In Search of Virtue: The Role of Virtues, Values and Character Strengths in Ethical Decision Making

Abstract

We present a comprehensive model that integrates virtues, values, character strengths and ethical decision making (EDM). We describe how a largely consequentialist ethical framework has dominated most EDM scholarship to date. We suggest that reintroducing a virtue ethical perspective to existing EDM theories can help to illustrate deficiencies in existing decision-making models, and suggest that character strengths and motivational values can serve as natural bridges that link a virtue framework to EDM in organizations. In conjunction with the more fully formulated extant research on situational determinants, we present and discuss our model that introduces a virtue based orientation to EDM.

Full text

In Search of Virtue: The Role of Virtues, Values and Character
Strengths in Ethical Decision Making
Mary Crossan
•
Daina Mazutis
•
Gerard Seijts
Received: 1 March 2012 / Accepted: 6 March 2013 / Published online: 9 April 2013
 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract We present a comprehensive model that inte-
grates virtues, values, character strengths and ethical
decision making (EDM). We describe how a largely con-
sequentialist ethical framework has dominated most EDM
scholarship to date. We suggest that reintroducing a virtue
ethical perspective to existing EDM theories can help to
illustrate deficiencies in existing decision-making models,
and suggest that character strengths and motivational val-
ues can serve as natural bridges that link a virtue frame-
work to EDM in organizations. In conjunction with the
more fully formulated extant research on situational
determinants, we present and discuss our model that
introduces a virtue based orientation to EDM.
Keywords Character strengths  Ethical decision
making  Virtues  Values
Introduction
We seek to present a comprehensive model that integrates
values, virtues, character strengths and ethical decision
making (EDM). Our intent is to leverage the large body of
research in each domain to present a decision-making
model that in its totality delivers critical insights for both
research and practice. The importance of developing such a
model has been widely recognized (Tenbrunsel and Smith-
Crowe 2008), yet the obstacles to its development are
significant since each domain has a long history of debate
and fragmented theory development (Trevin
˜
o et al. 2006;
Wright and Goodstein 2007). We do not intend to resolve
these debates, but rather build on core frameworks in each
domain to extract elements that enable us to develop an
integrative model. Although we reference widely, we draw
specifically on Rest’s (1986) model of EDM, Schwartz’s
(1996) model of values and Peterson and Seligman’s
(2004) work on virtues and character strengths.
Our motivation in developing this model has been to
understand the role of character in decision making. In a
research project that sought to uncover lessons for leadership
from the 2008–2009 financial crisis, the term character sur-
faced time and again amongst the participants—mainly indi-
viduals from the C-suite—in a series of leadership forums
across three continents (Gandz et al. 2010). For example, the
participants described how arrogance and ego impeded deci-
sion making, and in contrast, how courage and prudence
served others well in being able to withstand pressure to pursue
investments that were based on dubious collateral or over-
engineered financial instruments. Furthermore, they com-
mented that leaders exhibiting character strengths such as
humility and patience; listened to what their managers and
employees at lower-level positions were telling them; and
these leaders appreciated divergent perspectives.
M. Crossan (&)  G. Seijts
Richard Ivey School of Business, Western University,
London, ON, Canada
e-mail: mcrossan@ivey.uwo.ca
G. Seijts
e-mail: gseijts@ivey.uwo.ca
D. Mazutis
IMD, Chemin de Bellerive 23, P.O. Box 915, 1001 Lausanne,
Switzerland
e-mail: daina.mazutis@imd.org
G. Seijts
Ian O. Ihnatowycz Institute for Leadership, Richard Ivey School
of Business, Western University, London, Canada
123
J Bus Ethics (2013) 113:567–581
DOI 10.1007/s10551-013-1680-8

