Neotectonics and shoreline history of the Rock of Gibraltar, southern Iberia

Abstract

Several sets of staircased Quaternary marine deposits can be observed along the Gibraltar coast ranging from 1 to 210 m above the present mean sea level. Geomorphological mapping establishes, from the relationship between shore, scree and dune sedimentary formations, five main morphotectonic steps on the Rock: marine terraces between 1 and 25 m, 30–60 m, 80–130 m, 180–210 m, and above. Each terrace level and its slope-aeolian linked sediments is backed by a steep relict sea cliff margin, so forming a composite cliff. The most recent coastal landforms and sediments are associated with the last 250 ka linked to Oxygen Isotope Stages (OIS) 1, 3, 5 and 7. These landforms determine a morphosedimentary highstand-lowstand sequence, with several staircased and offlapped episodes, comprising a major morphotectonic step. A well-developed palaeocliff usually separates the highstand marine terraces of OIS 9 from those of OIS 7. The Gibraltar mean tectonic uplift value of 0.05±0.01 mm/yr is maintained from 200 ka to the present. Before this, at least to 250 ka, the mean uplift rate was higher (0.33±0.05 mm/yr), possibly compatible with major tectonic events in response to a NNW–SSE compressive stress field between Africa and Iberia.

Full text

Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–2029
Neotectonics and shoreline history of the Rock of Gibraltar,
southern Iberia
J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal
a,
*, L.M. C!
aceres
a
, J.C. Finlayson
b
, F.J. Gracia
c
, A. Mart!
ınez-Aguirre
d
a
Departamento de Geodin !
amica y Paleontolog!
ıa, Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, University of Huelva, Avda. de las Fuerzas Armadas,
21071 Huelva, Spain
b
The Gibraltar Museum, 18-20 Bomb House Lane, Gibraltar and Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Canada
c
Departamento de Geolog!
ıa, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, University of C !
adiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain
d
Departamento de F!
ısica Aplicada I, University of Sevilla, EUITA, ctra. de Utrera km 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
Received 21 March 2002; accepted 14 February 2004
Abstract
Several sets of staircased Quaternary marine deposits can be observed along the Gibraltar coast ranging from 1 to 210 m above
the present mean sea level. Geomorphological mapping establishes, from the relationship between shore, scree and dune
sedimentary formations, five main morphotectonic steps on the Rock: marine terraces between 1 and 25 m, 30–60 m, 80–130 m, 180–
210 m, and above. Each terrace level and its slope-aeolian linked sediments is backed by a steep relict sea cliff margin, so forming a
composite cliff. The most recent coastal landforms and sediments are associated with the last 250 ka linked to Oxygen Isotope Stages
(OIS) 1, 3, 5 and 7. These landforms determine a morphosedimentary highstand-lowstand sequence, with several staircased and
offlapped episodes, comprising a major morphotectonic step. A well-developed palaeocliff usually separates the highstand marine
terraces of OIS 9 from those of OIS 7. The Gibraltar mean tectonic uplift value of 0.0570.01 mm/yr is maintained from 200 ka to
the present. Before this, at least to 250 ka, the mean uplift rate was higher (0.3370.05 mm/yr), possibly compatible with major
tectonic events in response to a NNW–SSE compressive stress field between Africa and Iberia.
r2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Rock of Gibraltar is a north–south peninsula
with the eastern side being very steep and a gentler
western slope (Figs. 1 and 2). It has a small area being
5.2 km in length, 1.6 km in maximum natural width and
about 6 km
2
in total land area.
Topographically and geologically it is divisible into
three main regions (Rose and Rosenbaum, 1990): (a) the
Isthmus, a low-lying sandy plain less than 3 m above sea
level, which represents Holocene sediments that join
northern Gibraltar to the mainland, (b) the Main Ridge,
which forms a sharp crest with peaks over 400 m above
sea level, and it is formed by Early Jurassic limestones
and dolomites, (c) the Southern Plateau, which is a
staircased slope between 130 m and present sea level.
Steep cliffs fringe this plateau at its margin with the
Mediterranean Sea. Surface topography is primarily the
result of Quaternary wave-cut erosion and the fringing
cliffs are the product of shoreline processes.
Overall the Rock is a klippe: the remnant of a nappe
now isolated by erosion. It was thrust into place as a
consequence of the African–European collision that
promoted a westwards displacement of the internal
zones of the Betic Range, mainly during the Early
Miocene, with the generation of the so called Gibraltar
Arc (Sanz de Galdeano, 1990;Rose and Rosenbaum,
1994).
The Gibraltar landforms are formed by two main
groups of processes (Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal and Gracia, 1994,
2000): (i) the tectonic structural movements that
determine the general shape and (ii) surface erosional
and depositional processes that have acted on the
uplifted rocks. Coastal processes are important and
these have been especially active in the eastern face of
the Rock, where there is greater fetch. The combination
of tectonic and eustatic fluctuations have caused change
in the location of the coastal landforms, which has
ARTICLE IN PRESS
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-959-019862; fax: +34-959-
019440.
E-mail address: jrvidal@uhu.es (J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal).
0277-3791/$ - see front matter r2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.02.008

controlled the evolution of slopes. The lithification of
the Quaternary deposits has led to the preservation of a
varied group of sediments which represent processes
that indicate a rapid and complex geomorphological
development and neotectonic uplift history.
