seeletso 2013). ...
... These caterpillars are widely eaten across southern Africa, with over 80% of interviewed households in the Limpopo province of South Africa consuming G. belina at least 3-5 times a week (Kozanayi and Frost 2002, Stack et al. 2003, Obopile and Seeletso 2013, Makhado et al. 2014, Baiyegunhi and Oppong 2016, Hlongwane et al. 2021. For example, in Botswana G. belina remains a culturally important food despite the overall decline in entomophagy (Obopile and Seeletso 2013). The significant protein content of G. belina is particularly important given that Africa has the lowest protein intake per capita in the world (Illgner andNel 2000, Schönfeldt andHall 2012). ...
... The potential loss of G. belina may mean that other edible insects are harvested and consumed instead, but this is unlikely to be the case. While entomophagy was previously widespread across southern Africa, it is currently in decline (Illgner andNel 2000, Obopile andSeeletso 2013). G. belina is particularly important as it remains the only insect still widely consumed, especially among young people (Obopile and Seeletso 2013). ...
The mopane worm (Gonimbrasia belina) is an edible insect distributed across southern Africa. As a culturally important source of food, the mopane worm provides nutrition, livelihoods and improves wellbeing for rural communities across its range. However, this is strong evidence that insect populations are declining worldwide, and climate change is likely to cause many insect species to shift in their distributions. For these reasons, we aimed to model how the ecosystem service benefits of the mopane worm are likely to change in the coming decades. We modelled the distribution of the mopane worm under two contrasting climate change scenarios (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5). Moreover, given that the mopane worm shows strong interactions with other species, particularly trees, we incorporated biotic interactions in our models using a Bayesian network. Our models project significant contraction across the species’ range, with up to 70% decline in habitat by the 2080s. Botswana and Zimbabwe are predicted to be the most severely impacted countries, with almost all habitat in Botswana and Zimbabwe modelled to be lost by the 2080s. Decline of mopane worm habitat would likely have negative implications for the health of people in rural communities due to loss of an important source of protein as well as household income provided by their harvest. Biogeographic shifts therefore have potential to exacerbate food insecurity, socio-economic inequalities, and gender imbalance (women are the main harvesters), with cascading effects that most negatively impact poor rural communities dependent on natural resources.
... Traditional consumer countries are grappling with their own complex neophobia issues owing to the fact that neophagia is associated with a perception of poverty. The problem is even more pronounced in urban areas, and some African countries, including Zimbabwe, Nigeria, and Botswana, have reported that young people are rejecting entomophagy (Ebenebe & Okpoko, 2015;Manditsera et al., 2018;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). Although, in the West, edible insects are being promoted as an environmentally sustainable protein source to young people in higher income brackets, young people in countries where entomophagy is a traditional practice still perceive insect consumption as a source of shame and as being related to poverty and a provincial mindset. ...
... There are several traditional edible insect cooking techniques, including steaming, roasting, smoking, frying, stewing, and curing (see Figure 2; Ebenebe et al., 2015;Graboswski & Klein, 2017;Lautenshläger et al., 2016;Nonaka, 2009;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013;Ramos-Rostro et al., 2016;Shockley, Lesnik, Allen, & Muñoz, 2018). These techniques are preceded by blanching to reduce foodborne microorganism counts and to inactivate enzymes (Marshall, Dickson, & Nguyen, 2016). ...
... In Botswana insects are commonly consumed either without any culinary preparation or the insects are sun-dried before being roasted, fried, boiled, or steamed and eaten as a snack. Larvae of dung beetles are grilled or fried in oil, and caterpillars are roasted in hot ash without salting, or salted, boiled, and sun-dried before consumption (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). ...
Insects are part of the human diet in many parts of the world. Their nutritional value is widely recognized. Currently, most edible insects are harvested from the wild, although semi-domestication and indoor farming have increased insect availability and the sustainability of production. In traditional cultures, insects are processed in a number of ways (steaming, roasting, smoking, frying, stewing, and curing, among others) to improve their sensory and nutritional qualities as well as their shelf-life. In order to increase consumer interest in the West, various technologies have been developed that are aimed primarily at using insects as ingredients in a non-recognizable form, such as powders or flour. These technologies include drying (sun-drying, freeze-drying, oven-drying, fluidized bed drying, and microwave-drying) and new processing methods (ultrasound-assisted extraction, cold atmospheric pressure plasma, and dry fractionation) designed mainly for protein, fat, and/or chitin extraction. Insect-based ingredients are sold for the production of cookies, chocolates, tortilla-style chips, and other snacks. This review focuses on edible insect production, processing technologies, and commercialization using strategies ranging from traditional to novel as a sustainable approach for improving food security worldwide.
... Kekeunou et al. (2020a) also reported the consumption of the larval stage of Z. variegatus in the south part of Cameroon. The consumption of a particular life stage of an insect is linked to its taste and availability, but also to the beliefs associated to its consumption (Obopile and Seeletso 2013). For example, Tamesse et al. (2018) reported that the consumption of larval instars of honey bees is not linked to their taste but to the medicinal virtues of the food. ...
... A profound change of mentality is needed to overcome the barriers to grasshopper consumption and promote its use as a reliable contribution to overcome food insecurity and the increasing protein demands for humans. Obopile and Seeletso (2013) also suggested that the age of the respondent and his/her belief towards the insect in the tradition can take a huge part in the refusal of the insect. Indeed, young people are less familiar to entomophagy than old generation, showing a declining practice in African populations. ...
... Indeed, young people are less familiar to entomophagy than old generation, showing a declining practice in African populations. Furthermore, some respondents may refuse to eat a given insect if it is believed to be sacred, a totem or eaten at a particular age as ritual or whether the person eating them is married, pregnant, adult men or women (Obopile and Seeletso 2013;Manditsera et al. 2018). Manditsera et al. (2018) also mentioned the effect of urbanization on people's cultural habits, especially in reducing their knowledge and acceptance on insect consumption. ...
Edible insects are increasingly considered as alternative food sources against the protein-energy deficiency in sub-Saharan Africa. Oxycatantops spissus has been reported as an edible insect in Cameroon and Congo, but little is known about people perception, attitudes and uses of this acridian in Cameroon. This study was conducted in six localities in the Centre and Littoral regions of Cameroon with the aim to assess the level of knowledge of O. spissus and the reasons for its consumption or non-consumption. Total of 300 people composed at 53% men and 48% women, sampled using a non-probabilistic random route method, were interviewed. The study revealed that O. spissus is very well known in the south part of Cameroon (99.7% respondents). O. spissus is abundant throughout the year (71%), in farms (95%) where it feeds on leaves of Manihot esculenta (59%) and Zea mays (27%). The main reason of using O. spissus was its consumption (18%). The main reason for its consumption was its good taste (13%). However, most respondents refused to consume this insect because of cultural barriers (78%). O. spissus may constitute a new food source easily acceptable given its good taste, but its consumption is hindered by wrong idea people have about it, because they never experienced it as food. People need to overcome these barriers and change their paradigm to fully appreciate this food source. However, a study of the toxicity of O. spissus is required before it could be recommended as a suitable and reliable food source for human.
... According to Teffo et al. [15], the consumption of insects in South Africa is more prevalent in Limpopo, Gauteng, North West, and Mpumalanga provinces. Across African countries, Zimbabwe [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21], Angola [54], Tanzania [36], Nigeria [55], and Botswana [18] have been reported to consume edible insects. However, Ethiopia is one exception, because religious beliefs prohibit the consumption of insects, and only 1% of people interviewed were prepared to accept insects as a human food [56]. ...
... According to Teffo et al. [15], the consumption of insects in South Africa is more prevalent in Limpopo, Gauteng, North West, and Mpumalanga provinces. Across African countries, Zimbabwe [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21], Angola [54], Tanzania [36], Nigeria [55], and Botswana [18] have been reported to consume edible insects. However, Ethiopia is one exception, because religious beliefs prohibit the consumption of insects, and only 1% of people interviewed were prepared to accept insects as a human food [56]. ...
... Eight insect species belonging to five insect orders were used as food in Limpopo and KZN. These results are similar to Obopile and Seeletso's [18] findings, who reported that insects belonging in six insect orders were used as food in Botswana. Contrary to this, Makhado et al. [33] reported that insects belonging in four insect orders were used as food in Greater Giyani Municipality, Limpopo. ...
Consumption of edible insects is an indigenous practice that has played an essential role in human nutrition across Africa. The traditional use of insects forms an important part of food culture in Africa, and insects are consumed either as a delicacy, emergency, or staple source of food. However, indigenous knowledge about insect consumption is being lost because recent generations have adopted western methods and paid less attention to traditional practices. We conducted 500 questionnaires in five local municipalities in Kwazulu-Natal (KZN), and 122 questionnaires in four local municipalities in Vhembe district in Limpopo, South Africa, to document indigenous knowledge about edible insects’ consumption, collection, and preparation methods used in Limpopo and KZN. Eight insect species belonging to five insect orders were used as food in Limpopo and KZN, with mopane worms (94%) and termites (70%) being the most preferred species by respondents in Limpopo and KZN, respectively. Ninety-five percent of the respondents occasionally consumed insects in Limpopo, while only 28% did so in KZN. Nutritional benefits and tradition were the main reasons for consuming insects. Edible insects are a nutritious diet and play an important role in people’s livelihoods in rural areas. However, there was a notable decline in entomophagy, particularly in KZN. The decline may be related to occidental acculturation, discomfort associated with eating insects, and declining insect availability. To promote entomophagy, the authorities should encourage people to include edible insects in their diets because of their nutritional value. In addition, edible insect flour should be incorporated in food products such as biscuits, bread, energy bars, cereal, and cookies to promote acceptability.
... This negative attitude has extended its own influence on the consumption of insect diets also in developing countries (Looy, Dunkel, & Wood, 2014). For example, Obopile and Seeletso (2013) find that traditional eating habits including edible insect consumption are often lost as a result of changing dietary patterns that reflect western eating habits. These studies also indicate that some people associate the use of insects as food with being poor and living a primitive life in rural areas. ...
... Another equally important issue is the sensory and tasting experience associated with eating insects. According to previous studies, some people in developing countries traditionally consume insects partly because they like their taste (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). First time tasting experience is crucial to counter the initial skepticism and unease. ...
... This study contributes to the literature by investigating both the impacts of tasting experience and subsequent observation of peers' taste preferences of products on consumers' WTP for novel foods. Previous studies suggest that one reason why people eat insects is because they like their taste and they are likely to consume them in the future after they taste them the first time (Hartmann & Siegrist, 2016;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). As a result, we anticipate that tasting the cricket flour buns would increase consumes' WTP. ...
This paper investigates the impacts of tasting experience and observing peers’ taste preferences on consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for novel insect‐based food products. In an empirical incentivized discrete choice experiment (DCE) developed to estimate Kenyan consumers' WTP for buns made with cricket flour, we test two treatments against a control treatment using a between‐subject design. The control treatment is a typical DCE questionnaire survey. Treatment 1 is identical to the control except that respondents are asked to taste the buns before answering the questionnaire. In Treatment 2, respondents are also given the tasting experience but they additionally observe their peers' taste preferences for the buns. The results suggest that tasting experience is important since Treatment 1 obtains significantly higher WTP estimates than the control. However, allowing additionally for peer effects in Treatment 2 significantly reduces the WTP estimates again countering the effect of tasting in Treatment 1. According to the results, this is partly related to the observation of peers reacting negatively in terms of disliking the bun products. [EconLit Citations: D12, D90, Q13].
... In Africa, fried or smoke-cured mopane moth caterpillars (Imbrasia belina), which costs 4 times more than conventional meat, are considered to be a delicacy. The popularity of these larvae is so high that, during the season of their mass development, sales of beef and the meat of other animals decreases markedly (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). So, one cannot exclude the possibility that traditions of using insects as food will gradually take hold in other regions. ...
