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Oil Refining and Products
Abstract
This article discusses the various aspects of petroleum refining and oil products as a primary energy source and as a valuable feedstock for petrochemicals. The main objective of refining is to convert crude oils of various origins and different compositions into valuable products and fuels having the qualities and quantities demanded by the market. Various refining processes, such as separation, conversion, finishing, and environmental protection, are presented and briefly discussed. The ever-changing demand and quality of fuels, as well as environmental issues and the challenges facing the refining industry, are also highlighted. Environmental regulations have played a significant role in the progress of the refining industry and may even change the competition between petroleum and other alternative energy sources.
... Much attention is now paid to increasing the volume and improving the quality of light petroleum products by increasing the efficiency of processing large fractions of vacuum oil distillates, as well as heavy oil residues with significant concentrations of sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen compounds. The latter are catalytic poisons for the processes of the oil refining industry, and the direct use of fuels with high sulfur and nitrogen content does not meet the established environmental standards for gasoline and diesel fuels in Ukraine and the world and causes environmental pollution (Speight and Ozum 2001;Speight 2015;Aitani 2004;Worldwide 2019). ...
... Hydrogenation processes allow to significantly expand the raw material base for producing motor fuels and lubricants due to deposits of brown and hard coal and plant biomass. The perfection of hydrogenation processes determines the technical level of the oil refining and petrochemical industry (Speight and Ozum 2001;Speight 2015;Aitani 2004;Worldwide 2019). ...
... Industrial hydrogenation processes are usually carried out in the presence of aluminum-nickel-molybdenum (ANM) or aluminum-cobalt-molybdenum (ACM) catalysts under hydrogen pressure up to 30.0 MPa at temperatures of 350-450 °C. Consumption of large volumes of hydrogen, the possibility of catalyst poisoning by metal residues in the feedstock and low productivity are among the disadvantages of existing processes (Speight and Ozum 2001;Speight 2015;Aitani 2004). One of the promising ways to increase the efficiency of hydrocracking processes, along with improving the component composition of existing catalysts, is the use of membrane technologies. ...
To mitigate the isopropylbenzene hydrocracking reaction on a classic industrial aluminum-nickel-molybdenum (ANM) catalyst , the latter was optimized by creating a composite membrane catalyst in combination with a proton current. In this work, the ANM-synthesized catalyst used as a component of the hydrocracking membrane catalyst simultaneously played the role of hydrogen splitting and recombination electrodes. The passivated and reduced ANM were analyzed for morphology and composition using different methods: low-temperature nitrogen sorption-desorption, XRD, XRF, FTIR-ATR, AFM, TGA and DSC. Using the XRD method, it was shown that the reduced in situ ANM catalyst contains metallic nickel particles on its surface, while on the passivated one it is in the maximally oxidized state of Ni 3+. The N 2 adsorption-desorption isotherms and pore size distribution curves of the ANM before and after reduction demonstrate a change in the specific surface area and pore size, which are caused solely by the transition of the catalyst from the oxide form to the fully or partially reduced form. In the example of a model reaction, the isopropylbenzene hydrocracking the high activity of the developed membrane catalysts was demonstrated in comparison with the granulated ones at temperatures of 240-290 °C and pressure of 4.0 MPa. The use of a composite membrane catalyst and the creation of a directed flow of protons through it that will, in our opinion, mitigate the conditions of the hydrocracking reactions. Experimental proof of this point of view was a tenfold increase in the activity.
... Los principales contaminantes removidos son el nitrógeno, oxígeno, azufre, haluros y metales, ya que estos pueden dañar los equipos dentro de la refinería y disminuir la calidad de los productos finales(Mehlberg, Pujadó y Ward, 2015). En una unidad de hidrotratamiento se logra remover alrededor del 90% de los contaminantes presentes en el petróleo y los productos tratados en este tipo de procesos(Aitani, 2004).La carga de alimentación para los hidrotratamientos proviene de la destilación primaria, principalmente destilados intermedios y naftas, o algunos otros productos de conversión, los cuales se obtienen en unidades como desintegración catalítica o viscorreducción. De acuerdo con el tipo de carga será el tipo de hidrotramiento que se utilizará, es decir, en el caso del keroseno se busca una reducción en cuanto al contenido de compuestos aromáticos (mejorar el punto de humo). ...
... De acuerdo con el tipo de carga será el tipo de hidrotramiento que se utilizará, es decir, en el caso del keroseno se busca una reducción en cuanto al contenido de compuestos aromáticos (mejorar el punto de humo). Si la alimentación es de destilados intermedios y gasóleos, se disminuirá el contenido de azufre principalmente, además de que se tendrá un mayor índice de cetano(Aitani, 2004;Wauquier, 2004).1. GENERALIDADESPACHECO-JIMÉNEZ H. O. ...
The present work is focused on the production of hybrid diesel using blends
of waste cooking oil and straight run gas oil. The co-hydrotreatment reaction was
performed in a microreaction system using a CoMoP/Al2O3 hydrodesulfurization catalyst.
Three blends were used (5, 10 and 20 %V) of waste cooking oil respect to the
straight run gas oil content. Three reaction temperature were evaluated (340, 360
and 380 °C), at constant pressure of 56 Kg/cm2 and 1.5 h-1 of LHSV. The characterization
studies of the liquid product (hybrid diesel) include density, viscosity, and
sulfur content.
The results showed an effect of the temperature in the sulfur removal, the best
result was obtained at highest temperature. Additionally, the waste cooking oil content
also showed an effect on the sulfur removal. The lowest sulfur content in the
hybrid diesel was obtained from the blend with the highest oil content at the highest
reaction temperature. According to this the lowest sulfur content was 173.67 ppm at
380°C when the blend content was 20 %V of waste cooking oil.