In general, the relationship between sea-level fluctua-
tions and the uplift or subsidence of the coastline and
the resulting landforms is very close (Keller and Pinter,
1996;Trenhaile, 2001). When tectonic uplift exceeds the
rate of eustatic sea level rise, or when the sea level falls,
then the coastal cliffs can be isolated from wave attack
and preserved as relict features. At this stage subaerial
processes may act, degrading the slope. Conversely,
when the relative sea-level rise is positive, the cliffs can
be reached more frequently by waves and therefore
subject to greater erosion rates.
Along the coast of Gibraltar the relative land has been
missing at rates of 0.04 to 0.06 mm/yr in the last 100 ka
(Goy et al., 1995). Coastal cliffs and shore sediments are
thus being uplifted and preserved.
This paper constitutes a review and updating of work
on the Middle and Late Pleistocene marine and
continental landforms of the Rock of Gibraltar,
including the results of former and new age determina-
tions. The aim of this study focuses on the evaluation of
vertical movement rates in the last 250 ka and pro-
poses a recent evolutionary morphotectonic model
(Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal and Gracia, 2000).
2. Sedimentary record
Features of Quaternary geology of Gibraltar have
excited interest since the mid-18th century. Vertebrate
faunas from bone breccias in caves and fissures were
prolific and stimulated early work. The finds included
the discovery of a Neanderthal cranium in Forbes’
Quarry in 1848 (Busk, 1865) and the fragmented
cranium of Neanderthal child in Devil’s Tower Rock
Shelter in 1926 (Garrod et al., 1928). Cave deposits have
been the subject of a series of excavations during the
past 130 years (Stringer et al., 1999). Recent work
commenced in 1991 and focused on Gorham’s, Van-
guard and Ibex Caves (Barton et al., 1999) at the east
side of the Rock. The results of these investigations so
far have been recently reported in the monograph,
‘‘Neanderthals on the Edge’’ (Stringer et al., 2000). The
sequences at Gorham’s and Vanguard have been
intensively studied and extensively dated by ESR,
AMS, OSL and U/Th. They confirm that the sediments
cover a timescale commencing in the Last Interglacial
and concluding with the presence of a Phoenician/
Carthaginian shrine that ceased functioning in the third
century BC (Guti!
errez L!
opez et al., 2001). Within the
sequences at Gorham’s and Vanguard Caves there is a
detailed record of vegetation and fauna that has
provided evidence for the quantitative reconstruction
of environments that were exploited by Neanderthals
(Finlayson and Giles, 2000), the abrupt environmental
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 2. Simplified morphotectonic map of the Gibraltar Peninsula.
Contours at 100 m intervals. Legend: 1–5, staircased morphotectonic
units (MTU
1–5
), older to recent, separated by an escarpment or
palaeocliff and 6, reclaimed land.
Fig. 1. The present-day Rock of Gibraltar with its eastern face (left)
sheer and morphodynamically very active, and the western face (right)
structurally controlled and of lesser relief and activity.
J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–20292018

changes at the end of OIS 3, that can be correlated with
the last presence of Neanderthals on the site at 31 ka,
and the subsequent occupation of the site by Modern
Human after 29 ka. Thus, these sites provide a unique
record of human occupation and environmental change
in the south of the Iberian Peninsula.
Smith (1846) and Ramsay and Geikie (1878) initiated
the documentation of the Quaternary deposits on the
flanks of the Rock. Rose and Rosenbaum (1990, 1991)
redefined and mapped (Rosenbaum and Rose, 1991)
Quaternary sedimentary units and later studies were
made by Rose and Hardman (1994, 2000).
Quaternary sediments on Gibraltar flanks have a
widespread distribution and are both marine and
continental deposits (Fig. 3). They include sand and
cobble shore sediments, aeolian sands, scree breccias,
and karstic products, like clays, fallen rocks and
speleothems. Tectonic uplift of marine highstand land-
forms shows raised shorelines staircased across the
Gibraltar slopes. Geomorphological techniques are
required to establish a suitable chronological situation
given the different location and height of these
sediments and their spatial interrelation.
Detailed geomorphological research indicates that the
relationships between beach, scree and dune sedimen-
tary formations form five main morphotectonic steps on
the Rock (Figs. 2 and 9): marine terraces between 1 and
25 m (e.g. Gorham’s Cave), 30–60 m (e.g. Europa Flats),
80–130 m (e.g. Windmill Hill Flats), 180–210 m (e.g.
Martin’s Cave), and features above this level. Each
terrace succession and associated slope-aeolian sedi-
ments is backed by a steep relict sea cliff along its
landward margin, so forming a composite cliff (Rodr-
!
ıguez-Vidal and Gracia, 2000). The cliffs appear much
better developed on the eastern side of the Rock, since
the littoral erosive processes here are much greater. The
higher morphotectonic steps are older than lower ones,
and probably formed in the Early Pleistocene.
2.1. Uplifted marine terraces
The reconstruction of global sea-level changes during
the Quaternary involves great difficulty. The position of
the sea level at a particular moment is influenced not
only by global factors, but by regional factors which
operate on different time, space and amplitude scales.