... In farming other insects, in order to reduce natural mortality, the larvae are protected from drought, heat, and predation and diseases by simply covering them with branches, leaves and shade houses like in the case of mopane worm caterpillars (I. belina) from Botswana and South Africa (Kelemu et al., 2015;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). In Mexico, the eggs of aquatic true bugs (Corisella, Corixa, and Notonecta species), which lay on aquatic vegetation in lakes are highly valued. ...
... After being wild-harvested or reared in a domesticated setting, the insects should be processed for human consumption or feed for livestock. The following variants of insect processing prior to eating have been reported in literature (1) eating of whole insects; (2) processing into granular or paste forms; and (3) extraction from insects of particular food components (Obopile and Seeletso, 2013). ...
Background
Entomophagy (eating insects) has a long history. Currently, 2 billion people in 113 countries consume insects (Tao, Li 2018). However, in many states (mainly Western) attitude towards it is ambiguous. Majority of people there reject insects as food because they consider eating insects as nasty. However, this attitude is no more than a preconception because, over the years, many formerly unusual foodstuffs (for example, eating frogs) became traditional.
Scope and approach
This review's purpose is to give comprehensive positive and negative analysis aspects of the use of insects as a food source for humans and animal feed. This study focuses on such positive reasons for using insects as a food source for human health, environmental factors, and socioeconomic benefit, the high efficiency of the use of forages for insects cultivation, there are considerable nutritional value of different insect species comparing to chicken, pork and beef. Challenges of using insects as food related to microbial, chemical, physical, allergic, parasitical and toxicological risks.
Key Findings and Conclusions
In the context of the world food resources reduction, insect's food use is a promising direction. The main tasks are the knowledge dissemination, change of the ratio in getting edible insects (the share increase of semi-domestication and farming comparing to wild harvesting), edible insect food industry development, species composition expansion of used insects, conducting research on risks to human health. The review argues that insects have the potential to serve as food and feed source globally with a lower negative impact on the environment.
... Traditional consumer countries are grappling with their own complex neophobia issues owing to the fact that neophagia is associated with a perception of poverty. The problem is even more pronounced in urban areas, and some African countries, including Zimbabwe, Nigeria, and Botswana, have reported that young people are rejecting entomophagy (Ebenebe & Okpoko, 2015;Manditsera et al., 2018;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). Although, in the West, edible insects are being promoted as an environmentally sustainable protein source to young people in higher income brackets, young people in countries where entomophagy is a traditional practice still perceive insect consumption as a source of shame and as being related to poverty and a provincial mindset. ...
... There are several traditional edible insect cooking techniques, including steaming, roasting, smoking, frying, stewing, and curing (see Figure 2; Ebenebe et al., 2015;Graboswski & Klein, 2017;Lautenshläger et al., 2016;Nonaka, 2009;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013;Ramos-Rostro et al., 2016;Shockley, Lesnik, Allen, & Muñoz, 2018). These techniques are preceded by blanching to reduce foodborne microorganism counts and to inactivate enzymes (Marshall, Dickson, & Nguyen, 2016). ...
... In Botswana insects are commonly consumed either without any culinary preparation or the insects are sun-dried before being roasted, fried, boiled, or steamed and eaten as a snack. Larvae of dung beetles are grilled or fried in oil, and caterpillars are roasted in hot ash without salting, or salted, boiled, and sun-dried before consumption (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). ...
Insects are part of the human diet in many parts of the world. Their nutritional value is widely recognized. Currently, most edible insects are harvested from the wild, although semi‐domestication and indoor farming have increased insect availability and the sustainability of production. In traditional cultures, insects are processed in a number of ways (steaming, roasting, smoking, frying, stewing, and curing, among others) to improve their sensory and nutritional qualities as well as their shelf‐life. In order to increase consumer interest in the West, various technologies have been developed that are aimed primarily at using insects as ingredients in a non‐recognizable form, such as powders or flour. These technologies include drying (sun‐drying, freeze‐drying, oven‐drying, fluidized bed drying, and microwave‐drying) and new processing methods (ultrasound‐assisted extraction, cold atmospheric pressure plasma, and dry fractionation) designed mainly for protein, fat, and/or chitin extraction. Insect‐based ingredients are sold for the production of cookies, chocolates, tortilla‐style chips, and other snacks. This review focuses on edible insect production, processing technologies, and commercialization using strategies ranging from traditional to novel as a sustainable approach for improving food security worldwide.
... Entomophagy is common throughout sub-Saharan Africa (Dzerefos and Witkowski 2014) but harvesting areas have decreased in recent years. For example, traditional harvesting areas in Botswana have been converted to agriculture leading to the reduced availability of Mopane worm Imbrasia belina (Westwood) (Obopile and Seeletso 2013) while local extinctions of the stinkbug, Encosternum delegorguei Spinola have been reported in Limpopo Province, South Africa ( Fig. 1; Toms and Thagwana 2003). Reduced insect harvesting has been attributed to felling of food trees for cooking and warmth (Dzerefos et al. 2009) while ecological processes have changed due to increased rate of wood harvesting in the last 20 years (Dovie et al. 2004;Twine 2005). ...
... The caterpillar stage of I. belina is the most widely traded edible insect in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe (Greyling and Potgieter 2004;Obopile and Seeletso 2013) but many other insects are traded informally as food (Twine et al. 2003;Makhado et al. 2009) or are collected for household use. During the 2004/5 season (May to August) in Limpopo Province, South Africa, it was calculated that 0.1 kg dried I. belina fetched between US$ 0.65 to 1.30 while a cup of stinkbugs or termites fetched US$ 0.65 (Makhado et al. 2009). ...
... A relationship of trust is required between insect harvesters and the researcher as collection may involve trespassing or even felling of trees. Insects may be difficult to handle due to spines (Obopile and Seeletso 2013) or release of noxious chemicals (Dzerefos et al. 2009). Use of camouflage, ability to hide in crevices or suspended development in the life cycle (Dzerefos and Witkowski 2015) make research challenging. ...
Throughout sub-Saharan Africa wild-sourced foods, like edible insects, have been a way of life improving nutrition and providing a potential source of income. Unfortunately, natural areas are increasingly altered as time progresses through natural and anthropogenic factors that directly or indirectly alter ecosystems. Previously sacred places that were no-go areas or required special permission to access inadvertently served as havens for biodiversity. Cultural values and beliefs have informed methods of harvesting from nature. In the case of the edible stink bug Encosternum delegorguei some communities are focussed on short-term gains and harvest unsustainably by felling trees while others are implementing adaptive management. South Africa seems to be mindful of insect biodiversity and a few formally protected areas exist for the persistence of threatened butterflies but the inclusion of edible insects such as beetles, stinkbugs, caterpillars, locusts and termites in protected areas has historically been by accident rather than by design. As the habitat of edible insects is increasingly impacted on by human activities the benefits and potential need to be understood and managed. Community resource reserves, ecotourism and conservation flagship species for environmental education are recommended for a sustainable future.
... Carebara vidua could also emerge twice in a year, in the month of April, then emerge again in the month of August for the second time, where there is sufficient rainfall. In certain circumstances, Carebara vidua is possible to emerge more than thrice a year; April, May, August, and other months with intermittent rainfall (Illgner and Nel, 2000;Onyeike et al., 2005;Ayieko et al., 2012;Obopile and Seeletso, 2013;Kelemu et al., 2015;Musundire et al., 2016a;Hlongwane et al., 2020;Ondede, 2023). In another report by Jose et al. (2022), Carebara vidua is available in the month of November to December, while dormant during summer (Musundire et al., 2016a). ...
... The mimicry of their new habitat or their artificial environment must be so the conditions being provided to the ants encourage the sustenance of their normal behavior with reduced stress from any variations (Berggren et al., 2018). Optimal levels of temperature and humidity within the confines of the enclosure Illgner and Nel, 2000;Onyeike et al., 2005;Ayieko et al., 2012;Obopile and Seeletso, 2013;Kelemu et al., 2015;Musundire et al., 2016a;Hlongwane et al., 2020;Ondede, 2023 are imperative to support the different developmental stages of the entire colony. The mass-rearing of edible black ants can be successfully developed by providing a conducive set-up that addresses key factors contributing to their health, development, and the reproduction of the colony. ...
Meeting food security is one of the major global challenges to ensure sufficient supply of food for current and future
generations, considering increasing population growth and climate change issues. Consequently, the consumption
of edible insects as an alternative food source has recently gained global attention for combating global food
insecurity. The present review aims to provide information on the recent progress in consumption of edible black
ant Smith, particularly Carebara vidua, as the main focus. The global consumption record of edible black ant Smith
and consumer acceptance as well as the strategies used to increase consumer acceptance of eating edible black
ant smith were proposed. In addition, the bioecology of black ant Smith was covered in this review. Further, details
are provided in this review on the benefits to health, economy, and environment of practicing eating edible insects
such as black ant Smith. Focus on the potential uses of Carebara vidua as a food ingredient in culinary cuisine
and their safety concerns from rearing until processing were highlighted. The SCOPUS database was analysed using
bibliometric software to understand the connections between recent scientific outputs and ant as human food
thoroughly. BioRender software was used to create scientific figures. It is noteworthy to highlight that black ant
smith contains high protein and micronutrient, especially iron and zinc are higher than that of plant-, animal-based
food, and seafood that contribute significantly to meeting the daily protein and mineral intake amount for human.
Moreover, the exhibition of antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of edible black ant smith suggests that it can
be used as a future functional ingredients for food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics purposes. Hence, edible black
ant smith is promising as an alternative and potential source of food or medicine for sustainable food security.
... Familiarity appears to be the key driving force, allowing most respondents to react positively to all edible species in terms of their willingness to eat them and thus address food and nutrition insecurity and related issues. This preference has been reported to be linked to availability 13,41 , ethnicity/cultures 42 , palatability 14 and seasonality 43 , as some species are more prevalent and familiar in some Territories than others. In addition, indigenous knowledge and processing can also influence the preference of edible insect species 41 . ...
... This preference has been reported to be linked to availability 13,41 , ethnicity/cultures 42 , palatability 14 and seasonality 43 , as some species are more prevalent and familiar in some Territories than others. In addition, indigenous knowledge and processing can also influence the preference of edible insect species 41 . ...
In response to growing food demand, edible insects are perceived as an opportunity to alleviate food insecurity. With its wide edible insects’ biodiversity, the Democratic Republic of Congo is one of Africa’s most critical entomophagous. This study aimed at giving a first insight on inventory showing diversity, perception, consumption, availability, host plants, harvesting techniques and processing techniques of edible insects in South-Kivu, DRC. It recorded twenty-three edible insects belonging to nine families and five orders, some of which are consumed in the larval, adult, egg and pupa stages. Rhyncophorus phoenicis, Alphitobius diaperinus, Macrotermes subhyalinus and Acheta domesticus were the most preferred edible insects in Fizi Territory, Ruspolia differens and Apis mellifera larvae in Kabare Territory, Imbrasia oyemensis, Imbrasia epimethea, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Rhyncophorus phoenicis in Mwenga Territory, Ruspolia differens, Macrotermes subhyalinus, Gryllotalpa africana, Nsike, Nomadacris septemfasciata and A. mellifera larvae in Walungu Territory. Ruspolia differens, I. oyemensis, A. mellifera larvae, G. africana and Nsike, were preferred for their taste. Acheta domesticus, A. diaperinus and A. mellifera larvae were abundant throughout the year, while others were only available for 9 months or less per year. Numerous plants have been recorded as their hosts, including plants used for food and income. Harvesting strategies and period, processing methods and preservation techniques depend on insect species, local knowledge and practices. These findings suggest similar and thorough studies on entomophagy across the country while encouraging the rearing of edible insects to address their existing high demand and environmental concerns.
... Insects must be properly treated before being eaten by animals or humans. The following variants of insect treatment before eating have been reported in the bibliography: consumption of whole insects, processing into granules or paste, and extraction by insects of specific food ingredients [59]. When insects are consumed unchanged, the traditional preparation methods are steaming, boiling, baking, frying, washing, smoking, and chutney processing [40,60]. ...