Applying the response surface methodology, the optimal conditions of temperature
and waste cooking oil content were determined. These conditions demonstrated
the lowest sulfur content in hybrid diesel could be obtained with a better removal
percent.
... The NSP Naphtha splitter is a splitting unit which splits hydrotreated naphtha into heavy naphtha and light naphtha. The feed of the reformer is prepared by the removal of nitrogen and sulfur from the heavy naphtha streams which is treated by the help of naphtha hydrotreater (NHT Naphtha Hydrotreater) (Aitani, 2004). Catalytic Reformer (LPR Reformer) produces major blending product for gasoline by converting low octane straight run naphtha fractions into low sulfur and high-octane reformate. ...
... The main features of catalytic hydrocracking are recalled in [9]. A review of the four paradigms of hydrocracking of saturated hydrocarbons is exposed in [10]. ...
... AspenTech's software portfolio includes Aspen HYSYS, Aspen Plus Dynamics, and Aspen DMC3. Aspen Plus is a popular program for modeling chemical processes [15]. It allows engineers and scientists to study and simulate processes such as heat transport, reaction kinetics, and distillation. ...
The Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) mechanism is commonly regarded as the first stage in petroleum refining. In this study, Aspen Plus® is used to simulate the basic process of a CDU, which consists of an Atmospheric Distillation Column (ATC) and a Vacuum Distillation Column (VC). These columns are fed with two types of crude oil: KUMKOL from Kazakhstan and Soviet Export Blend, in the proportions of 0.75:0.25, 0.50:0.50, and 0.25:0.75, respectively. The goal was to do a parametric analysis and analyze the resultant streams of naphtha, kerosene, Atmospheric Gas Oil (AGO), Light Vacuum Gas Oil (LVGO), and Heavy Vacuum Gas Oil (HVGO). The simulation used the CHAO-SEA thermodynamic model, which included the Chao-Seader correlation, the Scatchard-Hildebrand model, the Redlich-Kwong equation of state, the Lee-Kesler equation of state, and the API gravity technique. Temperature, pressure, mass flow, enthalpy, vapor percentage, and average molecular weights of the streams at various phases within the CDU system were estimated. For both the ATC and VC columns, curves indicating Temperature- Pressure vs the number of stages, as well as ASTM D86 (temperature) versus stream volume % distillation, were developed. The results show that when compared to feed streams containing 0.25 and 0.50 StdVol of Kumkol Kazakhstan Oil, the feed stream with 0.75 StdVol produces more Heavy, Medium, and Light Vacuum Gas Oil (H-VGO, M-VGO, and L-VGO), as well as more Vacuum Gas (VG). These findings indicate that Kumkol Kazakhstan Oil is of high quality and has fewer contaminants, such as sulfur when compared to other accessible mixes throughout the world.
... The production of RA was modeled through the same SimaPro process used for the virgin aggregates, with the specific input data of the mobile crushing device. This could be achieved by knowing the hourly production and fuel consumption rates of the equipment, together with the density and heating values of specific fuels [78,79]. ...
In recent decades, the international community has recognized the detrimental impact of the construction industry on the environment. In recent years, the use of recycled aggregates has attracted increasing interest as a sustainable and cost-effective solution for the construction and maintenance of road pavements. The life cycle assessment (LCA) represents a valuable methodology for evaluating the environmental sustainability of technologies involving the use of such materials. This study deals with the LCA of alternative solutions for the construction and maintenance of unpaved rural roads. Different scenarios using recycled materials, such as reclaimed asphalt and mineral sludge, are analyzed and compared to a reference solution that employs only virgin aggregates. The environmental sustainability of the proposed alternatives is assessed by considering the global warming potential (GWP), energy requirements, and water consumption. The LCA analysis is performed using SimaPro software (version 9.1.1.7). The obtained results demonstrate that solutions involving the use of recycled materials represent a more sustainable and environmentally friendly option. In particular, a significant reduction in water depletion was found for the alternative scenarios, with savings between 56% and 99%. For GWP and energy, the total savings ranged from approximately 20% to 40%.
... For this reason, this type of oil could be used as a possible substitute for petroleum fuel due to its high heating value and low oxygen and acids content. However, several parameters should be investigated before recommending the oil for automotive fuels (gasoline and diesel), such as octane and cetane number, viscosity, density, distillation profile, etc. [56]. These parameters could not be calculated in this study since a solvent was used to collect the oil; the derived oil should be pure to be able to calculate the latter properties. ...
This study aims to investigate the catalytic co-pyrolysis of beech wood with polystyrene as a synergic and catalytic effect on liquid oil production. For this purpose, a tubular semi-continuous reactor under an inert nitrogen atmosphere was used. Several zeolite catalysts were modified via incipient wetness impregnation using iron and/or nickel. The liquid oil recovered was analyzed using GC-MS for the identification of the liquid products, and GC-FID was used for their quantification. The effects of catalyst type, beechwood-to-polystyrene ratio, and operating temperature were investigated. The results showed that the Fe/Ni-ZSM-5 catalyst had the best deoxygenation capability. The derived oil was mainly constituted of aromatics of about 92 wt.% for the 1:1 mixture of beechwood and polystyrene, with a remarkably high heating value of around 39 MJ/kg compared to 18 MJ/kg for beechwood-based bio-oil. The liquid oil experienced a great reduction in oxygen content of about 92% for the polystyrene–beechwood 50-50 mixture in comparison to beechwood alone. The catalytic and synergetic effects were more realized for high beechwood percentages as a 75-25 beechwood–polystyrene mix. Regarding the temperature variation between 450 and 600 °C, the catalyst seemed to deactivate faster at higher temperatures, thus constituting a quality reduction in the pyrolytic oil in high-temperature ranges.