Elevated marine terraces are common along tectonic
collision coasts where uplift is taking place (Griggs and
Trenhaile, 1994). Each terrace consists of a nearly
horizontal or gently seaward dipping erosional or
depositional platform backed by a steep or degraded
relict sea cliff along its landward margin (Fig. 4).
Raised shorelines in Gibraltar are represented by
marine sediments and landforms and are best developed
to the south and east of the Rock. Current evidence
suggests that there are traces of at least 12 former levels
that are now raised above present mean sea level (MSL)
at heights of 1–3, 7–9, 15–17, 20–25, 30–40, 50–60, 80–
86, 90–130, 180–190, about 210, and possibly 240–250 m
or even 300 m (Rose and Rosenbaum, 1990, 1991). The
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 3. Dates of the sedimentary units displayed in Tables 1 and 2, with individual dates (black point), sets of dates at a single site (thick black bar
with number in white circle), and sequence of dates (number in white circle on grey shadowed band). Comparison with the Oxygen Isotope sequence
(after Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973 and Williams et al., 1988). References: (1) Lario (1996) and Zazo et al. (1999), (2) Rhodes, in Rose and Hardman
(2000), (3) Rhodes et al. (2000), (4) Pettitt and Bailey (2000), (5) D!
ıaz del Olmo (1994), (6) Rink et al. (2000) (7) Hoyos et al. (1994) (8) Rodr!
ıguez-
Vidal et al. (1999) and (9) Present paper in Table 2.
J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–2029 2019

cartographic and morphostratigraphic disposition of the
terraces, their faunal content and their U-Th age (Lario,
1996;Zazo et al., 1999) provide tools for reasonable
chronostratigraphic interpretation of the marine se-
quence, especially of the most recent terraces.
The last morphotectonic step in the Gibraltar
emerged coast (Fig. 5) is related with Oxygen Isotope
Stages 7, 5 and 1. Dated marine terraces linked with
them (Table 1) are located at 25–20 m, 17–15 m and 10 m
(OIS 7), 5 m (OIS 5c), 2–1.5 m (OIS 5a), and 1.5 m above
present MSL (OIS 1). All represent emerged highstand
positions of interglacial sea levels (Hoyos et al., 1994,
Zazo et al., 1994a).
In general, the first two episodes (OIS 7 and 5) are
characterized by warm faunas, typical of Equatorial
Africa, that reached the Mediterranean Sea through the
Strait of Gibraltar. This marine fauna is not found in
OIS 1 level, suggesting that the other two Isotope Stages
were warmer than the present one.
During OIS 7, the Penultimate Interglacial (250–
195 ka), elevated marine terraces of selected areas
around the world show two main highstands (Zazo,
1999). In stable areas the sea level during Substage 7a
was higher than the present MSL. In the SE Iberian
coast substage 7a (Tyrrhenian I), dated at around
180 ka, is very well represented with scarce specimens
of Strombus bubonius (Goy et al., 1986). In Gibraltar, in
spite of the absence of warm fauna, U-Th isotope
measures confirm the presence of marine terraces
corresponding to the Isotope Stage 7 (Zazo and Goy,
1989) and probably of the substage 7a (Zazo et al.,
1999).
The 20–25 m and 15–17 m raised beach levels,
recognised by Smith (1846) at Europa Point and other
scattered locations, were attributed by Zazo and Goy
(1989) to the Isotope Stage 7e, by regional stratigraphic
correlation.
Evidence of a shoreline about 7–10 m above present
MSL is best preserved at the North Face, in the cliffs
below Europa Point, and to a lesser extent in Gorham’s
Cave. Garrod et al. (1928), in their description of
excavations within Devil’s Tower rock shelter, described
cave deposits resting upon a marine beach. Hoyos et al.
(1994) interpreted this deposit to be simultaneous with
the Europa Point marine sediments aged at OIS 7a.
The Last Interglacial or OIS 5 (130–74 ka) is usually
represented by several highstands along the southern
Iberian littoral (Zazo, 1999). There is always evidence of
lowstands between the different highstands, which are
recorded by interbedded terrestrial deposits and erosive
processes.
Within the area of the Strait of Gibraltar, between the
Atlantic and Mediterranean seas, this episode is well
represented (Goy et al., 1995;Lario, 1996) and there is
abundant evidence that each substage has a complex
history with several positive events. Associated with
substage 5e are two episodes, at ca 132 ka and ca 117–
125 ka. The first probably corresponds to the transition
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 4. Fossilized marine beach of OIS 5 highstand at the foot of a cliff
to the SE of Gibraltar. Gorham’s Cave, Governor’s Beach.
Fig. 5. Idealized model of staircased, offlap geometric sequence of the
morphosedimentary units (MSU), with marine-aeolian-gravitational
record, for the most recent morphotectonic unit (MTU-5) on the sides
of the Rock of Gibraltar. This situation is produced with low rates of
tectonic uplift.
J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–20292020

between OIS 6 and 5. In substage 5c, which is
represented by the most continuous unit observed
throughout the peninsular coast, three events are
recorded, centred at 107, 100 and 90 ka, respectively.
The episode associated with substage 5a corresponds to
the Tyrrhenian-IV Mediterranean episode. It appears
discontinuously throughout the coast and has been
dated in this area at 80 ka.