... Consumption of intact insects is more typical of tropical countries, where insects are usually eaten whole. However, in insects such as locusts, grasshoppers, and adult beetles, certain parts of their body (wings, legs) are removed before consumption [59]. Many insect cookbooks have already been published [62][63][64][65]. ...
Proper protein production is a serious challenge for the future. Insects represent an innovative food source and are extremely nutritious, as they have a high content of proteins and a well-balanced nutrient profile. This study focuses on the positive reasons for the use of insects as a food source and examines the contribution of insects to the human diet and the growing demand for cheap proteins in the food industry. In addition, in the present study, analyzes were performed to determine the nutritional value of mealworms and commercially available cricket flour. Moisture, ash, Total Energy Value, proteins, amino acids, fat, fatty acid profiles, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and minerals were identified. According to the results, the samples have a high protein content and high concentrations of various amino acids (especially the essential amino acids). They also have a well-balanced fatty acid profile, high in polyunsaturated, monounsaturated fatty acids and many minerals. The main tasks are the dissemination of knowledge, the change of the process for obtaining edible insects, the development of the edible insect food industry, the expansion of the composition of already used insects, and the future conduct of research on risks to human health.
... However, we did not have a sufficiently large enough database to allow us to draw a firm conclusion. In contrast, one study in Botswana revealed that older people were more knowledgeable and familiar with a wider range of edible species than the younger generation (31), which is in agreement with a survey on edible insects in Northeast India (32). The importance of traditional knowledge in the food culture in the context of entomophagy has been discussed in detail by Sogari et al. (33), who cited comparative accounts between western and eastern societies, while the factors influencing food choice mechanism, particularly in the context of edible insects, have been reviewed by Ghosh et al. (34). ...
... However, as the finding of the present study has confirmed, acceptability of insects as food for humans does not solely depend on the nutritional potential of the resource but includes many other factors (34,(48)(49)(50). As with other nutritious but neglected traditional food items, edible insects are getting increasingly shunned in areas where they had been consumed for centuries but have received more and more attention by consumers in countries that are considered developed (31,51). However, the consumer acceptance is rather a complex issue, and framework is required to innovate or develop proper strategy and promote edible insects (52). ...
We surveyed the local populations of Kétou and Pobè in Southeast Benin through interviews and with the aid of a semi-structured questionnaire in order to understand how they currently perceive entomophagy, an age-old tradition in their communities. The study revealed that the majority of the population was familiar with the use of insects as food, and a sizable number of people were still interested in insect consumption. Gender differences were not apparent. Tradition or culture was identified as the most influential factor, followed by taste, as determinants for eating or rejecting insects. However, identifying the edible species and comparing practices how they were prepared for consumption, we found that the knowledge was not homogenous across the society of Benin, with differences depending on ethnicity, culture, respondent's age, and educational background. Awareness and promotion of food insects in the society should help to preserve the practice of entomophagy and in turn could lead to the provision of much needed nutritional supplements to the poorer and disadvantaged sections of the society.
... However, no significant difference between genders was detected concerning the number of insects mentioned and used, suggesting that men and women were equally knowledgeable about the use of insects. Similar patterns of insect-related knowledge distribution have been reported in Botswana [44]. The overall educational level was low in this population, although younger people generally received more education than older adults. ...
Background
Although China has a long history of using insects as food and medicine and has developed numerous associated knowledge and practices, especially in its rural and mountainous areas, systematic surveys concerning this subject are limited. In-depth ethnobiological research is needed to compile a comprehensive database of edible and medicinal insects and record the associated knowledge of these food and medicinal resources.
Methods
Data on edible and medicinal insects and associated knowledge about them were collected by interviewing 216 local villagers in a mountainous territory in southeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China.
Results
Local villagers used at least 16 edible and 9 medicinal insects, of which 4 wasp species were used in both entomophagy and medicinal practices. Parapolybia varia, Polistes olivaceus, and Anomala chamaeleon were newly recorded edible insects in China. The wasps, Euconocephalus sp., Gryllotalpa orientalis, and Cyrtotrachelus longimanus, were preferred and culturally important edible insects. Populations of Euconocephalus sp. and G. orientalis were reported to have substantially decreased in recent years. Wasps and a bamboo bee were used to treat rheumatism, while cockroaches and antlions were used to treat common cold symptoms in infants. Insect-related knowledge was positively correlated with the interviewees’ age.
Conclusions
Villagers have accumulated considerable local and traditional knowledge of entomophagy and entomo-therapeutic practices. However, this knowledge is in danger of being lost, which highlights the urgent need to document this information. Edible insects enrich local diets, and a more sustainable supply (such as through insect farming) could maintain local entomophagy practices. Medicinal insects are a part of local folk medicine, and pharmacological and chemical techniques could be applied to identify various biologically active substances in these insects.
... After being collected in the wild or raised in a domesticated environment, insects must be processed for human consumption or livestock feed. The following variants of insect processing have been reported in the literature: whole, processed in granular or pasty form, and extraction of insect components for certain food products such as energy bars, pastes, flours (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). ...
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO/UN) estimates that the world’s population will exceed 9.1 billion people by 2050. The food demand required for this population is looming as a gigantic challenge. The sufficiency of foods rich in high biological value proteins will be a priority due to their importance in the proper physical and mental development of people. In this scenario, entomophagy, the consumption of insects as a nutrient source, is a viable food alternative that is well aligned with the principle of sustainability. Edible insects, as an unconventional food source, offer a unique opportunity to address the pressing issues of food security and environmental conservation, as their breeding offers significant advantages such as low space and time requirements, independence from cereals for feeding, lower CO2 emissions, and lower water and land use for growth. In addition, there is a growing interest in their techno-functional properties in order to use them as food ingredients. Moreover, their beneficial effects on consumer health derived from various components make insect breeding an efficient and sustainable option. This chapter critically reviews the opportunities offered by insect consumption to ensure food sufficiency, highlighting their nutritional benefits, positive effects on consumer health, and additional applications in the food industry, thereby positioning edible insects as a unique and multifaceted solution to address the pressing issues of food security and environmental conservation.
... A few other studies reported that nutrition was a major motive for insect consumption in developing countries (M. A.Ayieko & Oriaro, 2008;Manditsera et al., 2018;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). Although respondents did not particularly know the insects' exact nutritional compositions, they perceived them as being highly nutritious foods that are rich in health-promoting components(Manditsera et al., 2018). ...
Abstract Edible insects, such as palm weevil larvae, have been promoted as an alternative source of nutrients in developing countries for their nutritional benefits, cost‐effective rearing, and yearly availability. Unfortunately, consumer acceptance remains a barrier to their utilization. A supplemental palm weevil larvae and tomato paste were developed as part of efforts to understand whether incorporating edible insects into staple foods could help overcome this barrier. Palm weevil larvae flour and tomato paste were mixed in three formulations that had 8, 15, and 30% of palm weevil larvae flour. Samples were subjected to proximate and mineral content analyses and sensory evaluation. Among the blends, tomato paste containing 30% palm weevil larvae had the highest protein, fat, and total solids content as compared to unfortified tomato paste. Iron and zinc levels also increased with increasing levels of palm weevil larvae flour. Carbohydrate and crude fiber concentrations of the samples, however, decreased with increasing fortification levels. The overall acceptance and willingness to purchase fortified tomato paste as determined by sensory evaluation was high for all samples and increased with increasing knowledge about palm weevil larvae's nutritional benefits. Overall acceptance and willingness to purchase fortified tomato paste were significantly dependent on the samples' color and consumers' overall liking of the products. Tomato paste fortified with palm weevil larvae can provide a complementary source of iron for Ghanaians.
... Furthermore, heat treatment at an appropriate level can contribute to food safety by killing harmful microbes or reducing microbial activities. Thermal treatments can be achieved by various methods, including boiling, steaming, frying, roasting, and drying (Alamu, Amao, Nwokedi, Oke, & Lawa, 2013;Feng et al., 2018;Manditsera et al., 2019;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013;Ramos-Elorduy, 1997). ...
... The inventoried edible insects were appreciated differently ( Territories than others. In addition, indigenous knowledge and processing can also influence 334 the preference of edible insect species (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). Familiarity appears to be 335 ...
In response to growing food demand, edible insects are seen as a potential source to alleviate food insecurity. With its wide edible insects’ biodiversity, the Democratic Republic of Congo is one of the most important biodiversity hotspots in Africa. This study aimed at giving a first insight on the inventory showing diversity, perception, consumption, availability, host plants, harvesting techniques and processing techniques of edible insects in South-Kivu, DRC. It recorded twenty-three edible insects belonging to nine families and five orders, some of which are consumed in the larval, adult, egg and pupa stages. Rhyncophorus phoenicis, Alphitobius diaperinus, Macrotermes subhylanus and Acheta domesticus were the most preferred edible insects in Fizi Territory, Ruspolia differens and Apis melifera larvae in Kabare Territory, Imbrasia oyemensis, Imbrasia epimethea, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Rhyncophorus phoenicis in Mwenga Territory, Ruspolia differens , Macrotermes subhylanus, Gryllotalpa africana, Nsike, Nomadacris septemfasciata and Apis melifera larvae in Walungu Territory. R. differens , I. oyemensis, A. melifera larvae, G. africana and Nsike were preferred for their taste. A. domesticus, A. diaperinus and A. melifera larvae were abundant throughout the year, while the others were only available for 9 months or less per year. Numerous plants have been recorded as their hosts, including plants used for food and income. Harvesting strategies and period, processing methods and preservation techniques depend on insect species, local knowledge and practices. These findings suggest similar and thoroughly studies on entomophagy across the country, while encouraging the rearing of edible insects to address the high existing demand and environmental need.
... It was noted that inventoried edible insects are differentially preferred, with R. differens and M. subhyalinus being the most preferred regardless of the territory. These edible insects are the most familiar in the study area confirming the fact that edible insects' preference is mainly influenced, on the one hand, by their familiarity [9,17], culture [42], palatability [17], and availability and, on the other hand, by local knowledge and processing [15]. A study in the Netherlands [18] reported that people who had eaten insects in the past showed significantly more positive attitudes toward entomophagy than people who had not eaten them and were more likely to eat them again. ...
Background
Located in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (South-Kivu), Kalehe and Idjwi are two relatively unexplored territories with little to no research on edible insects even though anthropo-entomophagy practice is widespread. This study therefore aimed at exploring the biodiversity, perception, consumption, availability, host plants, harvesting techniques, and processing techniques of edible insects.
Methods
Data were collected through a field survey using three techniques, namely structured interviews, direct observations, and insect collection and taxonomy. A total of 260 respondents, 130 in each territory, were interviewed. The field survey focused on inventorying commonly edible insects as well as recording consumer preferences, preference factors, seasonal availability, host plants, harvesting techniques, and processing and preservation methods. Samples for taxonomic characterization were preserved in 70% alcohol.
Results
Nine edible insects, namely Ruspolia differens Serville 1838, Gryllotalpa Africana Palisot de Beauvois 1805, Locusta migratoria Linnaeus 1758, Macrotermes subhyalinus Rambur 1842, Gnathocera trivittata Swederus 1787, Rhynchophorus phoenicis Fabricius 1801, Vespula spp. Linnaeus 1758, Apis mellifera Linnaeus 1758, and Imbrasia oyemensis Rougeot 1955, were recorded as being consumed either as larvae, pupae, and adults. Ruspolia differens and M. subhyalinus were reported as the most preferred by consumers in the studied territories. A scatter plot of matrices and Pearson's correlations showed a negative correlation between preference based on taste, size, and shape, as well as perceived nutritional value. Their seasonal availability differs from one species to another and correlated with host plants availability. Harvesting techniques and processing and preservation methods depend on species, local knowledge, and practices.