... The injection phenomenon in this particular technology is challenging to model and investigate since the physics and the modeling techniques change with the passage from liquid to super-critical injection. Commercial pump gasoline is a complex, multi-component fluid with a boiling point that ranges from 533 to 618 K [16], while the reference fuel used in the simulation (iso-octane) has a critical point equal to 544 K and 25.6 bar [17]. The supercritical injection of gasoline has not been deeply investigated up to now; however, a larger bibliography is present in the aerospace field for different liquids such as LN 2 . ...
In this study, an innovative Low Temperature Combustion (LTC) system named Temperature Controlled Reactivity Compression Ignition (TCRCI) is presented, and a numerical optimization of the hardware and the operating parameters is proposed. The studied combustion system aims to reduce the complexity of the Reaction Controlled Compression Ignition engine (RCCI), replacing the direct injection of high reactivity fuel with a heated injection of low reactivity fuel. The combustion system at the actual state of development is presented, and its characteristics are discussed. Hence, it is clear that the performances are highly limited by the actual diesel-derived hardware, and a dedicated model must be designed to progress in the development of this technology. A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model suitable for the simulation of this type of combustion is proposed, and it is validated with the available experimental operating conditions. The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm was integrated with the Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) software to optimize the engine combustion system by means of computational simulation. The operating condition considered has a relatively high load with a fixed fuel mass and compression ratio. The parameters to optimize are the piston bowl geometry, injection parameters and the boosting pressure. The achieved system configuration is characterized by a wider piston bowl and injection angle, and it is able to increase the net efficiency of 3% and to significantly reduce CO emissions from 0.407 to 0.136 mg.
... The presence of trimethylamine is very common in marine algae and was detected in 23 of 28 analysed species [71]. It is broadly used in the choline synthesis industry, in herbicides or plant growth inhibitors, strongly basic ionic exchange resins, colourant levelling agents and in basic colourants [72]. Table 8. ...
The use and transformation of biomass into highly valuable products is a key element in circular economy models. The purpose of this research was to characterise the volatile compounds and the temperature at which they are emitted during the thermal decomposition by pyrolysis of algal biomass while looking at three different types: (A1) endemic microalgae consortium, (A2) photobioreactor microalgae consortium and (A3) Caribbean macroalgae consortium. Furthermore, the ultimate (CHON) and proximate (humidity, volatile solids and ashes) compositions of the algal biomass were determined. Some volatile species were identified as having potential industrial interest for use as precursors and intermediaries, such as commercially used aromatic compounds which if not suitably managed can be harmful to our health and the environment. It is concluded that the pyrolysis of algal biomass shows potential for the generation of valuable products. The information generated is useful, especially the temperature at which volatility occurs, in order to access the valuable compounds offered by the algal biomasses, and under the concept of biorefinery convert the issue of biomass disposal into a sustainable source of raw materials.
... 3−8 Moreover, ASAs are widely utilized in large-scale hydrocracking processes to balance the acidity for the selective production of middle distillates, such as diesel and kerosene fractions. 9 So far, several models for the formation of catalytically active Brønsted acid sites (BASs) in ASAs have been proposed. 3,10−12 Two models are commonly considered for the formation of BASs on ASAs: (1) pseudobridging silanols (PBS: SiOH··· Al) 3,13−15 with silanol groups tilting toward Al atoms with weak interaction; and (2) silanols weakly bounded to neighboring Al sites via electrostatic interactions. ...
... In general, oil refining and converting its byproducts produce toxic and hazardous wastes. The oil compositions in all parts contain hydrocarbons, aromatics, paraffin, heavy metals, sulfur, and nitrogen (Aitani 2004). Waste of petrochemical complexes generally include oils, industrial sludge, drilling mud, petroleum, burnt oil, hydraulic sludge, catalysts, tank floor sediments, acidic solvents, ammonia, sodium chloride, urea, sulfur compounds, alcohol, BOD, COD, latex, phenols, organic acids, Salt, mercury, and many more (Ayotamuno et al. 2007;da Silva et al. 2012;Hu et al. 2013;Wang et al. 2017;Nadal et al. 2004). ...
Today, controlling and reducing the effects of toxic and hazardous wastes of industrial units is one of the most important issues and concerns of urban communities, especially the petrochemical industry, which is one of the largest producers of industrial and hazardous wastes. Appropriate management and control of this waste is very important in order to protect the environment and manage resources. Bushehr Province is one of the most important provinces in terms of development and expansion of petrochemical industries and complexes and, consequently, hazardous waste in Iran. On the other hand, there is still no specific and suitable place for disposal of hazardous industrial waste in this province. In this study, after the creating of spatial databases in GIS using zoning based on integrated methods in this environment, including OWA, fuzzy logic and based on 24 initial parameter was determining the most suitable landfills for these wastes in the three cities of Bandar Dayer, Bandar Kangan and Assaluyeh in the south of Bushehr province. Based on the results, ecological parameters were the most important parameters affecting the selection of suitable sites. According to the obtained results, 0.091%, 2.79%, 7.13%, 36.54%, 51.03%, 99.94%, and 100% of the region in 7 different scenarios had very high and high capability, respectively. The results of this study evaluate the OWA method as a more appropriate method due to providing different outputs and considering different risk levels in locating the most suitable landfills for petrochemical waste.