At Europa Point, Hoyos et al. (1994) recorded a
marine conglomerate at 5.25 m above present MSL,
dated at 92.5 ka. These authors also recognized three
marine levels on the exterior of Gorham’s Cave, one at
1.0 m (dated at 81 ka, substage 5a) covered with an
aeolian sand, another one at 2.5 m containing marine
conglomerates preserved in hollows, and a third one at
5 m (substage 5c), only represented by an erosion level.
Most of these examples are related with karstic
depressions, protected against later erosion.
OIS 3, between 59 and 24 ka, is not recorded by
emerged marine terraces along the Iberian coastline. On
Gibraltar scree breccias and aeolian sands formed, as
shown by the dated sediments in Gorham’s, Vanguard
and Ibex Caves, Devil’s Tower rock shelter (Fig. 3), and
the speleothems from Gorham’s Cave and Deadman’s
Beach (Europa Point).
Along the Spanish coasts, the postglacial sea level
reached the current position, or slightly higher, at about
6450 yr BP (Zazo et al, 1994b), and this is the case on
Gibraltar. The stabilization or slight eustatic fall of the
last few thousand years has caused a modest coastal
progradation in some places, with the formation of
sandy and shingle beaches (Rosia Bay, Catalan Bay,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 1
A synthesis of dating (AMS radiocarbon, U/Th, OSL and ESR) from the Rock of Gibraltar (based on data by authors cited in text)
Location Sample code
(reference)
Dating method
(Laboratory)
Sample material Height (m.a.s.l.) Age (ka) Error (ka)
Europa Point
PG-25 (1) U/Th (1) Shell 5.2 92.5 71.3
PG-26a (1) U/Th (1) Speleothem 5.7 76.4 71.8
PG-26e (1) U/Th (1) Speleothem 5.7 41.2 70.6
PG-28 (1) U/Th (1) Shell 8.5 176.5 73.6
PG-29 (1) U/Th (1) Marine crust 9.2 470.0 +166/62
EP1 (2) OSL (2) Sand 149.0 798.0
Gorham’s Cave
PG-39 (1) U/Th (1) Shell 1.5 81.0 ? 70.9
PG-40 (1) U/Th (1) Shell 1.5 53.8 ? 70.5
GO-ST-2 (5) U/Th (4) Speleothem 16.0 80.2 75.4
GO-ST-3 (5) U/Th (4) Speleothem B18.0 15.3 71.4
17 samples (4) AMS (5) Charcoal >9.0 25.7 to 51.7 72.8/73.3
2 samples (6) U/Th (6) Speleothem 8.4 96.1/97.1 70.9/71.3
Vanguard Cave
7 samples (4) AMS (5) Charcoal 41.8 to 54.0 71.4/73.3
VAN-1 (4) OSL (5) Sand 46.3 73.3
VAN-7 (4) OSL (5) Sand 93.4 77.0
VAN-2 (4) OSL (5) Sand 111.8 710.0
Ibex Cave
IB11 (2) OSL (2) Sand B260 196.0 745.0
554/555 (3) ESR (2) Teeth mammals 260 49.4 73.2
Sandy Bay
AL1 (2) OSL (2) Sand 1.34 70.15
Devil’s Tower Shelter
1 sample (7) 14C Charcoal B12 30.0
References: (1), Lario (1996),Zazo et al. (1999);(2), E.J. Rhodes, in Rose and Hardman (2000);(3), Rhodes et al. (2000);(4), Pettitt and Bailey
(2000);(5), D!
ıaz del Olmo (1994);(6), Rink et al. (2000);(7), Hoyos et al. (1994); ?, Open geochemical system. Laboratories: (1), GEOTOP,
Universit!
eduQu
!
eb"
ec, Montreal, Canada; (2), Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Surrey, UK.; (3), Research
Laboratory for Archeology, Oxford University, UK.; (4) CERAK, Universit!
e du Montpellier, France; (5), Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Oxford
University, UK.; (6), McMaster University, Ontario, Canada.
J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–2029 2021

Sandy Bay, etc.), including the Isthmus Sands formation
(Rose and Rosenbaum, 1991) and La Atunara spit
(Lario et al., 1995).
2.2. Windblown sands
There are two prevailing winds in the Gibraltar area:
the easterly (Levante) and the westerly (Poniente). The
former is by far the stronger, particularly in the region
of Gibraltar, and is responsible for the creation of great
lone dunes along the C !
adiz coastline. Dunes formed by
easterly winds were also formed on the Rock during the
Quaternary, although obviously limited to zones which
have a sufficient sand supply. In these sectors large,
rampant type dune were built against the steep slopes of
the Rock (Fig. 6).
Rose and Hardman (2000) have recognised three
types of windblown sands. They are sufficiently dis-
tinctive, thick and widespread to be mapped as separate
units: Catalan Sands on the east side of the Rock, the
Alameda Sands on the west side, and the Monkey’s
Cave Sandstone on the south-east coast. The latter unit
is the oldest one (>250 ka), deduced from its geomor-
phological situation. Probably, its generation took place
at the end of the fourth morphotectonic step (OIS 8)
linked with 30–60 m marine terraces.
Catalan and Alameda Sands were generated during
OIS 4 and 3, between 75 and 40 ka. This is inferred from
their geomorphological position and the dating of
similar sandy cave sediments (Barton et al., 1999;
Macphail and Goldberg, 2000;Pettitt and Bailey,
2000;Rhodes et al., 2000). Both formations have
originated on a marine beach before being blown inland
to accumulate as rampant dunes.