Conclusion
The huge edible insect diversity observed in Kalehe and Idjwi is evidence of anthropo-entomophagy practices in the area. In addition to being an important delicacy and traditional foods, edible insects can contribute to food, environmental, and financial security through local business opportunities. Households can rely on edible insects to meet their nutritional needs instead of conventional livestock. Indigenous practices and technologies used for harvesting, processing, and preserving edible insects must be improved to meet international standards to increase the market and capitalize on the economic potential of edible insects.
... However, the potential contribution of edible insects to food security in Africa is under even more threat. A decrease in the prevalence of traditional practices of eating insects has been reported in communities of developing countries where insect consumption used to be common (Dube et al., 2013;Meyer-Rochow and Chakravorty, 2013;Obopile and Seeletso, 2013;Looy et al., 2014). Edible insects are facing rejection due to unknown reasons. ...
Global food demand is expected to rise due to the population increase estimated to reach 9.5 billion by the year 2050. As a result, the available natural resources such as water sources and land will become scarce and overused. Indisputably, other sustainable food resources need to be identified and practised to solve the problem of food inadequacy. The world population will be encouraged to eat less consumed food resources. Edible insects have been identified as sustainable food resource that is rich in protein and other nutrients. Even though it is still facing rejection among certain consumers due to unknown reasons, factors influencing entomophagy have now been studied from different angles of the world communities. A descriptive research design with both qualitative and quantitative methodology was employed, using a semi-structured questionnaire loaded in an Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect software. Additionally, a simple random sampling technique was used to measure the following constructs. Demographics, religiosity on the consumption of insects, contrasting beliefs among the selected religious societies on edible insects’ consumption. There was an association between religious restriction and the consumption of edible insects at a P-value less than 0.05. However, it is unclear why individuals from religious groupings would choose not to consume insects while others condone the practice. The eating of insects is cited in religious doctrines. Nonetheless, there is still low consumption of edible insects among different religious believers. Religiosity has deterred individuals from indulging in certain food items. How comes they do not indulge in what their doctrines recommend? We, therefore, wish to find out why religion has not encouraged persons to adopt entomophagy. This study, therefore, seeks to examine the influence of religiosity on the consumption and uptake of edible insects among the selected communities in Western Kenya. The data for this study will be collected through the administration of a well-formulated electronic questionnaire and multivariate qualitative models
... In Africa, rejection is due to poor awareness and negative thoughts associated with insects in some societies . Edible insects are known and consumed more by the elderly than by the younger generation in Botswana (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). Modern style of education and changes in culture and religious beliefs have also contributed to the decline of entomophagy (Chung, 2008). ...
An overview is given on recent developments in insects as food by reviewing the literature which has appeared during the last few years on edible insects in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). An outlook to the future is provided. Insects were among the foods consumed by early man and they are still vital components in the diets of DRC's populations. Social barriers are limiting their national acceptance, their consumption is intimately attached to location and culture, and their nutritional values are not known to many. Their consumption is associated with taboos and pessimisms, and are seen as something filthy, not something decent to be consumed. The aim of this review was to provide an overview on the challenges and ways forward for the edible insect sector in the DRC, and provide highlights on their national position in human nutrition. Disgust, food neophobia, lack of awareness, unavailability, and personality traits are the major barriers to edible-insect acceptance among consumers. Accepting edible-insects as food depends greatly on location, eating habit, prior experience, age, gender, and religion of a consumer. Local entomophagy advocates should intensify their efforts of accurately record TEK regarding the identification, collection, consumption, processing, management of edible insects and attract more consumers in the different regions of the country where insects are not yet consumed. Research collaborations between applied and social sciences are necessary to win the affection of new consumers and convinced their psych and emotion during the first introduction. Creating awareness on the nutritional, health, and environmental benefits of using insects (especially edible caterpillars) as a novel protein, processing to completely mask insect presence, and producing products with a close resemblance with meat will certainly promote national insect consumption.
... Worldwide, insects are mostly harvested in the wild and are predominantly consumed within the household. Depending on the local context and traditions, insects play a significant role for local diets, especially in times of food shortages [3,5,6]. Edible insects are healthy, sustainable, and environmentally friendly protein alternatives [7]. ...
Edible insects are a healthy, sustainable, and environmentally friendly protein alternative. Thanks to their quantitative and qualitative protein composition, they can contribute to food security, especially in Africa, where insects have been consumed for centuries. Most insects are still harvested in the wild and used for household consumption. So far, however, little attention has been paid to insects’ real contribution to food security in low-income countries. Entomophagy, the human consumption of insects, is widespread in many rural areas of Madagascar, a country, at the same time, severely affected by chronic malnutrition. This case study was carried out in a region where entomophagy based on wild harvesting is a common practice and malnutrition is pervasive. The data were obtained in 2020 from a survey among 216 households in the rural commune of Sandrandahy in the central highlands of Madagascar. Descriptive statistics, correlation, and regression analysis were used to show the relative importance of insects for the local diet and to test various hypotheses related to food security. Results show that insects contribute significantly to animal protein consumption, especially in the humid season, when other protein sources are scarce. They are a cheap protein source, as much esteemed as meat by the rural population. There are no significant differences in the quantities of insects consumed by poorer versus richer households, nor between rural and urban households. Insect consumption amounts are strongly related to the time spent on wild harvesting. The importance of edible insects for poor, food-insecure rural areas and how entomophagy can be promoted for better food and nutrition security are discussed.
... In general, 'male-and female-headed households often behave differently relative to food consumption' (Ruel et al., 2005: 38). In addition, religious and cultural beliefs and taboos can play an important role regarding eating habits (Ebenebe et al., 2017;Ghosh et al., 2020;Obopile and Seeletso, 2013;Tamesse et al., 2016;Van Huis, 2013). Due to different doctrines, some churches permit insect consumption (e.g. ...
Entomophagy is commonly promoted as one solution to fight global food insecurity. Although many research articles have been published on the perception and acceptance of edible insects in Western nations, comparatively little attention has been paid to developing countries. To narrow down the existing research gap, this study investigates insect consumption behaviour in rural areas of Madagascar, a country that is severely affected by chronic malnutrition. The data was obtained from a household survey conducted in January 2020 in the rural commune of Sandrandahy in the central highlands of Madagascar. Using systematic cluster sampling with probability proportional to size, in 12 out of 38 villages, a sample of 216 households was randomly chosen. Multiple linear regressions were used to determine factors that explain differences in the quantities of insects consumed between local consumers. The amount of time households spent for insect harvesting, a variable which was not considered in any of the other studies reviewed, is the single most important factor explaining the amounts of insects consumed. In light of the results, we try to explain why socio-economic factors and most of the product-related attitudinal factors do not play a role in predicting insect consumption patterns in rural areas of Madagascar. More studies with larger samples in Madagascar and other sub-Saharan African countries are needed to validate the results. Future research should seek to make use of mixed-method approaches to provide more context-specific instruments. The promotion of insect rearing as a farming activity, as opposed to harvesting in the wild, is recommended to overcome seasonal availability gaps, exploit the tremendous potential of edible insects for food security, and strengthen the tradition of entomophagy.
... Even in several developing countries such as Kenya, where inhabitants are culturally accustomed to consuming certain types of insects, attempts at introducing novel insect-based food often meet with resistance [7]. Moreover, the consumption of insects is in decline in countries where it used to be the norm [8,9]. ...
Despite their nutritional and ecological potential, insect-based food is rarely accepted by consumers. There may be a discrepancy between the consumers’ understanding of the need to reduce meat consumption and their personal food preferences. Our goal was to investigate the relationship between the acceptance of insects as a meat substitute, the willingness to buy and consume insect-based food, and the underlying factors. The study was conducted on a representative sample of the Polish population, and as in previous studies, our results showed that men who are more familiar with entomophagy pay more attention to the environmental impact of their food choices, are convenience-orientated and are more willing to accept insects as a meat substitute. However, people with higher levels of food neophobia and disgust sensitivity and lower levels of variety-seeking tendency are less willing to consume insects. Our study showed that the acceptance of insects as an alternative to meat (general perspective) does not translate into a willingness to buy and eat them (individual perspective). Consumers who declare their acceptance of insects as a meat substitute might not be willing to purchase insects for their consumption.
... The practise of eating insects, known as 'entomophagy' , is part of regular eating habits for millions of people in Asia, Latin America and Africa (Chakravorty et al., 2013;Hanboonsong, 2010;Obopile and Seeletso, 2013;Sneyd and Q., 2013;Van Huis et al., 2013;Verbeke, 2015). Nevertheless, in European countries, the interest in consuming insects is growing only in recent years (Jensen and Lieberoth, 2019;Lombardi et al., 2019). ...
The practice of eating insects, known as entomophagy, is part of a regular diet for millions of people in Asia, Latin America and Africa. However, the use of insects as food is relatively new in Western countries. The present paper explores the willingness to adopt edible insects as food among Italian consumers using Q methodology. A sample of ‘experts’ (e.g. entomologists) and ‘non-experts’ (e.g. students and other researchers) formed the participant sample (P sample). Participants were asked to rank-order a set of 36 images of food dishes prepared using insects (Q sample). Results showed that visual appearance plays an important role in influencing consumers acceptance of insects as food. The Q analysis identified three distinct viewpoints or consumer profiles: Factor 1 ‘The Traditionalist’; Factor 2 ‘The Fast Food Addicted’; and Factor 3 ‘The Insectivore’. This study confirms that visible insects in food may be problematic for the more traditional viewpoint, while results for the other two factors identify possible avenues for better communicating insect-based food.
... In order to improve the acceptance of insects and insect products and extend their shelf life, several traditional cooking techniques such as steaming, roasting, smoking, frying, stewing, curing (Ebenebe and Okpoko, 2015;Grabowski and Klein, 2017b;Lautenschläger et al., 2017;Manditsera et al., 2019;Nonaka, 2009;Obopile and Seeletso, 2013;Ramos-Rostro et al., 2016;Shockley et al., 2018) have been proposed. Other techniques, such as traditional sun-drying (Manditsera et al., 2018), microwave processing Vandeweyer et al., 2017b), freeze-drying, oven-drying (Azzollini et al., 2016;Fombong et al., 2017), dry heat treatment (Bußler et al., 2015), dry fractionation (Purschke et al., 2018a), freezing (Melis et al., 2018), marination, fermentation (Borremans et al., 2018(Borremans et al., , 2020bPatrignani et al., 2020) and new processing methods as ultrasound-assisted extraction (Mishyna et al., 2019;Panja, 2018;Sun et al., 2018), cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) (Bußler et al., 2016a), supercritical CO 2 extraction (Purschke et al., 2017), enzymatic hydrolysis (Purschke et al., 2018a) for protein, fat, and/or chitin extraction, three-dimensional food printing technologies (Severini et al., 2018;Soares and Forkes, 2014), and several modified atmosphere packaging methods (Flekna et al., 2017;Stoops et al., 2017) have also been tested for insects and insect products. ...
The processing of insects is paramount to deliver safe and high quality raw materials, ingredients and products for large-scale food and feed applications. Depending upon the nature of the initial material and the desired end product, the processing pathways vary and may include several unit operations currently already used in food and feed processing. Insect processing pathways can involve harvesting, pre-processing, decontamination, further processing, packaging and storage. Several traditional and industrial decontamination methods have been proposed for edible insects, which include smoking, drying, blanching/boiling, marination, cooking, steaming, toasting and their combinations. Further processing steps are employed to produce insect meal, insect flour or extracted insect fractions. Each operation will have a different impact on the chemical and microbiological properties of the final product. Novel food processing technologies (e.g. high pressure processing, pulsed electric field, ultrasound and cold plasma) have shown potential to modify, complement or replace the conventional processing steps in insect processing. These technologies have been tested for microbial decontamination, enzyme inactivation, drying and extraction. Further, these are considered to be environmentally friendly and may be implemented for versatile applications to improve the processing efficiency, safety and quality of insect based products. Future research focuses in insect processing are development of efficient, environmentally friendly and low-cost processes; waste minimisation and incorporation of by-products/co-products.