... m 2 /g, respectively, and maximum oil sorption capacity at 4.418 g/g for BANA-AC with activation ratio 7:1 (H 3 PO 4 ), and surface area at 2,172.234 m 2 /g. [9,10]. Of exceptional interest, the motivation behind oil spill contamination adrift is unrefined oils and refined items. ...
Over the past years and present, the expanding number of oil spills occurrences has gotten an overwhelming chemical test to the marine or oceanic environment, and the environmental issues around the globe are becoming more problematic and more acute, be it oil spills or effluents caused by oil and gas or petrochemical industries. The main point of this current investigation is the synthesis of activated carbon (AC) from various agricultural waste materials, bamboo, and banana fibers, as one of the most promising methodologies or applications in treating oil spills constitutes high sorption capacity. The physicochemical feature of the synthesized AC samples was analyzed by FTIR spectra and N 2 physisorption. More specifically, the AC samples derived from bamboo (BAMB-AC) at activation temperature 550 ℃ indicate the highest specific surface area (2,760.47 m 2 /g), and sorption capacity at 3.3678 g/g with the total pore volume, mesopore volume, external surface area being 3.364 cm 3 /g, 1.811 cm 3 /g, and 1,601.634 m 2 /g, respectively, and maximum oil sorption capacity at 4.418 g/g for BANA-AC with activation ratio 7:1 (H 3 PO 4), and surface area at 2,172.234 m 2 /g.
... Even if these three compounds have the same four carbons, their physical properties vary significantly (Hay et al. 2013). As an example (Aitani 2004), Figure 2.3 shows how the density changes in the PIONA molecular structure versus different carbon numbers at 298 K. Also, it shows the different groups of PIONA molecular structure with six carbon atoms. ...
... Even if these three compounds have the same four carbons, their physical properties vary significantly (Hay et al. 2013). As an example (Aitani 2004), Figure 2.3 shows how the density changes in the PIONA molecular structure versus different carbon numbers at 298 K. Also, it shows the different groups of PIONA molecular structure with six carbon atoms. ...
... Even if these three compounds have the same four carbons, their physical properties vary significantly (Hay et al. 2013). As an example (Aitani 2004), Figure 2.3 shows how the density changes in the PIONA molecular structure versus different carbon numbers at 298 K. Also, it shows the different groups of PIONA molecular structure with six carbon atoms. ...
... In the simplest version of traditional jet fuel production, the jet fuel is extracted from the crude petroleum oil by fractional distillation. As described in Aitani (2004) the higher demand on specific oil products and growing market specifications, challenged oil companies and refineries; ...
... Massive development of unconventional oil occurrences would be necessary to shift the peak of oil production to 2050 or later [21]; the peak concept is discussed further in Box 2.5. Typical crude oil consists of hundreds of combustible hydrocarbons in addition to small amounts of sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen, metals and salts, although the amounts vary widely [22]. Crude oil is generally categorised as sweet (<0.5 % sulphur) or sour (>0.5 % sulphur) depending on the sulphur content and light or heavy depending on its density. ...
To comprehend the implications of the various environmental issues that man is inducing on the Earth (with a focus on the shipping industry), an understanding of the Earth’s major systems is necessary. The natural environment, which consists of air, water, land and living organisms, is a dynamic system in which material and energy are exchanged within and between the individual components. The system is divided into four spheres (atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere), and fluxes of energy and material are exchanged amongst these spheres. The spheres also largely govern the fate of various environmental problems originating from the shipping industry. Therefore, background information related to these spheres is provided, and their major properties and implications are explained. Regarding the atmosphere, radiation and energy budgets are explained in conjunction with the weather and climate. Concerning the hydrosphere, oceanography is introduced together with marine ecology. Addressing the geosphere, the elements in the Earth’s crust and mineral commodities are discussed. Regarding the biosphere, energy is transferred through food chains; the differences between life in water and life on land are examined. Energy flows through and is stored in these spheres; this stored energy is essential to the natural environment and human society. The different primary energy sources are described and divided into non-renewable and renewable sources. Finally, an introduction to human impacts on the natural environment and to major environmental issues is provided.
... As an example, Berl processed biomass with alkaline water at 500 K to generate a viscous liquid, which contains 75% heating value and 60% carbon of material [94]. The biocrude contains 10-20% weight oxygen and 30-36 MJ/kg heating value compared to o1% weight oxygen and 42-46 MJ/kg of heating value in petroleum [95]. The high oxygen content imparts lower energy content, lower volatility, poor thermal stability, higher corrosivness and tendency to polymerize after sometimes [96]. ...
... As an example, Berl processed biomass with alkaline water at 500 K to generate a viscous liquid, which contains 75% heating value and 60% carbon material [149]. The biocrude contains 10-20% weight oxygen and 30-36 MJ/kg heating value compared to o 1% weight oxygen and 42-46 MJ/kg of heating value in petroleum [150]. The high oxygen content imparts lower energy content, lower volatility, poor thermal stability, higher corrosiveness and tendency to polymerize after sometimes [151]. ...
... Although there are hundreds of compounds found in crude oil and the exact composition of every oil reservoir may not be known, cycloalkanes, alkanes, and aromatics are generally accepted to be the largest groups of organic compounds found in oil. 22 If the cosolvency effects of these groups of compounds could be generalized in a way to quantify their effects on less soluble compounds, this could be a more efficient way to accurately determine the solubilities of important (i.e., toxic and/or carcinogenic) organic compounds in a crude oil mixture. ...