During the period represented by the Gorham’s,
Vanguard (Fig. 7), Ibex and Devil’s Tower cave sediments, and the Catalan Sands climbing dunes, it
was likely that Gibraltar was part of the mainland, with
a broad coastal plain covered with wind-blown dunes.
The Catalan Sands developed between 40 and 50 ka, at
the same time as the latest sandy sediments of Ibex Cave
(Rhodes et al., 2000), and the infilling of Vanguard Cave
(Barton et al, 1999;Goldberg and Macphail, 2000;
Pettitt and Bailey, 2000).
2.3. Scree breccias
Massive slopes of scree breccia occur widely on the
flanks of the Rock of Gibraltar. They are the most
widespread and volumetrically the most important
Quaternary deposits. They are best developed at the
base of the North Face and along much of the east coast,
dipping gently outwards from the Main Ridge source
(Rose and Rosenbaum, 1991) with a staircased disposi-
tion. The western hillslope of the Rock shows scree
breccia interbedded with reddish brown palaeosols.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 6. Outcrop of Catalan Sand dune sediments on the eastern face of
Gibraltar, between Catalan Bay and Sandy Bay. These reach up to
300 m in height.
Fig. 7. Marine cave at Vanguard (Governor’s Beach), filled with
aeolian sediments and palaeosols. Recent archaeological excavations
have uncovered abundant remains of fauna and clear evidence of
human occupation over the past 100 ka.
J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–20292022

The scree breccias are largely composed of very
poorly sorted angular fragments of Gibraltar Limestone
which may be up to several metres in diameter. The
angularity, size and shape indicate that they formed
under terrestrial conditions, facilitated by slope instabil-
ity and gravitational processes. The intervening matrix is
usually a well-cemented brown and red coloured sand
and clay. Aeolian sand lenses are interbedded in the
scree breccias, mainly in the upper stratigraphic levels.
Flemming (1972) observed that along some parts of the
south-western coast breccias continued down to 20 m
depth below sea level.
At the North Face, associated with a morphotectonic
step older than 250 ka (MTU-4, Fig. 2), there is a well-
cemented breccia overlying a wave-cut platform level at
55 m above present MSL (Rose and Hardman, 2000).
Younger scree deposits lie upon it and upon lower levels
of marine erosion outcropping at the northern and
eastern sides of the Rock (Fig. 3). The preliminary ESR
dating of mammal teeth on Ibex Cave (Table 1,Rhodes
et al., 2000), contained in a sandy aeolian deposit,
postdates the age of an underlying scree breccia
(i.e. 50 ka).
There are also fissure breccias, sometimes sufficiently
rich in vertebrate skeletal remains to have been
described as bone breccias (e.g. Rosia Bay), where clasts
and a clayey matrix are likely to have been introduced
by flowing water. At the entrance to St. Michael’s Cave
we have studied a wide outcrop of exposed, layered,
speleothems that show a chemical precipitation se-
quence from ca 151 to 30 ka (Table 2,Fig. 3). The top
is covered by a synchronous scree breccia that entered
the cave. Dated samples were taken from the upper part
of the sequence, indicating the end of massive gravita-
tional sedimentation (i.e. 25–30 ka) (Fig. 3) on the
western side of the Rock.
The major scree breccias on Gibraltar appear to be
rockfall screes. Scree breccia is not only a climatic
deposit but also a product of marine highstand. The
flank of the Rock was eroded by marine action and the
scree breccias formed subsequently once the cliffs were
not reached by the sea. The breccia deposits therefore
overlay former marine landforms such as beach terraces,
cliff and wave-cut platforms, or fill karstic holes and
former screes (Fig. 5).
2.4. Karstic sediments
The products of karstic solution are a pervasive
feature of the Rock. The sedimentary record of cave
infill include levels of both external and internal
provenance, and accumulations of clastic, chemical
and organic debris.
Allochthonous sediments are aeolian sands, marine
boulders and sands, scree and fissure breccias and
rillwash silts and sands. The autochthonous sediments
are fallen rocks, waterlain silts and sands, bat guano and
bones, human artefacts, combustion zone ash layers,
organic and phosphatic sediments, and speleothems.