... In Africa, rejection is due to poor awareness and negative thoughts associated with insects in some societies . Edible insects are known and consumed more by elderly persons than the new generation in Botswana (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). Modern upbringing style and changes in culture and religious beliefs also contributed to the decline in entomophagy (Chung, 2008). ...
Alternative sources of proteins are necessary to tackle the foreseeing challenge of protein scarcity. Insects were among the foods consumed by early man and they are still vital components in the diets of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Social barriers are limiting their global acceptance, their consumption is intimately attached to location and culture, and their nutritional values are not known to many. Their consumption is associated with taboos and pessimisms, and are seen as something filthy, not something decent to be consumed. The aim of this review was to provide an overview on the challenges and prospect of edible-insects, and provide highlights on their global position in human nutrition. Literature used was gathered through an online search on Google Scholar and Science Direct databases. Disgust, food neophobia, lack of awareness, unavailability, and personality traits are the major barriers to edible-insect acceptance among consumers. Accepting edible-insects as food depends greatly on location, eating habit, prior experience, age, gender, and religion of a consumer. Entomophagy advocate should intensify their efforts and attract more consumers in the West and other parts of the globe. Research collaborations between applied and social sciences are necessary to win the affection of new consumers and convinced their psych and emotion during the first introduction. Creating awareness on the nutritional, health, and environmental benefits of using insects as a novel protein, processing to completely mask insect presence, and producing products with a close resemblance with meat will certainly promote global insect consumption.
... Other species besides the desert locust eaten in Africa are the red locust (Normadacris septemfasciata), the brown locust (Locustana pardalina), mentioned for example by Obopile and Seeletso (2013), and the (often reared) migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) (Mohamed, 2015). In Latin America the locust species Schistocerca cancellate, which has recently been causing upsurges (Medina et al., 2017), is also eaten (Loiácono et al., 2016). ...
When insects occur in large numbers, and these are often insect pests, people want to get rid of them. In countries where insects are already consumed, the idea of eating them is quickly formed. Harvesting them as food can be a strategy to replace other methods of control.
... This is partly because insect protein production requires much less land, feed, and water, and thus has a much smaller ecological footprint than animal protein production [8], which is important for reducing global warming [9]. At the same time, in countries where insect consumption is common, an increasing shift to a Western diet occurs [10,11]. ...
Insect protein production requires much less land, feed, and water, and thus has a much smaller ecological footprint than animal protein production, which is important for reducing global warming. Poultry, pigs, and fish consume insects in nature, so insect meal could be a good substitute for soybean and fishmeal as a protein source in diets. The aim of this study was to examine consumer opinion on meat that originated from animals whose diet contained insect meal. The study was conducted in Hungary in 2020 (N = 414). On a scale of 1–7, respondents gave much lower scores (3.96) to this product than that which originated from a free-range system (5.11; p < 0.001). Male, more highly educated, and 30–39 year-old respondents gave significantly higher scores than other groups. The most important factor in accepting insect meal in animal feed was “no risk”, while the least important factor was “replacement of Genetically Modified (GM) soybeans”. Since free-range animals also consume insects, the difference in the attitude of respondents was based on their aversion to insects, while accepting free-range as the best animal welfare system. Thus, more emphasis should be placed on the benefits of insect meal in animal feed in order to bring about awareness and acceptance.
... For instance, adding insects to familiar preparations (e.g., bread or pasta) or incorporating minced or powdered insects into ready-to-eat preparations, seemed to effectively increase the liking and willingness to try this kind of food in comparison to adding visible insects to meals or proposing them in their "whole form" [20][21][22][23]. Other authors highlight how consumers may show different behaviors towards the quality and presentation of insect-based food according to their own individual features and socio-cultural background [11,20,24,25], and also in relation to their risk-perceptions in terms of worries for health and production technologies [26,27]. Therefore, it is clear that consumer acceptance of insect-based food may depend on the amount, quality and source of information they receive and provide [26,28,29]. ...
In Western societies, the unfamiliarity with insect-based food is a hindrance for consumption and market development. This may depend on neophobia and reactions of disgust, individual characteristics and socio-cultural background, and risk-perceptions for health and production technologies. In addition, in many European countries, the sale of insects for human consumption is still illegal, although European Union (EU) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) are developing regulatory frameworks and environmental and quality standards. This research aims to advance the knowledge on entomophagy, providing insights to improve consumer acceptance in Italy. This is done by carrying out the characterization of a sample of consumers according to their willingness to taste several types of insect-based food and taking into account the connections among the consumers' features. Thus, the dominance-based rough set approach is applied using the data collected from 310 Italian consumers. This approach provided 206 certain decision rules characterizing the consumers into five groups, showing the consumers' features determining their specific classification. Although many Italian consumers are willing to accept only insects in the form of feed stuffs or supplements, this choice is a first step towards entomophagy. Conversely, young Italian people are a niche market, but they can play a role in changing trends.
... According to Silow (1976) cited in Kelemu et al. (2015), a single community in Africa consume different kinds of insect species. In the report of Kelemu et al. (2015) communities like Mbunda people in Angola, Zambia and Namibia 31 species of edible insects, 21 species are consumed by Ngandu people in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 96 species by Gbaya people (Takeda, 1990), 30 species consumed among the Bemba people in northern Zambia, southern DRC and north-eastern Zimbabwe (Malaisse, 1997) and 27 species in Botswana (Obopile and Seeletso, 2013). Van Huis (2003) earlier stated that 246 species of edible insects are consumed in 27 African countries. ...
Consumption is the utilization of economic goods to satisfy needs. Africa is home to the rich diversity of insects with over 1500 species of insects. Several reports highlighted the nutritional, medicinal values and industrial uses of some edible insects. The global edible insects market is mainly segmented by insect type, product type, application, and geography. Insects can be grown on organic waste. The potential of edible insects in curbing the menace of malnutrition and ensuring food security has necessitated so much interest in the production, marketing, and utilization of edible insects.
... Thus, this offers plausible justification to continue to assess the occurrence of S. icipe in the African continent, to have a snap-shot of their spread to new locations. The ecological shift observed in the future scenario of the model showed that S. icipe has the potential to gradually expand its distributional range to the warmer regions of the tropics and subtropics that would favour population growth of subsequent generations of S. icipe [8,46,[94][95][96]. ...
... Thus, this offers plausible justification to continue to assess the occurrence of S. icipe in the African continent, to have a snap-shot of their spread to new locations. The ecological shift observed in the future scenario of the model showed that S. icipe has the potential to gradually expand its distributional range to the warmer regions of the tropics and subtropics that would favour population growth of subsequent generations of S. icipe [8,46,[94][95][96]. ...
Scapsipedus icipe Hugel and Tanga (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) is a newly described edible cricket species. Although, there is substantial interest in mass production of S. icipe for human food and animal feed, no information exists on the impact of temperature on their bionomics. Temperature-dependent development, survival, reproductive and life table parameters of S. icipe was generated and integrated into advanced Insect Life Cycle Modeling software to describe relative S. icipe population increase and spatial spread based on nine constant temperature conditions. We examined model predictions and implications for S. icipe potential distribution in Africa under current and future climate. These regions where entomophagy is widely practiced have distinctly different climates. Our results showed that S. icipe eggs were unable to hatch at 10 and 40°C, while emerged nymphs failed to complete development at 15°C. The developmental time of S. icipe was observed to decrease with increased in temperature. The lowest developmental threshold temperatures estimated using linear regressions was 14.3, 12.67 and 19.12°C and the thermal constants for development were 185.2, 1111.1- and 40.7-degree days (DD) for egg, nymph and pre-adult stages, respectively. The highest total fecundity (3416 individuals/female/generation), intrinsic rate of natural increase (0.075 days), net reproductive rate (1330.8 female/female/generation) and shortest doubling time (9.2 days) was recorded at 30°C. The regions predicted to be suitable by the model suggest that S. icipe is tolerant to a wider range of climatic conditions. Our findings provide for the first-time important information on the impact of temperature on the biology, establishment and spread of S. icipe across the Africa continent. The prospect of edible S. icipe production to become a new sector in food and feed industry is discussed.
... Processing of insects can improve quality, safety, taste, and shelf life (Williams, Williams, Kirabo, Chester, & Peterson, 2016), but can also occasionally lead to formation of anti-nutritional and or toxic components (Friedman, 1996). Boiling, steaming, frying, roasting, and drying are among the commonly used traditional methods for processing insects (Alamu, Amao, Nwokedi, Oke, & Lawa, 2013;Feng et al., 2018;Kinyuru, Kenji, Njoroge, & Ayieko, 2010;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013;Ramos-Elorduy, 1997). The processing method used varies depending on the insect species and geographical region (Mutungi et al., 2017). ...
Wild harvested edible insects are characterised by high protein and mineral contents with potential to contribute substantially to nutrition security. However, nutritional content is only beneficial when proteins are digestible and minerals bioaccessible. This study determined the effects of domestic processing on protein digestibility and mineral bioaccessibility of two wild harvested insect species: Eulepida mashona (beetle) and Henicus whellani (cricket). Samples of both insects were subjected to boiling, roasting, or combined boiling and roasting, imitating the way insects are traditionally prepared in Zimbabwe. Moreover, they were in vitro digested according to INFOGEST protocol. Boiling of both insects resulted in loss of protein as it leached into the boiling water. The raw insects had a higher protein in vitro digestibility than the boiled and roasted insects, and the maximal decrease in protein digestibility was around 25% for twice boiling of the beetles and for boiled and roasted crickets. For both insect species, boiling resulted in non-significant loss of iron and zinc. Iron was the least bioaccessible mineral in both insects, based on the concentrations of soluble mineral measured by ICP-AES. However, beetles had a much higher iron bioaccessibility (30.7%) as compared to crickets (8.11%). Interestingly, boiling resulted in about 50% decrease in iron and zinc bioaccessibility in both species while roasting did not. The reduced protein digestibility and mineral accessibility with processing can be explained by protein modification and interactions of minerals with other food components, such as chitin and phytochemicals. Because of the reduction in protein digestibility and mineral accessibility during boiling, roasting should be favoured over boiling and in any case short boiling time is recommended.
... In the last few decades, insect consumption has declined, especially in countries where entomophagy was very common in the past. This is mostly due to the introduction and adoption of new food habits closer to those of Western cultures, particularly among younger and urban populations (Looy, Dunkel, & Wood, 2014;Obopile & Seeletso, 2013;van Huis, Dicke, & van Loon, 2015;Yen, 2015). On the other hand, there has recently been an increasing interest in insect food products in Western society, which traditionally considers eating insects as "rural" and "barbarian" (Caparros Megido, Sablon, Geuens, Brostaux, Alabi, Blecker, … Francis, 2014;van Huis, 2013). ...
In the forthcoming decades, insects might become an important alternative protein source for human consumption. However, what do consumers think about eating insects? The answer is still not very clear, and large differences exist between Western and Eastern societies. While the former has never really experienced edible insects as food, (some) Eastern countries have already practiced entomophagy for a long time. To better understand consumers' perception in both types of societies, a literature review was carried out. The results show that in the Western countries, the consumption of edible insects will depend primarily on availability in the market (i.e., regulatory framework and industry), product category (i.e., processed or unprocessed, familiar or unfamiliar), communication, and marketing. Nonetheless, more research studies are needed to explore Eastern consumers and the development of the edible insect market and industry in Asian countries.
... Malaisse [42] inventoried 30 edible species in northern Zambia, RDC and northeastern Zimbabwe. Obopile and Seeletso [43] identified 27 edible insects in Botswana. Twenty-two (22) insect species belonging to six different orders have been recorded with potential for consumption among the three major ethnic groups (Yoruba, Hausa, and Ibo) in Nigeria [12]. ...