Carbon capture and storage is a promising strategy for mitigating the CO2 contribution to global climate change. The large scale implementation of the technology mandates better understanding of the risks associated with CO2 injection into geologic formations and the subsequent interactions with groundwater resources. The injected supercritical CO2 (sc-CO2) is a nonpolar solvent that can potentially mobilize organic compounds that exist at residual saturation in the formation. Here, we review the partitioning behavior of selected organic compounds typically found in depleted oil reservoirs in the residual oil-brine-sc-CO2 system under carbon storage conditions. The solubility of pure phase organic compounds in sc-CO2 and partitioning of organic compounds between water and sc-CO2 follow trends predicted based on thermodynamics. Compounds with high volatility and low aqueous solubility have the highest potential to partition to sc-CO2. The partitioning of low volatility compounds to sc-CO2 can be enhanced by co-solvency due to the presence of higher volatility compounds in the sc-CO2. The effect of temperature, pressure, salinity, pH, and dissolution of water molecules into sc-CO2 on the partitioning behavior of organic compounds in the residual oil-brine-sc-CO2 system is discussed. Data gaps and research needs for models to predict the partitioning of organic compounds in brines and from complex mixtures of oils are presented. Models need to be able to better incorporate the effect of salinity and co-solvency, which will require more experimental data from key classes of organic compounds.
The remarkable properties of carbon-based nanomaterials (CNMs) have stimulated a significant increase in studies on different 0D, 1D and 2D nanostructures, which have promising applications in various fields of science and technology. However, the use of graphite as a raw material, which is essential for their production, limits the scalability of these nanostructures. In this context, petroleum coke (PC), a by-product of the coking process in petrochemical industry with a high carbon content (>80 wt%), is emerging as an attractive and low-cost option for the synthesis of carbonaceous nanostructures. This brief review presents recent research related to the use of PC as a precursor for CNMs, such as graphene and its oxidized (GO) and reduced (RGO) variants, among other carbon-based nanostructures. The work highlights the performance of these materials in specific areas of application. In addition, this review describes and analyzes strategies for transforming low-cost, environmentally friendly waste into advanced technological innovations with greater added value, in line with the UN's 2030 Agenda.
Polylactide acid (PLA) is a biocompatible sustainable material with notable characteristics due to its good mechanical properties and low environmental impact. The present study investigated the effects of PLA-based green membranes on gas separation and identified the best factor condition for the membrane. Prepared membranes were tested to determine oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) gas permeability properties. Oxygen gas permeability of the PLA/PEG/HA membrane obtained by drying for two days was increased from 100 kPa to 400 kPa; the permeability value of this membrane increased by 15%. On the other hand, the oxygen permeability value of the membrane prepared by dry for three days under the same pressure conditions and ambient temperature increased by 5%. This result indicates that the permeabilities of prepared membranes for O2 gas increase with increasing feed pressures. On the other hand, it was observed that the CO2 permeability decreased by 38.83% with the increase in pressure and drying time due to the plasticizing and swelling effect of carbon dioxide on the membrane. A factorial design was also constructed from experimental data and applied to determine the interactions of experimental parameters. All of the parameter interactions were of statistical significance for permeability. It is further argued that molecular weight has a significant positive effect on permeability, while dry time and pressure have just a slight negative effect. This study could contribute to further studies by reducing the number of tests necessary to understand the characteristics and gas separation performance of green materials.
Une série d'hydroxydes doubles lamellaires ternaires Ni(2 x)Cu(x)Al-CO3 avec x:0.0 ; 0.5 ; x:1.0 ; 1.5 et 2.0 ont été synthétisés par coprécipitation à pH constant avec un rapport molaire R : (Ni2++Cu2+)/Al3+ égal à 2.0, la calcination du matériau avec x:1.0 à différentes températures, dont 180°C, 320°C et 870°C entraîne la création d'oxydes de taille nanométrique. Ces catalyseurs ont été utilisés pour dégrader les composés organiques aromatiques et aliphatiques présents dans les eaux usées des raffineries de pétrole par une réaction de type Fenton et avec du peroxyde d'hydrogène comme générateur de radicaux libres. Les échantillons obtenus ont été caractérisés par DRX, IRTF, MEB-EDS, ICP-OES, ATG et physisorption de N2.
Les résultats de la réaction d'oxydation ont montré que l'activité catalytique variait inversement avec le rapport Ni2+/Cu2+, et l'activité était maximale pour x:2.0, ce catalyseur peut éliminer 74,8% du COT, et les composés aromatiques peuvent être complètement oxydés par H2O2 après 90 min à 60°C dans des conditions de pH : pHPZC, un dosage moins excessif de H2O2 (H2O2/DCO : 5), et une température du milieu réactionnel de 60°C. Cependant, ce catalyseur présent des phases autres que l’HDL, telles que la malachite et la gibbsite. Le catalyseur avec x:1.0 semple être le meilleur catalyseur avec un taux d'élimination du COT de 65,2%, en raison de la structure en couches des HDLs (originaux ou reconstruits) et de la présence de groupes hydroxyles présents sur les feuilles de brucite, des effets bénéfiques sur l'activité catalytique ont été identifiés.
Le processus d'oxydation catalytique avait une cinétique de premier ordre avec une énergie d'activation de 44,803 kJ.mol-1 pour la réaction de disparition du COT.
We present the first application of electrostatic separation for soil washing. Soil samples were collected from the PTE-containing area of La Cruz in Linares, southern Spain. Using a single-phase high-tension roll separator with voltages ranging from 20 kV to 41.5 kV, we achieved yield values between 0.69% and 9%, with high recovery rates for certain elements such as Zn, Cu, and Mo. SEM-EDX analysis revealed three particle types, including a non-conductive fraction composed of feldspar, a middling fraction composed of mica, and a conductive fraction consisting of PTE-bearing slag grains. Attributive analysis showed that 41.5 kV was the optimal voltage for maximizing PTE concentration. Overall, electrostatic separation is a promising approach for treating soils contaminated with PTEs, particularly in dry climate areas impacted by mining activities.