It is not unusual to find terrestrial deposits and
speleothem sealing the marine deposits in coastal caves
(e.g. Gorham’s and Vanguard Caves). These caves
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 2
Activity ratios and age (U-series) of speleothem samples collected at Gibraltar
Locality/Sample code
234
U/
238
U
230
Th/
234
U
234
U/
238
U
0
U/Th age (7error) ka
St. Michael’s Cave Entrance
GB0001 0.974 (0.014) 0.747 (0.032) 0.960 (0.021) 151.0 (714.0)
GB0002
a
1.060 (0.035) 0.246 (0.025) 1.066 (0.038) 30.5 (73.5)
GB0003 1.067 (0.020) 0.551 (0.021) 1.085 (0.025) 86.1 (74.9)
GB0004 0.997 (0.012) 0.723 (0.025) 0.995 (0.017) 139.5 (79.9)
GB0005 1.045 (0.018) 0.725 (0.025) 1.066 (0.027) 138.0 (79.0)
GB0006
a
1.029 (0.035) 0.476 (0.051) 1.035 (0.043) 70.0 (711.0)
GB0007 1.023 (0.022) 0.394 (0.015) 1.027 (0.026) 54.3 (72.7)
GB0008 1.052 (0.017) 0.319 (0.012) 1.058 (0.019) 41.5 (71.8)
GB0009 1.021 (0.023) 0.767 (0.028) 1.032 (0.036) 157.0 (713.0)
Forbes’ Quarry
GB0010
a
1.258 (0.043) 0.532 (0.035) 1.323 (0.054) 79.8 (78.4)
GB0011 1.159 (0.024) 0.168 (0.008) 1.168 (0.025) 19.9 (71.1)
Rosia Bay
GB0207 1.005 (0.022) 0.833 (0.037) 1.009 (0.038) 193.5 (724.0)
We used a-spectrometry analytical method. All uncertainties given are based on propagated errors from counting statistics and are quoted at the 71s
(standard deviation) level. Results for pure calcite samples were obtained from the analysis of one or two coeval samples. For each dirty calcite
several coeval samples, diluted with different HNO
3
concentrations, were analysed and the ISOPLOT program (Ludwig, 1991) were used to obtain
activity ratios and ages (University of Seville Laboratory, Spain).
a
Dirty calcite samples.
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ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–2029 2023

operate like sediment traps (Fig. 7), and that provide a
detailed Quaternary record of Gibraltar.
Behind the road at Rosia Bay there is a prominent
limestone cliff. The sediments exposed at first sight
appear to be entirely limestones. However, a closer
examination shows that some of the exposures are cave
breccias. These deposits and bones were first described
in detail by Boddington (1771) and studied later by
Smith (1846) on account of the fauna that they
contained. Their age, deduced from the position in our
morphotectonic model, may well be Middle Pleistocene.
The U/Th dating exercise that we are currently carrying
out on speleothems interposed within breccias, with a
preliminary date of 193.5724.0 ka (Table 2), appear to
confirm this hypothesis.
Chemical deposition in caves is very important for
Quaternary history reconstruction. Slow calcite and
aragonite accummulations are useful for dating and
palaeoenvironmental reconstruction purposes in situa-
tions where the age can be determined with reasonable
accuracy. Many kinds of speleothems have been found
in Gibraltar’s caves and rock shelters, but we do not yet
have sufficient dates for them. Isolated speleothems
from Europa Point, Gorham’s Cave and St. Michael’s
Cave have previously been dated but a full karstic
chronology needs to be developed (Fig. 3).
We have studied a wide outcrop of exposed
speleothems at the entrance to St. Michael’s Cave that
reveal a chemical precipitation sequence from ca 151 to
30 ka (Table 2). Many petrographic facies are exposed,
including flowstones, stalagmites, fallen stalactites, pool
pearls, pool rim encrustations, microgours, etc., record-
ing a long palaeoclimatic history.
Isotopic U/Th dating of Gibraltar speleothems and
those from neighbouring regions (e.g. Grazalema
Mountains, Fig. 3) are useful in establishing a regional
Pleistocene climatic sequence. Both series show a close
correlation with warm-wet OIS 3 and 5, similar to the
North African climatic trend (L!
ezine and Casanova,
1991;Rognon, 1996), that also shows two main Upper
Pleistocene pluvial periods between 125–70 ka and
40–25 ka.
3. Erosional landforms
The most recent coastal erosion landforms are
associated with the last eustatic pulses of the Holocene.
The present-day vertical cliffs, wave-cut platforms,
coastal rock-shelters and the oldest open caves were
formed during the Holocene Transgression. The sub-
sequent stabilization, or slight eustatic fall, has caused a
modest coastal progradation in coves and retrograda-
tion in headlands through cliff retreat.
The relative sea level position determines the vertical
portion of the rocky coast that is affected by marine
processes (Trenhaile, 2001). It also affects slope devel-
opment and the karstic system. Phreatic and marine
levels therefore define a morphogenic plane on isolated
rock coasts. It incorporates littoral erosional and
continental features, including coastal platforms, cliffs,
slopes and karstic caves.
3.1. Cliffs and wave-cut platforms
Steep or undercut cliffs are typical of wave-dominated
environments (Griggs and Trenhaile, 1994). The steep
cliffs which fringe Gibraltar (Figs 1 and 4) were formed
by coastal erosion during periods of relative marine sea
level highstand and stillstand.
Composite cliffs have more than one major slope.
They include bevelled cliffs with convex or straight
seaward-facing slopes above steep, wave-cut faces, and
multi-storied cliffs with two or more steep surfaces
separated by gentler slopes. At Gibraltar, composite
cliffs reflect the combined effects of subaerial and
marine processes and progressive tectonic uplift during
the Quaternary.
The eastern side of the Rock is exposed to
easterly storms from the western Mediterranean. It
has a fetch of more than 1500 km (Flemming, 1972).
As a result, the eastern side is subject to a much
stronger littoral erosion, leading to a continuous coastal
retreat, while the western side is hardly affected by
such a process. Thus the relief of the eastern side
has changed more quickly, giving rise to a great variety
of erosional landforms. The erosional relief of the
western side is the result of a slower morphological
evolution, with a lower variety of forms that are more
mature.