Background: Insects play an important role as a diet supplement in Burkina Faso, but the preferred insect species vary according to the phytogeographical zone, ethnic groups, and gender. The present study aims at documenting indigenous knowledge on edible insects in Burkina Faso. Methods: A structured ethno-sociological survey was conducted with 360 informants in nine villages located in two phytogeographical zones of Burkina Faso. Identification of the insects was done according to the classification of Scholtz. Chi-square tests and principal component analysis were performed to test for significant differences in edible insect species preferences among phytogeographical zones, villages, ethnic groups, and gender.
... Malaisse [42] inventoried 30 edible species in northern Zambia, RDC and northeastern Zimbabwe. Obopile and Seeletso [43] identified 27 edible insects in Botswana. Twenty-two (22) insect species belonging to six different orders have been recorded with potential for consumption among the three major ethnic groups (Yoruba, Hausa, and Ibo) in Nigeria [12]. ...
Background: Insects play an important role as a diet supplement in Burkina Faso, but the preferred insect species
vary according to the phytogeographical zone, ethnic groups, and gender. The present study aims at documenting
indigenous knowledge on edible insects in Burkina Faso.
Methods: A structured ethno-sociological survey was conducted with 360 informants in nine villages located in
two phytogeographical zones of Burkina Faso. Identification of the insects was done according to the classification
of Scholtz. Chi-square tests and principal component analysis were performed to test for significant differences in
edible insect species preferences among phytogeographical zones, villages, ethnic groups, and gender.
Results: Edible insects were available at different times of the year. They were collected by hand picking, digging
in the soil, and luring them into water traps. The edible insects collected were consumed fried, roasted, or grilled.
All species were indifferently consumed by children, women, and men without regard to their ages. A total of seven
edible insect species belonging to five orders were cited in the Sudanian zone of Burkina Faso. Macrotermes subhyalinus
(Rambur), Cirina butyrospermi (Vuillet, 1911), Kraussaria angulifera (Krauss, 1877), Gryllus campestris (Linnaeus, 1758),
and Carbula marginella (Thunberg) (35.66–8.47% of the citations) were most cited whereas Rhynchophorus phoenicis
(Fabricius, 1801) and Oryctes sp. (3.41–0.27%) were least cited. Cirina butyrospermi was most cited in the South Sudanian
zone, whereas Macrotermes subhyalinus and Kraussaria angulifera were most cited in the North Sudanian zone but were
cited in all nine villages. Cirina butyrospermi was preferred by Bobo, Guin, Sambla, Senoufo, and Turka ethnic groups
whereas Macrotermes subhyalinus was preferred by Fulani, Mossi, and Toussian ethnic groups. Oryctes sp. was cited only
by the Toussian.
Conclusion: A diversity of edible insects was consumed in both the South and North Sudanian zone of Burkina
Faso with significant differences in species preferences according to phytogeographical zones, villages, ethnic
groups, and gender.
Resumen Los insectos son el grupo animal más exitoso del planeta, están ligados a la alimentación humana incluso antes de la especiación del hombre. De las aproximadas 2 100 especies de insectos que sustentan la entomofagia en 120 países a nivel mundial, pocos son consti-tuyentes de dietas consuetudinarias en centros urbanos occidentales. Destacan como casos de éxito culturalmente contrastantes, las larvas de mojojoy Rhynchophorus palmarum L. (Coleóp-tera: Curculionidae) como fuente de alimento en algunos pueblos indígenas en la cuenca del río Amazonas; el consumo de chapulines en México, al contener entre un 70-77% más de proteína comparada con la carne bovina y la harina de grillo (Gryllus assimilis), lanzada al mercado en algunos países y utilizada en varios recetarios de cocina tradicional y como suplemento nutricional. El presente estudio es una revisión de la entomofagia, con historia, demanda, atributos nutricionales y perspectivas de desarrollo, así como con mención a dos ca-Abstract Insects are the most successful animal group on the planet. They have been linked to human nutrition even before the speciation of man. Of the approximately 2 100 species of insects that support entomophagy in 120 countries worldwide, few are constituents of customary diets in western urban centers. Mojojoy larvae Rhynchophorus palmarum L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) stand out as culturally contrasting success stories for feeding indigenous peoples in the Amazon river basin, the consumption of grasshoppers in Mexico since it contains between 70-77% more protein compared to beef and cricket flour (Gryllus assimilis), launched on the market in some countries and used in various traditional cooking recipes and as a nutritional supplement. The present study is a review of entomophagy: history, demand, nutritional attributes, and development prospects, with mention of two contrasting cases, a sample of the reality of this food segment worldwide.
Insect-based foods are still considered a novelty in Costa Rica. Although there is no tradition of entomophagy in this country, some insect-based products are being recently introduced as innovations into the market. Pioneering in creating nutritious and appealing insect-based foods represents an important opportunity to cater to a growing population and promote a sustainable local food system development. Consumer perception is one of the main barriers for introducing edible insects in Costa Rica, as in many other occidental countries. Costa Rican consumers in this and previous studies showed resistance to consuming and accepting insects as part of their everyday diet. This exploratory qualitative study aimed at revealing the patterns explaining such resistance. In this study, twelve potential consumers from urban settings, aged between 25 and 45, were selected to complete a structured survey and attend a one-on-one in-depth interview session where different projective techniques were applied. The data were analysed systematically to gain a deeper understanding of thoughts, perceptions, reservations, and motivations to consume insect-based foods. Five different patterns were identified and unpacked: whole insects, movement, texture, dirt, and bad taste. These patterns are based on expectations from previous experiences with insects in non-edible contexts, are drivers of disgust, and prevent the participants from thinking of insects as food.
Background
Edible saturniids constitute an important component of traditional diets in sub-Saharan Africa. They are also a source of livelihood for many rural communities both as food and as a source of income.
Main body
This review compiles information on the diversity, distribution, decimating factors, nutrition and conservation concerns of edible saturniids. A compilation of nutritional profiles, amino-acids, mineral and fat content of saturniids is presented. Details of edible saturniids consumption and food plants are listed as well as vernacular names in different parts of Africa. A comparison of collection, processing, storage and trading methods based on available literature is also included. Processing, which is mostly carried out by women, involves tedious and time-consuming methods that need to be improved. Poor handling and storage cause bacterial and fungal contamination that raises food safety concerns. An in-depth discussion of conservation concerns and possible interventions is also provided.
Conclusion
We conclude that edible saturniids are a source of highly nutritious food and incomes to many households in SSA, but wild harvesting is increasingly becoming unsustainable. We also conclude that the seasonal nature of availability limits their potential for profitable trade Further research on rearing edible saturniids is required since wild harvesting is unsustainable. Training women and youth on mass production technologies will ensure continuous supply of the insects and help preserve their natural habitats.
Global food production is anticipated to rise along with the growth of the global population. As a result, creative solutions must be devised to ensure that everyone has access to nutritious, affordable, and safe food. Consequently, including insects in diets has the potential to improve global food and nutrition security. This paper aims to share recent findings by covering edible termites as the main aspect, from their consumption record until consumer acceptance. A total of 53 termite species are reported as edible ones and distributed in 6 biogeographic realms. Generally, termites have a nutrient composition that is suitable for human consumption, and cooked termites are a better dietary choice than their raw counterparts. Besides, increasing customer interest in eating termite‐based food can be achieved by making it more palatable and tastier through various cooking processes, that is, boiling, frying, grilling, roasting, smoking, and sun‐drying. Moreover, edible termites can also be used as a new source of medication by exhibiting antimicrobial activity. Regarding their advantages, it is strongly encouraged to implement a seminatural rearing system to sustain the supply of edible termites. Overall, this paper makes it evident that termites are an important natural resource for food or medicine. Hence, the long‐term objective is to stimulate scientific inquiry into the potential of edible insects as an answer to the problem of global food security.
With the global population estimated to reach 9 billion by 2050, food demands are going to be so high that potential and nutritive choice of alternative food will be needed. Entomophagy is one such option, which already has a long history and is currently being eaten by approximately 2 billion people in 113 countries. Insects are a rich source of macro- and micro-nutrients, which are equivalent or sometimes even exceed the amounts present in usual animal food commonly being consumed by humans. Consumption of insects as food is not going to be beneficial just for humans but has environmental and socio-economic benefits as well. The consumption of insects can be increased by addressing the problem of insects being considered as nasty and disgusting by disseminating knowledge regarding its benefits. With increasing development of the insect food industry, there is a need for the development and implementation of insect legislation regulations in the world. Further research is needed to increase insect production and commercialization. The chapter focuses on the history of entomophagy, the main orders of insects being consumed, its benefits as food and also risks associated with insect consumption.KeywordsEntomophagyFeed conversion ratioMacro-livestockMicro-livestockMycotoxinsNutrition
Atta mexicana (chicatanas) are ants consumed in some parts of Mexico. It has been reported that these ants are mainly consumed for their taste and through tradition. There is still scarce information for the main reasons that drive people to consume them. The objective of this work was to analyse the consumption patterns of chicatanas from surveys carried out in different localities near Huatusco and Puente Jula, Veracruz as well as the relationship of other surveyed factors (sensory properties, similar flavours, motivation for its consumption, among other surveyed consumption factors). To achieve this objective, we applied questionnaires to determine the consumption level, acceptance, capturing, and the purchase and sale of chicatanas. The taste, odour, colour and crunchiness of chicatanas were also evaluated using a 7-point hedonic scale. We observed different consumption patterns between regions mainly due to the location, age of respondents, longevity and motives for consumption and the values assigned for the sensory properties of the insect. Overall, the major motive for consumption was taste. Tradition was only mentioned as a motive for consumption by long-term consumers (43.8%). Respondents consuming through tradition, mainly form the Huatusco region, tended to give higher values to the sensory properties.
This paper reviews edible insect species and the host plant diversity associated with them in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), including their seasonal availability throughout the year. Entomophagy practices are mapped on country scale and nationwide patterns of consumption are explored. Moreover, motives for consumer acceptance (or rejection) of insects as food are reported based on survey data and focus groups. The paper also points out research gaps (concerning notably food-safety risk associated to local species and the effects of processing techniques on nutrient contents or the digestibility of edible insects) and discusses major challenges (as the need for standardisation of local units of sale, the implementation of insects-related regulations and field studies supported by expert taxonomic input) for the sustainable development of the edible insect consumption market in the country. The inventory showed that 148 species of insects are consumed in DRC dominated by the orders of Lepidoptera (60.1%), Orthoptera (10.1%), Coleoptera (8.1%) and Hymenoptera (8.1%). Commonalities were observed throughout the country concerning a minority of the insects consumed (these are notably Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Imbrasia epimethea, Imbrasia oyemensis, Cirina forda), whereas the consumption of several edible species (e.g. Afzeliada afzelii, Hadraphe ethiopica, Rhypopteryx poecilanthes, Acanthacris ruficornis) seems to be restricted to the production areas where they occur, due probably to the absence of a trade system and people’s alimentary habits. Furthermore, host plant species for 38 major edible lepidopterans have been inventoried nationwide. Results indicated 122 plant species dominated by 4 families ranked as follows: Fabaceae (34.4%), Phyllanthaceae (10.6%), Meliaceae (4.9%) and Apocynaceae (4.1%). However, given concerns about some host plant species being endangered (Millettia laurentii, Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum) or critically endangered (Autranella congolensis), conservation strategies and methods of mass-rearing are needed. This article contributes to the growing body of knowledge detailing anthropoentomophagy in DRC.
The most serious threat which humans face is rapid global climate change, as the Earth shifts rapidly into a regime less hospitable to humans. To address the crisis caused by severe global climate change, it will be necessary to modify humankind's way of life. Because livestock production accounts for more than 14.5% of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it is critical to reduce the dependence of humans on protein nutrients and calories obtained from livestock. One way to do so is to use insects as food. Compared with typical livestock, farming edible insects (or "mini-livestock") produce fewer GHG emissions, require less space and water, involve shorter life cycles, and have higher feed conversion rates. It has been recently reported that consumption of certain insects can prevent or treat human diseases. This review goes beyond entomophagy to entomotherapy and their application to the food industry.