This study discusses the result of a life cycle assessment (LCA) for three Egyptian aquaculture farms categorized as semi-intensive culture. The cradle-to-grave system was used to calculate the overall carbon footprint of fish unit production. The major data came from a study of three feed factories in Egypt, which included a wide range of feed manufacturing and agricultural practises in order to reveal the varied greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Pre-farm, farming, and post-farming were the three stages of the life cycle assessment. Feed manufacture, which was primarily tied to the production and processing of raw materials, was the largest source of GHG emissions for all three processes. GHG emissions were also produced during the transport of raw materials to the factory. GHG emissions were also produced during the transportation of raw materials to manufacturers, as well as feed from factories to fish farms, via ship or road. Energy consumption in feed factories varies due to variances in design technology and manufacturing efficiencies. Feed conversion ratios (FCR) have a significant influence on GHG emissions since more feed is required to produce one kilogramme of fish. The kind of packaging material and energy utilised in the factories had an impact on GHG emissions, as each type had a distinct emission factor (EF). Aside from fingerling production, there are direct and indirect N2O emissions, as well as post-farming operations like packaging, ice serving method, and customer transportation. The conclusions of the investigation revealed that According to the results of the study, the emissions linked with the three farms varied greatly. Hanafy farm had the greatest emissions, with 3.265 kg CO2e/kg fish and 50.917 tonnes CO2e/Season, followed by Hashim farm with 2.259 kg CO2e/kg fish and 45.829 tonnes CO2e/Season, and finally Aly farm with 2.223 kg CO2e/kg fish and 38.864 tonnes CO2e/Season.
The experiment was established at an earthen semi-intensive private aquaculture farm in Kafrelshikh governorate, Egypt on season 2021-2022 (25th Nov 2021 – 19th Jan 2022). The aim of the study was to improve the water quality of aquaculture in earthen ponds then evaluating fine bubbles aeration tube method and determine the optimum operational conditions. Also, applicate the optimum parameters at semi-intensive aquaculture greenhouse comparing with traditional water change system and measuring fish indicators (weight gain, feed conversion ratio, specific growth rate, water footprint and biological analysis), water indicators (dissolved oxygen, total ammonia nitrogen, temperature for air and water, total dissolved solids and pH). In addition to that estimation the aquaculture environmental impact of carbon and water footprints and biological impact. The experimental variables under study were five air flow rates (0.554, 0.969, 1.246, 1.523 and 1.8 m3.h-1), three inner diameters of tubes (11, 13 and 16 mm), three depths for aeration tube of 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 m from water surface and two design shapes for aeration tube (circular and Longitudinal). The results showed that the permissible limits for operational conditions were: three air flow rates (0.554, 0.969 and 1.246 m3.h-1), three inner diameters of tubes (11, 13 and 16 mm), three depths for aeration tube of 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 m from water surface and two design shapes (circular and Longitudinal). The optimum operational conditions for fine bubble aeration tube were air flow rate of 0.554 m3.h-1, inner diameter of 11 mm, 0.7 m tube depth from water surface and circular design shape, whereas oxygen mass transfer coefficient was 11.58 h-1, standard aeration efficiency was 2.66 kg.O2/kW.h.m of tube. The dissolved oxygen values were at a range of 37-91% and 15-70% of saturation for fine bubbles tube treatment and water change treatment, respectively. Carbon footprint for Hanafy (X) farm had the highest emissions intensity (EI) value of 3.265 kg.CO2e/kg fish and 50.917 ton CO2e/season.
Among the fossil fuels, petroleum is more valuable to several businesses due to the production of extensive assortments of finished products, making it a pivot natural resource in the development of the world's economic system via energy usage which are 32% for Europe and Asia, Middle East (53%), South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The most apparent air pollution impediments of the petroleum industry are concentrated in its refining segment. Various pollutants are discharged from different phases of the petroleum refining process. This article intends at publicising dispersed information and also close the knowledge gap in the area. It offers an update on processes involved in petroleum refining, air pollution sources, impacts, reviews on findings, and highlights from different scientific reports on air quality and management. It is paramount that establishing as well as imposing environmental protocols in the petroleum refining industry are crucial for controlling air pollution to protect flora and fauna including human beings. Moreso, the ambient air quality should be managed methodically in developing countries where increased energy demands, industrialization, and overpopulation is leading to increased emissions and reduced air value.
Directional drilling techniques require real-time sensing of the drill bit direction and the downhole environment from the measurement-while-drilling (MWD) sensor module. Traditional telemetry methods such as the mud-pulse telemetry are limited to low transmission rates. Acoustic telemetry is a method used for transmitting downhole sensor data and it is orders of magnitude faster than conventional telemetry techniques. However, the selection of appropriate carrier frequencies is critically important to transmit measured data. This study proposes a finite element (FE) model based on the Timoshenko beam theory that predicts dynamics of a drill-string over a wide frequency range and boundary condition. Additionally, a modulated acoustic transmission is developed and performed using the determined carrier frequencies. The signal is modulated using differential binary phase shift keying (DBPSK) and is up-converted to the carrier frequency used for the excitation of the drill-string. Packets of bits are first generated as the telemetry data and then convolutionally encoded to reduce errors at the receiver. The receiver at the surface demodulates and decodes the received acceleration signals to recover the transmitted bits through a digitally implemented lock-in amplifier (LIA). Finally, the transmitted and received bits are compared to calculate the bit-error rate (BER) for each signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) condition. By using the LIA, the receiver can extract severely attenuated acoustic signals, but the dynamics of the drill-string and the additional borehole interactions can degrade the performance of the acoustic telemetry system.