The wave-cut highstand cliffs, isolated during the
later glacial stages, were gradually replaced by the
upward growth of convex slopes that developed beneath
the accumulating talus. The early age of these cliffs is
established from their attached marine terraces (Figs. 4
and 9) and that of the later ones to overlying scree
breccia and sand dune formations (Fig. 5).
The lower morphotectonic step (i.e. the last 250 ka) is
backed by a steep relict sea cliff. Many places on the
eastern flank of the Rock have marine terraces at the
base of the slope, from example the +9 m platform
(Forbes’ Quarry, Devil’s Tower, Gorham’s Cave), dated
at ca 180 ka.
Wave-cut platforms extend from approximately the
mean high water mark, at the base of the receding cliff,
to an elevation below the mean low water mark. The
zone of greatest wave erosion is therefore probably
above the neap high water level, particularly in
microtidal environments and where hard rocks resist
all but the most vigorous storm waves that operate at
elevated, supratidal, levels (Griggs and Trenhaile, 1994;
Pirazzoli, 1996).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–20292024

Two raised shorelines are represented by extensive
wave-cut platforms that are backed by steep cliff lines
which form the southern Gibraltar plateau (Figs. 2 and
8). Windmill Hill Flats sloping south from 130 to 90 m,
is replaced further south by Europa Flats sloping from
40 down to 30 m. Other fossil shorelines and the easterly
continuation of the southern plateau are marked by
narrow platforms and associated cliffs (Rose and
Rosenbaum, 1994).
3.2. Staircased slopes
The successive sea-level fluctuations throughout the
Quaternary undoubtedly constitute the most important
factor determining the morphosedimentary evolution of
the Rock. The most recent slope profiles show a design
with two well-differentiated elements: a semi-vertical
cliff, and a rectilinear to concave basal slope. The cliff is
the product of gravitational processes: collapses and
falls associated with intense fracturing of the calcareous
mass possibly affected by other secondary processes and
factors such as the network of surface-breaking en-
dokarst conduits, root activity and mechanical weath-
ering.
With a stable sea level, these slopes retreat by
replacement (Finlayson and Statham, 1980): the accu-
mulation of debris at the foot is not completely balanced
by the removal of sediments by wave action and the
height of the cliff diminishes progressively. The head of
the slope grows at the same time. The end of the process
is reached with a convex–concave profile when the
forms, in dynamic balance, evolve very slowly.
Thus, a relative sea level rise will have two basic
consequences. First, the hillside will tend to acquire a
gentler profile. This will be achieved by a progressive
accummulation of debris along the base sections of the
old slope. Talus deposits can be found fossilized by
dunes and beaches, a mechanism recognizable at various
points on the northern and eastern coast of Gibraltar.
Second, a relative sea level rise will also produce a
submerged morphology very similar to that observed by
Flemming (1972), with echo sonar, to the east of
Gibraltar.
In contrast, a relative sea level fall will sharpen the
profile, tending towards the former design but starting
at a lower height above sea level. Littoral erosive
processes will create a cliff edge at the base of the profile
that will retreat. The earlier profile will be formed, once
more, through gravitational processes. If this new
situation is maintained long enough, the original profile
could be entirely eliminated and substituted by the new
profile. If time is insufficient, the profile will again be
preserved at the head of the slope. We therefore observe
‘‘hanging slopes’’ in which the two elements, cliff edge
and slope, can be recognized, associated with a sea level
that is higher than the present one.
This type of morphology is associated with the so-
called ‘‘composite cliffs’’, whose polycyclic evolution is
usually related to tectonoeustatic fluctuations and to the
different rates of erosional retreat of the escarpments
due to wave action (Trenhaile, 1987). In the case of
Gibraltar (Fig. 5), it seems clear that the surface
weathering and debris falls have been responsible for
the retreat of the escarpment. Hanging slopes appear
much better developed on the eastern side of the Rock
where the coastal erosional processes are much more
important.
All the dates that have been obtained so far from the
Quaternary marine deposits of Gibraltar (Table 1,Fig.
3), are situated in the morphotectonic step of lowest
altitude (MTU-5, Figs. 2 and 9B). This morphological
episode is delimited above by an old marine slope. There
were positive and negative sea-level changes during the
time required for its development.
It is possible to recognize up to five levels of stepped
hillsides in Gibraltar between Catalan Bay and Europa
Point. Each one has two elements: cliff-edge and talus
slope (Fig. 9). We do not know the total area reached by
the each of the basal slopes and, at present, we can only
delimit their lower height above sea level. It will be
necessary to conduct, in the future, detailed studies of
the deposits that are situated in the oldest morphotec-
tonic units (MTU
14
) in order to test this evolutionary
model.
3.3. Endokarstic system
Gibraltar is honeycombed with natural caves and
man-made tunnels. At least 143 caves, situated above
present day sea level, have been located (Rose and
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 8. Staircased marine erosion platforms at Windmill Hill Flats
(upper level) and Europa Flats (lower level), separated by a palaeocliff
and scree slope.
J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–2029 2025

Rosenbaum, 1990) and more are known to occur below
(Flemming, 1972;Fa et al, 2000). Tratman (1971)
inferred at least two solution phases in the Gibraltar
caves.