In recent years, community’s perceptions and acceptance of edible insects as novel foods has gained momentum worldwide. Despite the importance of entomophagy in Kenya, little information exists on knowledge, perceptions and practices of edible insects among different communities. This study seeks to address this information gap by conducting surveys on edible insects in Kenya. Semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect information from 161 respondents in western, eastern, central and coastal Kenya. The studies revealed that major insect groups consumed in Kenya include termites (88%), grasshoppers (28%), saturniids (8.3%), crickets (6.8%), compost grubs (3%) and lake flies (1.5%). However, this varied with regions. For instance, saturniids caterpillars such as Cirina forda, Bunaea alcinoe and Gonimbrasia zambesina were consumed mainly by the Giriama community in Kilifi, Coastal Kenya. The Giriamas frequently consumed saturniids to complement their diet, rather than a tactic for survival. Insect consumption was significantly affected by age, occupation and gender but not by region or educational level. Children (92.3%) and women (98.6%) were prominently involved in wild harvesting and sale of edible insects. The most common edible insects observed in local markets included termites in western and saturniids in coastal Kenya. Although 98.8% of the respondents were familiar with edible saturniids, only 67.1% were willing consumers. While 73% of the respondents were willing to rear saturniids primarily for income, they cited lack of ready markets as one of the major challenges. There is an urgent need to create awareness and promote processing of these insects into more palatable forms that can be marketed and consumed as an alternative for alleviating food insecurity and malnutrition in the region.
Edible insects are an important protein rich natural resource that can contribute to resilient food security. Edible insects not only play an important role in traditional diets, but are also an excellent source of protein in traditional dishes in Africa. We systematically searched Web-of-Science and Google Scholar from year 2000-2019 for studies on the consumption of insects and their nutritional composition in Africa, resulting in 98 eligible papers, listing 212 edible insect species from eight orders. These insects were rich in protein, fats, and fibre. The highest protein content was reported for Lepidoptera (range: 20-80%). Coleoptera had the highest carbohydrate content (7-54%), while Lepidoptera had the highest fat content (10-50%). Considering the excellent source of nutrition, and potential socio-economic benefits, from edible insects, they can contribute strongly to improved food security, and rural development in developing countries. In addition, edible insects can be used as a sustainable food source to combat food shortages in the future, for example, providing resilience during times of drought or other climate stressors.
Resumen Los insectos son el grupo animal más exitoso del planeta, están ligados a la alimentación humana incluso antes de la especiación del hombre. De las aproximadas 2 100 especies de insectos que sustentan la entomofagia en 120 países a nivel mundial, pocos son consti-tuyentes de dietas consuetudinarias en centros urbanos occidentales. Destacan como casos de éxito culturalmente contrastantes, las larvas de mojojoy Rhynchophorus palmarum L. (Coleóp-tera: Curculionidae) como fuente de alimento en algunos pueblos indígenas en la cuenca del río Amazonas; el consumo de chapulines en México, al contener entre un 70-77% más de proteína comparada con la carne bovina y la harina de grillo (Gryllus assimilis), lanzada al mercado en algunos países y utilizada en varios recetarios de cocina tradicional y como suplemento nutricional. El presente estudio es una revisión de la entomofagia, con historia, demanda, atributos nutricionales y perspectivas de desarrollo, así como con mención a dos ca-Abstract Insects are the most successful animal group on the planet. They have been linked to human nutrition even before the speciation of man. Of the approximately 2 100 species of insects that support entomophagy in 120 countries worldwide, few are constituents of customary diets in western urban centers. Mojojoy larvae Rhynchophorus palmarum L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) stand out as culturally contrasting success stories for feeding indigenous peoples in the Amazon river basin, the consumption of grasshoppers in Mexico since it contains between 70-77% more protein compared to beef and cricket flour (Gryllus assimilis), launched on the market in some countries and used in various traditional cooking recipes and as a nutritional supplement. The present study is a review of entomophagy: history, demand, nutritional attributes, and development prospects, with mention of two contrasting cases, a sample of the reality of this food segment worldwide.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper introduces entomophagy as an alternative food consumption (AFC) capable of contributing to food well-being (FWB) among Western consumers. Specifically, it provides a conceptual framework where key factors related to the acceptance and adoption of insects and insects based foods are identified. This paper takes a sociocultural, symbolic and contextual perspective to offer marketers and public policymakers a set of recommendations to promote entomophagy as a sustainable and healthy food practice to help consumers achieve their FWB.
Design/methodology/approach
In this paper, first, the authors review the literature on entomophagy from its rise to establishment in different food cultures by considering two main perspectives as follows: historical and sociocultural. Second, the authors review the salience of entomophagy as an important AFC capable of addressing sustainability and food health issues. Finally, the authors propose a framework in which the authors define key factors related to the acceptance and adoption of an insects-based diet in Western food cultures. The identification of these factors will help marketing and public policymakers to set up educational programs and strategies to promote entomophagy as a sustainable and healthy food practice within different Western food cultures, and thus, help consumers to achieve their FWB.
Findings
To identify the key factors influencing the acceptance of entomophagy as AFC, this paper provides a summary of the core motivators characterizing the acceptance and adoption of insects and insect-based foods in Western food cultures. Specifically, the authors identify the key factors influencing the acceptance of entomophagy as food consumption in Western food cultures and based on the extant literature by Batat et al. (2017) the authors provide an entomophagy framework that includes both idiocentric and allocentric factors considering the adoption of insects and insect-based foods in Western food cultures. Table I provides a summary.
Social implications
The authors believe entomophagy has the potential to generate societal benefits, as its appeal at the social (hunger in the world), environmental (reducing meat consumption and its impact on ecology) and health (less calories and nutritive food) level.
Originality/value
The research contributes to creating new knowledge that simulates debate among public policy and marketing scholars about entomophagy as a novel food in Western food cultures. The focus on key factors related to its acceptance and adoption of Western food cultures calls for empirical evidence to be tested in the marketplace using possibly different insect categories and other novel foods. Further, the framework should stimulate thinking about ways the authors can change consumers’ negative perceptions of disgusting food. Marketers and policymakers can achieve it by making their practices more efficient in terms of promoting sustainable AFC, as well as with efficient policy initiatives focused on supporting AFC, including the regulation of insect introduction.
Although food prices in major world markets are at or near a historical low, there is increasing concern about food security—the ability of the world to provide healthy and environmentally sustainable diets for all its peoples. This article is an introduction to a collection of reviews whose authors were asked to explore the major drivers affecting the food system between now and 2050. A first set of papers explores the main factors affecting the demand for food (population growth, changes in consumption patterns, the effects on the food system of urbanization and the importance of understanding income distributions) with a second examining trends in future food supply (crops, livestock, fisheries and aquaculture, and 'wild food'). A third set explores exogenous factors affecting the food system (climate change, competition for water, energy and land, and how agriculture depends on and provides ecosystem services), while the final set explores cross-cutting themes (food system economics, food wastage and links with health). Two of the clearest conclusions that emerge from the collected papers are that major advances in sustainable food production and availability can be achieved with the concerted application of current technologies (given sufficient political will), and the importance of investing in research sooner rather than later to enable the food system to cope with both known and unknown challenges in the coming decades.
The majority of African countries are stricken by food shortages and undernourishment, with much of the population lacking reliable access to food supplies and basic dietary requirements. In this paper, we analyze past trends of food production and consumption in Africa, both for the continent as a whole and for 52 individual countries within it. Fluctuations in the self-sufficiency ratio (SSR) are used to characterize the stability of a country’s capacity to sustain its own population, and GDP per capita is taken as representative of national purchasing power. Our study shows that Africa’s food self-sufficiency is lower today than it was throughout the entire study period. This is probably a result of demographic expansion, leading to a greater increase in food demand than in food production. At the national level, a decrease in SSR mainly occurred in Northern and Southern Africa, and high SSR fluctuations (i.e. low stability) always appeared in conjunction with low SSR levels. Although “low SSR-low GDP” countries face the most serious food insecurity conditions, both “low SSR-high GDP” and “high SSR-low GDP” countries also need attention.
THE EDIBLE STINK-BUG, ENCOSTERNUM (Haplosterna) delegorguei Spinola (Heteroptera, Hemiptera), is a traditional delicacy of the Venda people in South Africa's Limpopo province. Selling the insects at Thohoyandou and other markets provides a valuable income for harvesters. In this article we report the first nutritional information on these insects. Dried bugs consist of 35% protein, 51% fat, with an energy content of 2600 kJ/100 g. Amino-acid concentrations varied from 0.82 mg/100 g (for threonine) to 1.32 mg/100 g (valine). Mineral content was 1.2 g/100 g. The stink-bugs are therefore a source of proteins, fats, amino acids, minerals and vitamins. The conservation and sustainable harvesting of these insects is highly desirable. Further investigation of their nutritional and medicinal properties is recommended, as well as research on their conservation and more efficient use as a food source.
Access to primary health care can improve the nutritional status and survival of preschool children. The effect of the universal provision of primary health care in Botswana on the prevalence, types, and determinants of malnutrition in preschool children is unclear. 522 children 0 - 5 years old from 12 clinics in the greater Gaborone area were studied to address this gap. Children's weights and heights were measured. Birth weights, age, sex, household's socio-economic factors, children's illness status and services sought at the clinics were obtained through care giver interviews and confirmed by the data in the health cards. 11.3 and 13.7% of children were stunted and wasted, respectively. Stunting and wasting ranged from 9.1 and 3.6% in middle-high income neighborhoods to 18.2 and 20.8% in low income neighborhoods, respectively. Households' socio-economic factors were significantly associated with households' location. Consequently, households' location was a strong determinant of nutritional status. Children in higher income neighborhoods had better growth indicators than children in lower income neighborhoods. This was true regardless of the illness status of children and the services sought from the clinics. Therefore, where large socio-economic disparities exist, access to primary healthcare may not equitably support households in improving the nutritional status of children.
This book draws on a wide range of scientific research on the contribution that insects make to ecosystems, diets, food security and livelihoods in both developed and developing countries.
A preliminary investigation of the bulk properties of the oil from the edible mophane caterpillar (phane), Imbrasia belina, showed a significant difference in the iodine values of the oils from mature and young phane. Detailed analysis of the fatty
acid composition of the two oil samples was thus carried out by capillary gas chromatography (GC) and complemented with 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies to investigate the degree of unstauration in the two oil samples. While these studies
showed that the oil samples from the mature and young mophane caterpillar were much the same in fatty acid composition, the
data revealed a significant divergence from a literature report on phane oil. This earlier report puts the ratio of total
saturated to total unsaturated fatty acids at approximately 1:1 (48.2:48.8, in percentages) and estimates the fatty acid composition
for the major fatty acids as 16:0 (31.9%), 18:0 (15.2%), 18:1 (20.4%), 18:2 (9.9%), and 18:3 (19%). The data collected from
the present work, however, showed the fatty acid composition for total saturated and total unsaturated fatty acids to be 40.5
and 57.0%, respectively. This work estimated the fatty acid composition for the major fatty acids as 16:0 (27.2%), 18:0 (12.3%),
18:1 (16.1%), 18.2 (10.7%), and 18:3 (29.0%). Thus, linolenic acid was the most abundant fatty acid in the phane oil. The
GC results of the present analysis were largely corroborated by studies of the composition of fatty acid classes in the phane
oil estimated from integrals of 1H and 13C NMR signals. Oils from other edible Lepidoptera larvae are also known to be much richer in unsaturated than saturated fatty
acids.
Although food prices in major world markets are at or near a historical low, there is increasing concern about food security-the ability of the world to provide healthy and environmentally sustainable diets for all its peoples. This article is an introduction to a collection of reviews whose authors were asked to explore the major drivers affecting the food system between now and 2050. A first set of papers explores the main factors affecting the demand for food (population growth, changes in consumption patterns, the effects on the food system of urbanization and the importance of understanding income distributions) with a second examining trends in future food supply (crops, livestock, fisheries and aquaculture, and 'wild food'). A third set explores exogenous factors affecting the food system (climate change, competition for water, energy and land, and how agriculture depends on and provides ecosystem services), while the final set explores cross-cutting themes (food system economics, food wastage and links with health). Two of the clearest conclusions that emerge from the collected papers are that major advances in sustainable food production and availability can be achieved with the concerted application of current technologies (given sufficient political will), and the importance of investing in research sooner rather than later to enable the food system to cope with both known and unknown challenges in the coming decades.