Crude oil is chemically composed of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of different gaseous, liquid and solid states, the total of which may reach more than 17,000 organic compounds. At standard conditions of pressure and temperature the light hydrocarbons with carbon numbers 1 to 4 (methane, ethane, propane, butane) are present in gaseous form; Whereas pentane and the heavier hydrocarbons are found in liquid form, and in the heavy fractions with higher boiling points the hydrocarbons are in solid form. The ratio of gaseous, liquid and solid components depends on the conditions and the phase diagram of the subsurface oil mixture. The hydrocarbons in petroleum are composed predominantly of linear alkanes and to a lesser extent of cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons; with a small percentage of aromatic compounds containing heterogeneous atoms of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, in addition to trace amounts of metals such as iron, copper, nickel and vanadium. Many oil tanks also contain live bacteria in their mixtures. The exact molecular composition of crude oil varies greatly depending on the mixture from one place to another, but the difference in the proportion of chemical elements in the mixtures is relatively small.
Petroleum facilities containing welded steel bulk flammable liquid product storage tanks possess sundry fire hazards inherent to the facility. These installations urgently require indigenous efficient firefighting systems. So, the efficient design of firewater and firefighting foam system is dynamic in controlling fire-related emergencies. The paper deals with the in-depth conceptualization of the design and analysis of firefighting systems for a typical petroleum handling, processing and storage facility in compliance with international standards. The study is aimed to formulate the elementary technique for designing an optimized firefighting system. The proposed objective was achieved by considering an ideal tank farm site that is most commonly located in a range of terminal stations, pumping stations, petroleum refineries, well sites, etc. Sufficient illumination was enumerated on the standardized classification of the liquid fuel product with respect their flammability range. Special guidelines regarding firefighting system design basis were defined and an optimized firefighting and foam system design was developed. Moreover, sufficient limitations that must be considered during the firefighting of huge tank fires are discussed. This comprehensive numerical design philosophy offers a simple and wide-ranging guide to industrial practitioners by formulating the principles for industrial firefighting system design.
The world is currently faced with two significant problems: fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation, which are continuously being exacerbated due to increasing global energy consumption. As a substitute for petroleum, renewable fuels have been receiving increasing attention due a variety of environmental, economic, and societal benefits. The first-generation bio fuels - ethanol from sugar or corn and biodiesel from vegetable oils - are already on the market. The goal of this book is to introduce readers to second-generation bio fuels obtained from non-food biomass, such as forest residue, agricultural residue, switch grass, corn stover, waste wood, municipal solid wastes, and so on. Various technologies are discussed, including cellulosic ethanol, biomass gasification, synthesis of diesel and gasoline, bio-crude by hydrothermal liquefaction, bio-oil by fast pyrolysis, and the up gradation of bio fuel. This book strives to serve as a comprehensive document presenting various technological pathways and environmental and economic issues related to biofuels.
Dvarionienė, J.; Zobėlaitė-Noreikienė, G.; Kruopiene, J., and Stasiškienė, Z., 2013. Application of the life-cycle assessment method for pollution prevention in Klaipėda sea port, Lithuania. Lithuania is one of the countries that have ratified the Marpol 73/78 Convention, which foresees the tools of reduction and prevention of sea pollution by bilge water and other substances. The Directive of the European Parliament and Council 2000/59/EB is addressed to the reduction of waste onboard ships and its wash overboard. Analysis of the ships entering Klaipėda sea port has estimated that oil waste constitutes about 74% of the whole collected waste amount. Engine bilge water is specific and hazardous to the environment because it is a liquid compound of water and oil products capable of making steady emulsions. It also acquires specific properties during various technological processes. Equipment, technological processes, specificity of the control related to combustibility and flammability, as well as conformity to the requirements of the International and European Union Rights, technological process management, and documents are needed for the management of this specific waste. For this reason, separation of this oily water from the common oil-polluted waste and analysis of these streams of waste treatment are of great importance to enhance the effectiveness of environmental protection during the management process of this oily waste. Applying a system approach to the oily waste in the port, we set up a waste management system algorithm based on the life cycle. The system of port waste management is a set of technological processes, each of them performing a certain function and requiring stock, electric energy, fuel, transport, heat, technological equipment, etc. Having made the environmental assessment, a suggestion was made to convert the waste resulting from the engine bilge water treatment into energy and to use it in a technological process when closing (finishing) the life cycle. In this paper, a life-cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to identify and quantify the environmental impacts caused by the ship-generated waste management, focusing on oily waters of the port of Klaipėda. LCA methodology was used to evaluate the environmental performance of ship-generated waste management of Klaipėda port, according to international standards.
Hydrothermal technologies are broadly defined as chemical and physical transformations in high-temperature (200–600 °C), high-pressure (5–40 MPa) liquid or supercritical water. This thermochemical means of reforming biomass may have energetic advantages, since, when water is heated at high pressures a phase change to steam is avoided which avoids large enthalpic energy penalties. Biological chemicals undergo a range of reactions, including dehydration and decarboxylation reactions, which are influenced by the temperature, pressure, concentration, and presence of homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts. Several biomass hydrothermal conversion processes are in development or demonstration. Liquefaction processes are generally lower temperature (200–400 °C) reactions which produce liquid products, often called “bio-oil” or “bio-crude”. Gasification processes generally take place at higher temperatures (400–700 °C) and can produce methane or hydrogen gases in high yields.