The karst system of the Rock shows clear morpho-
logical evidence that its underground evolution was
closely related to the history of the subaerial relief.
Abundant vertical conduits and horizontal galleries
have been seen in the endokarst (such as in the Saint
Michael’s Cave system, Rose and Rosenbaum, 1991);
the former represent periods of falling karstic base-level
while the latter are associated to stability, or even a rise,
of the base-level. Caves at high levels should therefore
be older in origin than caves at low levels. Speleothem
deposits interbedded with cave floor sediments may
provide evidence of ancient climatic change (Fig. 3).
4. Recent tectonics
Patterns of vertical deformation can be inferred from
the study of emerged marine terraces. In neotectonic
studies dealing with vertical movements of the coastal
zone, however, two problems must be addressed: the age
determination of emerged shorelines and the original
position of the sea level at the time the terrace was
formed (Lajoie, 1986;Zazo et al., 1999). In order to
quantify the movements we need to assume a constant
rate and direction (uplift or subsidence).
The height distribution of the OIS 5e and 5c
palaeoshorelines (i.e. 128 and 95 ka) of the Strait of
Gibraltar show a clear differential uplift in the central
sector of the Strait (Goy et al., 1995;Zazo et al., 1999).
Evaluated mean uplift rates range from maximum
values of 0.15 mm/yr, in Tarifa, to lower values of
0.10 mm/yr, in the west, for the last 128 ka. The
calculated mean rate for the Rock of Gibraltar is about
0.0570.01 mm/yr during the last 100 ka (Lario, 1996).
Zazo et al. (1999) inferred that differential uplift and
subsidence along the coast of the Strait was mainly
set along individual faults. Major faults interacting with
the coast have NE–SW and NW–SE orientations and
they mainly work as strike-slip faults separating crustal
blocks with different associated uplifting or subsiding
character.
Mean uplift rates for the last 100 ka in the central
sector of the Strait of Gibraltar are lower than those
recorded in other areas located at convergent plate
boundaries such as New Zealand (1.2–3.0 mm/yr:
Lajoie, 1986). The Gibraltar data could be comparable,
however, to rates recorded in convergent-transpressive
settings like some sectors of the southern Peruvian coast
(Ortlieb et al., 1996) where oblique subduction promotes
mean uplift rates of around 0.16 mm/yr. Horizontal
convergence between the African and Eurasian plates is
mostly due to shear tectonics (Goy et al., 1995).
Maximum uplift rates inferred in this study is about
0.3370.05 mm/yr and represent a logical consequence
of the uplift rate curve on Gibraltar coast (Fig. 10),
where the OIS 1, 5 and 7 shorelines have been compared
with their present heights. A mean uplift value of
0.0570.01 mm/yr is calculated from 200 ka to the
present. Previously, at least to 250 ka, the medium uplift
rate was higher (0.3370.05 mm/yr), possibly compatible
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 9. (A) Composite cliffs on the SE coast of Gibraltar. Each shelf separates a morphotectonic unit (MTU) with a complete morphosedimentary
(MSU) record. (B) Idealized morphotectonic diagram of a transect across this side of the Rock of Gibraltar, based on Fig. 2. Five morphotectonic
units (MTU) are distinguished. In each unit there examples of marine terraces that act as a reference.
J. Rodr!
ıguez-Vidal et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 2017–20292026

with major tectonic events in response to a NNW–SSE
compressive stress field (Ribeiro et al., 1996).
5. Conclusions
The abundant landform and deposits of Gibraltar,
possibly spanning almost the entire Quaternary, make
this area one of the most important and complete
records for sea level changes and neotectonics in the
western Mediterranean.
The Quaternary sea level changes create a landform
and deposits complex of marine, aeolian, gravitational
and karstic origin, that are distributed over an altitude
range of 210 m. The uplift processes delimit the shoreline
levels into several steps and palaeocliffs.
Uplift rates of about 0.0570.01 mm/yr generate
morphosedimentary units (MSU) that are stepped and
offlapped. Higher rates, inferred to be about
0.3370.05 mm/yr, isolate these units by way of main
cliffs and form morphotectonic units (MTU). The most
recent ones are dated between 250 ka and the present.
Their linked marine terraces are located at 25–20 m, 17–
15 m and 10 m (OIS 7), 5 m (OIS 5c), 2–1.5 m (OIS 5a),
and 1.5 m above present MSL (OIS 1). Other higher and
older shorelines are now raised at heights of 30–40, 50–
60, 80–86, 90–130, 180–190 and 210 m.
The tectonoeustatic model that Gibraltar offers may
be used totally or partially in other similar sites along
the Mediterranean coast, due to the abundance of
limestone blocks, the marked Quaternary tectonic
activity and the similar latitudinal behaviour of the
eustatic changes.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by ‘‘PalaeoMed
project’’ Interreg IIIB of the EU MEDOC Programme:
2002-02-4.1-U-048, the Government of Gibraltar and
the Plan Propio of Huelva University. We wish to thank
F. Giles, D. Fa, G. Finlayson, M. Mosquera and other
collaborators of the Gibraltar Museum, as well as the
people of Gibraltar. We also thank the referees for
useful suggestions and corrections of an earlier draft. It
is a contribution to the INQUA Neotectonics and
Shorelines Commissions and IGCP 437.
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