Data on insects as food in sub-Saharan Africa were collected by reviewing the literature and conducting interviews in a number of African countries. A list of about 250 edible insect species from Africa was compiled. Of these, 78 percent are Lepidoptera (30%), Orthoptera (29%) and Coleoptera (19%), and 22 percent Isoptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Heteroptera, Diptera and Odonota. Insects are rich in protein, vitamins and minerals, and a good source of iron and B-vitamins. Examples of insects being toxic are given, but often traditional methods are used to remove the poison. Whether or not insects are eaten depends not only on taste and nutritional value, but also on customs, ethnic preferences or prohibitions. The harvesting of insects is often done by women. The way of collecting depends on insects' behaviour. For example, inactivity at low temperatures enables easy catching of locusts and grasshoppers in the morning. Night flyers (termites, some grasshoppers) can be lured into traps by light and some insects like palm weevils can be attracted to artificially created breeding sites. Some species (crickets, cicadas) can be located by the sound they make. A number of tools are used to facilitate capturing such as glue, sticks, nets and baskets. Because most insects are only seasonally available, preservation by drying is often practised. Some examples of how to prepare them as food are given from important insect groups.To manage insects in the interest of food security more attention should be given to environmentally sustainable harvesting methods. They should be made better available throughout the year by developing improved conservation methods or by farming this minilivestock. Considering the economic, nutritional and ecological advantages of this traditional food source, its promotion deserves more attention both from national governments and assistance programmes.
This study assesses the performance of Botswana's traditional arable agriculture for the 1968–90 period. Growth rate and arable sub-sector production models are specified and estimated to determine how the sub-sector performed over time, and to capture the impact of the Accelerated Rainfed Arable Programme (ARAP). Growth rate model results indicate that cultivated area increased by about 2.2% per year during the 1968–90 period. However, crop output remained unchanged and yields declined by about 6.1% per year during the review period. Sub-sectoral model results reveal that cultivated area, output and yields rose by about 27%, 120% and 74% (respectively) due to the implementation of ARAP. Therefore, ARAP was effective in improving rural household food security and welfare. However, it is further argued that the program was unsustainable since it involved phenomenal government outlays and has led to an unprecedented input substitution from animal traction to tractor traction, which seems to be unjustified given the current economic fundamentals of the country's traditional arable farming. Moreover, the results reveal loss of productivity in the sub-sector over time. Therefore, the challenge facing policy makers is to devise new ways of reversing the current trend.
Missionary and amateur anthropologist John Roscoe (1861–1932) published this account of the Baganda tribe of Buganda in 1911, to preserve a record of a sophisticated people before their cultural traditions were undermined as their territory became part of the British Protectorate of Uganda. He had spent twenty-five years in Africa, during which he interviewed the people in their own languages about their customs and religious beliefs. The Baganda is a straightforward survey of a traditionally organised way of life. Birth, upbringing, marriage, death and burial, clans, kings, government, warfare, and other topics are treated in careful detail. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the longest chapter is on religion, but Roscoe makes non-judgmental observations on customs which did not fit with western morality. More recent anthropological research has amplified Roscoe's findings, but has found little to correct, and this remains a standard work on a culture about to undergo a massive transformation.
This study assesses the performance of Botswana's traditional arable agriculture for the 1968‐90 period. Growth rate and arable sub‐sector production models are specified and estimated to determine how the sub‐sector performed over time, and to capture the impact of the Accelerated Rainfed Arable Programme (ARAP). Growth rate model results indicate that cultivated area increased by about 2.2% per year during the 1968‐90 period. However, crop output remained unchanged and yields declined by about 6.1% per year during the review period. Sub‐sectoral model results reveal that cultivated area, output and yields rose by about 27%, 120% and 74% (respectively) due to the implementation of ARAP. Therefore, ARAP was effective in improving rural household food security and welfare. However, it is further argued that the program was unsustainable since it involved phenomenal government outlays and has led to an unprecedented input substitution from animal traction to tractor traction, which seems to be unjustified given the current economic fundamentals of the country's traditional arable farming. Moreover, the results reveal loss of productivity in the sub‐sector over time. Therefore, the challenge facing policy makers is to devise new ways of reversing the current trend.
It has been known for many centuries that insects are eaten as delicacies in many parts of the world. Reports have come down from antiquity of insects, especially locusts, being eaten by primitive peoples. Honey has been known as a prized food from time immemorial. Yet entomophagy, apart from honey consumption, has always been regarded as a curiosity or as barbarism. Although a number of recent authors such as Netolitzky (1918/20), Bequaert (1921), Hardy et Righet (1933), Gourou (1947) and others have hinted at the actual and potential nutritive value of insects for primitive man, the present writer began his study a few years ago largely out of curiosity. It is actually astonishing that the real and basic importance of insects as food for early and primitive man has been so long ignored. One of the main reasons is that a fuller understanding of the requirements of a well-balanced diet and of its necessary vitamin content, over and above the mere calorific value of food, has only been gained in our days. The French Colonial Service has played a leading role in investigating the actual diet of tropical peoples, followed by those of the British and Dutch empires.
Variations in interdistrict nutritional status have puzzled both social policy makers and health workers in Botswana. A total of 643 households and 898 pre-school children were surveyed to determine factors that are associated with the nutritional status of children below the age of five years in the north-western District of Chobe. Except for those in remote and difficult-to-reach places, all households with a pre-school child were selected for the study. The results showed that the nutritioneal status of the pre-school children had a strong positive correlation with access to a latrine (r = 0.52) and ownership of cattle (r = 0.27). Age was negatively correlated with the child's nutritional status (r = –0.02).
This paper provides an overview of the nutritional aspects of insect consumption (entomophagy) among indigenous populations. The nutritional quality of food insects is discussed with special emphasis on the role of food insects as a source of animal protein. Available data on the amino acid composition of the most common food insects are summarized, and the potential of insect protein to complement protein of various staple foods is analyzed. Micronutrient composition of insects is briefly discussed.
Insects are the most abundant terrestrial life-form, yet anthropologists on the whole have been little interested in insect life, although in recent decades with the emergence of ethnobiology and cultural entomology as sub-disciplines, a growing interest has developed in insect-human interactions. Thus scholars have been studying not only the practical uses of insects as food or medicine, but the role that insects have played in the cultural life of human societies - with regard to literature, mythology, music, art, religion, folklore and recreation (Bodenheimer 1951, Clausen 1954, Hogue 1987, Van Huis 1996). Here I shall focus on the role of insects as food.
Environmental cycles and human factors have altered ecosystems throughout the world. Natural resources have acquired high value because they are important to life and the survival of human beings. Among these resources are edible insects. They have many important features and, to date, up to 2086 species are consumed by 3071 ethnic groups. Rural people, who primarily search, gather, fix, commercialize and store this important natural resource, do not exterminate them. This is because rural people exploit only the central part of the insects' population curves. Nonetheless, some species are overexploited. Anthropo-entomophagy (eating of insects by humans) constitutes a major source of nutrition and these foods are eaten in 130 countries, with the African and American continents being the most entomophagous until now. It exists in protocultures (care is given to the edible insect species) and formal cultures, such as in Mexico, which date back to prehisphanic times. According to anthropologists the “saving gene theory” is based on insect ingestion, which, since the Paleolithic era, has given human beings reproductive success. The evolution of anthropo-entomophagy has been achieved in many ways, from the point of view of collection, fixing, marketing and consumption, and for the insects' organoleptical qualities. The sustainability of these species is fundamental; therefore, it is necessary to take certain measures for species conservation. In Mexico, more than 100 species of edible insects have been tested for their sustainability over 500 years, from the Spanish conquest to the present.
Entomophagy, the human consumption of insects, has not received significant attention in Western literature, despite the critical role which it plays as a protein supplement in many parts of the world. This paper explores the importance of entomophagy in Africa within the context of food security and indigenous technical knowledge. These issues are further investigated through a case study of the mopane caterpillar in Southern Africa. The findings clearly indicate the contribution which insects make to the diet of rural Africans.
This study examines the role of public–private partnerships (PPPs) in promoting pro-poor productivity-enhancing technological innovation in the international agricultural research system. The study examines the extent to which PPPs are being used to overcome market and institutional failures that otherwise inhibit the development and dissemination of technologies targeted specifically to small-scale, resource-poor farmers in developing countries. Drawing on a survey of 75 PPP projects in the international system, findings suggest that while PPPs are changing the way the system manages its research agenda, few partnerships lead to joint innovation processes with the private sector. This indicates the need for closer examination of organizational practices, cultures, and incentives in the international agricultural research system. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Many small animals, vertebrates and invertebrates, homoiotherms (endotherms) and poikilotherms (ectotherms), are used by man since he gathers, hunts or collects them in the wild. When bred under controlled conditions in captivity, these animals are called minilivestock. a term also used for those small species that are little known in animal production. To qualify as minilivestock, animals must have a potential benefit either nutritionally for food or economically for animal-feed or revenue, and currently not being utilized to their full potential. Rodents are eaten in Africa and Latin America. The guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) is considered a particularly efficient meat source. Giant African snails (Achatina spp) are highly prized as food in West and Central Africa and Asia, and are produced commercially. Annelids living in litter and manure convert vegetable refuse to animal protein which can be used as feed for pigs and poultry. There is a continuous demand for frogs' legs on the international market and also for many species of insect, alive or mounted. The development of minilivestock will contribute to meeting human needs and will also protect the environment from excessive harvesting.
Many species of insects (probably 1000 or more) have served as traditional foods among indigenous peoples, especially in warmer climes, and the insects have played an important role in the history of human nutrition. As part of the hunter-gatherer style of life, the main criteria for selection of these traditional species appears to be medium-to-large size and easy availability, i.e., abundance, as noted by Dufour and others. Thus it is not surprising that many insects considered as crop pests in modern agriculture have served as important food sources. Locusts and grasshoppers, which often occur in swarms, are good examples, and these insects have been included in the diets of almost every culture with any history of food-insect use.
The Central Kalahari San use many kinds of insects for daily food and materials and as children's play things. This study describes how several insect species are used, which often follows a series of processes from collecting to consumption and the quite diversified insect utilization based on various skills and knowledge in ethnoentomology. Even though insects are not an important subsistence resource, the San have an extensive knowledge and make good use of insects. The insects even spice up the San daily life.
Copyright: 1982 Academy of Science of South Africa The use of the caterpillar of the Mopanie moth (Conimbrasia belina) as a food by the Pedi nation has been described in detail by Quin, who also recorded data on the average weight and moisture, protein and fat contents of the fresh caterpillars. However, with the exception of the recordings in 1968 pf a figure for the digestibility of the protein component of one sample of traditionally prepared, dried Mopanie caterpillars by Dreyer, no further work has been done to assess the nutritive value of this indigenous foodstuff. The Mopanie ‘worm’ has, nevertheless, made impressive gains in importance as a product for sale in recent years. According to an estimate by the SA Bureau of Standards, annual sales through agricultural cooperative markets now amount to about 40 000 bags, each bag containing 40 Kg of traditionally prepared, dried caterpillars. Furthermore, a considerable degree of sophistication has been introduced into the market by the recent establishment of Mopanie worm cannery at Peitersburg, Northern Transvaal.
The traditional use of insects as food continues to be widespread in tropical and subtropical countries and to provide significant nutritional, economic and ecological benefits for rural communities. Westerners should become more aware of the fact that their bias against insects as food has an adverse impact, resulting in a gradual reduction in the use of insects without replacement of lost nutrition and other benefits.
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