The cost of biodiesels varies depending on the feedstock, geographic area, methanol prices, and seasonal variability in crop production. Most of the biodiesel is currently made from soybean, rapeseed, and palm oils. However, there are large amounts of low-cost oils and fats (e.g., restaurant waste, beef tallow, pork lard, and yellow grease) that could be converted to biodiesel. The crop types, agricultural practices, land and labor costs, plant sizes, processing technologies and government policies in different regions considerably vary ethanol production costs and prices by region. The cost of producing bioethanol in a dry mill plant currently totals US$1.65/galon. The largest ethanol cost component is the plant feedstock. It has been showed that plant size has a major effect on cost. The plant size can reduce operating costs by 15–20%, saving another $0.02–$0.03 per liter. Thus, a large plant with production costs of $0.29 per liter may be saving $0.05–$0.06 per liter over a smaller plant. Viscosity of biofuel and biocrude varies greatly with the liquefaction conditions. The high and increasing viscosity indicates a poor flow characteristic and stability. The increase in the viscosity can be attributed to the continuing polymerization and oxidative coupling reactions in the biocrude upon storage. Although stability of biocrude is typically better than that of bio-oil, the viscosity of biocrude is much higher. The bio-oil produced by flash pyrolysis is a highly oxygenated mixture of carbonyls, carboxyls, phenolics and water. It is acidic and potentially corrosive. Bio-oil can also be potentially upgraded by hydrodeoxygenation. The liquid, termed biocrude, contains 60% carbon, 10–20 wt.% oxygen and 30–36 MJ/kg heating value as opposed to <1 wt.% and 42–46 MJ/kg for petroleum.
Our objective in this paper is to quantify the impact of petroleum industry consolidation on refined product prices, controlling for other important factors that could also impact prices. Our empirical analysis focuses on the US petroleum refining industry using data on industry consolidation and wholesale gasoline prices collected over the interval 2000-2008. We match refinery units to wholesale city-terminal gasoline markets, and then estimate pooled cross-section time-series regressions to quantify the impact of petroleum industry consolidation on wholesale gasoline prices at city-specific terminals. The results of the empirical analysis of mergers are mixed, showing that some petroleum industry mergers resulted in statistically significant increases in refined product prices; others resulted in statistically significant declines and still others had no statistical impact at all. Our analysis of the effects of measures of market concentration--one at the level of city-specific wholesale terminals and another at the level of regional spot markets--found evidence that less concentrated markets are associated with lower price levels.
Before beginning our study of pure organic chemicals, we need to obtain some background into the chemistry of petroleum, since it is from this source that nearly all the major organic chemicals are derived. Table 7.1 lists the seven important organic chemicals, all of which are obtained by petroleum refining processes: ethylene, propylene, the butylenes, benzene, toluene, xylene, and methane. From these are made all 31 highest volume organic chemicals (some have more than one source and are listed twice). It seems appropriate that we study petroleum and its major refining processes in detail before discussing these chemicals.
Refining capacity (coking, thermal process, catalytic cracking, catalytic reforming, catalytic hydrocracking, catalytic hydrotreating, alkylation, polymerization/dimerization, aromatics, isomerization, oxygenates, and hydrogen) by country as of 1/1/2001 is tabulated.
A discussion on the global refining catalyst industry covers world oil refining industry; worldwide energy and oil market trends; worldwide refining capacity; construction of new oil refineries in 2001-2005, i.e., one in Europe, one in the Middle East, nine in Asia Pacific, one in South America, and two in Africa; worldwide catalyst industry trends; world catalyst market behavior; future refining catalyst demand; impact of environmental restrictions on transportation fuels, which provided an impetus for the refining catalyst industry; and new catalyst developments.
The transition from the current fossil fuel based economy to a sustainable economy offers a large number of technological and economic challenges for the oil and petrochemical industries. The transportation fuels of the near future will be even more constrained in terms of their chemical composition (sulfur, aromatics, olefins). The later large-scale introduction of more energy-efficient fuel cell driven cars will initially be based on on-board hydrogen generation via catalytic partial oxidation of hydrocarbon fuels and may develop into hydrogen generated from renewable energy sources. During this transition period, the gas/crude oil ratio (H/C-ratio) will increase and so will the gas-to-liquids production. Carbon-fixation and CO2 sequestration are options to reduce the greenhouse gas impact during this period. The oil-chemical interface will intensify via increased production of lower olefins from catalytic cracking units and increasingly heavier feedstocks for ethylene cracking plants. Further integration among refinery units and among refineries, the petrochemical, and power industries will lead to substantial gains in overall well-to-wheel/well-to-work efficiencies, with correspondingly lower emissions. The major technological and economic challenge will be to achieve this development toward a sustainable future in a logical fashion, i.e., without the economic destruction of the current industry asset base. Catalysis and catalytic technologies fully integrated with reactor and process development will play a key role in achieving these objectives. The status of these technologies is described.
Introduction, Perspective, and Objectives
Production of Hydrogen for Fuel cellsThe Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel CellOther Fuel CellsSummary and Concluding RemarksRecommended Sources for Further StudyExercises
This unique, single-source reference offers complete coverage of the process and catalyst chemistry involved in naphtha reforming; from the preparation, characterization, and performance evaluation of catalysts to the operation of the catalyst itself. Sheds light on the future of catalyst technology and evaluates the most recent research into unknown aspects of catalyst reactions! Discussing the complexities of the reforming process, Catalytic Naphtha Reforming delineates commercially available processes and catalysts explores the chemistry of the catalytic sites employed for reactions examines catalyst deactivation, pretreating processes to prevent it, and regeneration processes describes metals recovery as well as significant improvements in platinum reforming catalysts explains process development and modeling presents new commercial technologies and much more!
Incluye bibliografía e índice
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