The message we received was clear. There was strong
sentiment that character was critical in leadership and
decision making even though most had difficulties articu-
lating what it was. More importantly, the participants
expected business schools to take a leadership role in
helping them understand what character is, to identify what
impact it has on decision making, and how it can be
developed. As we sought to understand the role of char-
acter in decision making we concluded that focusing on
EDM would help to narrow the analysis and would serve to
illuminate its role. Values and virtues evolved as important
underpinnings to character and so the proposed model
seeks to integrate these elements.
It is not our intent to present a set of propositions as is
often customary in theory development, but rather to pro-
pose a model with clear underlying premises and
assumptions from which a multitude of propositions could
then be developed. We see this as a critical step in
‘‘establishing how the virtues work (literally) in practice’’
(Beadle and Moore 2006, p. 337). In doing so our paper
makes several unique contributions. First, it provides
bridge-building between the philosophical and psycholog-
ical literatures and hence our model integrates key concepts
that have largely remained disconnected, thereby helping
to inform both theory and practice. Second, it fills an
important niche in the EDM literature by highlighting the
normative side through our focus on virtue ethics. Third, it
helps to bridge the microperspective at the individual level
with the macroperspective where situational pressures in
the decision-making context often exist. Finally, our model
is particularly relevant in complex and ambiguous situa-
tions, where ethical codes outlining universal principles
and rules are ill-suited to provide guidance to the decision
maker (Nyberg 2007).
The paper is structured around the model depicted in
Fig. 1 as follows. First, using Rest’s (1986) four-com-
ponent model of EDM, we describe how a largely
consequentialist ethical framework has dominated most
EDM scholarship to date. We then suggest that rein-
troducing a virtue ethical perspective to existing EDM
theories can help to illustrate deficiencies in existing
models, and suggest that character strengths and moti-
vational values can serve as natural bridges that link a
virtue framework to EDM in organizations. In con-
junction with the more fully formulated research on
situational determinants of EDM, we then present and
discuss a model that introduces a virtue-based orienta-
tion(VBO)toanexpandedviewofEDMthatisrooted
in a learning framework. We conclude with a discussion
about the model, individual and environmental barriers
to EDM and limitations. Avenues for future research are
also considered.
Ethical Decision Making and Ethical Frameworks
In the introduction we noted that our model applies to
decision making in general, but we focus on EDM to
provide a sharper distinction to the theoretical concepts of
interest. The difference between decisions in general and
ethical decisions is not as straightforward as most indi-
viduals would think. Given that an ethical decision is
defined as any decision that may benefit or harm others or
that exercises the rights of some while denying the rights of
others (Hosmer 2008) it is clear that many decisions may
not at first be perceived as ethical when taken, but have
clear ethical implications when closely examined. We
chose to focus on EDM to surface underlying decision-
making elements, such as awareness and judgment, which
serve to illuminate why many decisions are not perceived
to be ethical in nature when in fact they are. As such,
although behaviour is the result of both conscious and sub-
conscious processes, we begin with a focus specifically on
the conscious processes of EDM.
One of the most commonly invoked explanations of
EDM is Rest’s (1986) four-component psychological pro-
cess of EDM that begins with moral awareness and moral
judgement and concludes with moral intent and finally
moral behaviour (Jones 1991; Jones and Ryan 1997; Kish-
Gephart et al. 2010; Loe et al. 2000; O’Fallon and
Fig. 1 A value-based model (VBO) of ethical decision making EDM
568 M. Crossan et al.
123

Butterfield 2005; Trevin
˜
o et al. 2006).
1
Rest’s model is
based on Kohlberg’s EDM research, which in turn, was
built on the work of Piaget (Biggs et al. 1997; Stephens and
Smith 2009). While Rest (1986) prefixes the four compo-
nents of the EDM framework as moral, the elements
(awareness, judgement, intent and behaviour) are actually
purely descriptive and stripped of normative content.
Hence we deliberately omit this qualifier—moral—from
our model. As well, the term moral moves beyond values
and virtues to incorporate societal norms about what ought
or should be done, or what is valuable. We tease out
societal norms as part of the situational forces that influ-
ence awareness, judgement, intent and behaviour.
A useful heuristic for the categorization of normative
ethics is into its three major ethical frameworks: conse-
quentialism, deontology and virtue ethics (Hursthouse
2007). The basic tenets of a consequentialist account of
normative ethics is that what is right or wrong, good or bad,
should be derived from a careful analysis of the perceived
costs and benefits of a given course of action. Deontolog-
ical frameworks, on the other hand, suggest that ethical
behaviour should align with a set of universal principles of
duty, rights and justice rather than seeking net social
benefits, which may still allow for the marginalization of
some groups or individuals. In comparison, rather than
focusing on outcomes, the virtue ethics framework
emphasizes the excellences of personal character to define
moral behaviour (Ferrell et al. 2009).
This broad tripartite typology has been used in previous
research to distinguish between ethical frameworks
(Whetstone 2001) and is not meant to imply that other
ethical frameworks do not exist. Rather, philosophers have
debated the merits and challenges of these and other per-
spectives for millennia and a resolution to the moral supe-
riority of one framework over the other is therefore
improbable. Ultimately, however, it can be said that, at a
minimum, each perspective serves to inform the other two
and that no one approach can be considered to be a complete
account of ethical behaviour on its own (Hosmer 2008).
Descriptive ethicists—including sociologists, psycholo-
gists and business scholars who look at individual and
group behaviour in organizations—largely avoid applying
any manner of normative content (what individuals should
do) even when discussing intrinsically normative questions
such as the processes of EDM (Tenbrunsel and Smith-
Crowe 2008). This is not entirely surprising, given that
business or management, as a discipline, has been accused
of sidelining the discussion of ethics and morality in its
quest for legitimacy within the sciences (Ghoshal 2005).
The scientific approach favoured in business research
emphasizes the discovery of laws and patterns in the uni-
verse, and has thus tended to exclude the role of human
intentionality or choice, freeing individuals from any sense
of moral responsibility in the process (Ghoshal 2005).
The content of descriptive ethics, particularly in business
and management scholarship, has been almost entirely
consequentialist, with a focus on promoting a cost–benefit
analysis and the often instrumental outcomes of ethical
decisions such as sustained competitive advantage (Paine
2003) and superior financial performance (Vogel 2005). It
has even been observed that the pervasive focus on share-
holder value maximization (a consequentialist framing) has
become in and of itself rule-like and duty-driven and hence
entered the realm of deontological inquiry. Renewed debates
about the role of business in society that have accompanied
recent ethical and financial crises have also contributed to the
increase of deontological content in EDM process models.
However, there has been almost no discussion of virtue
ethical frameworks in the analysis of decision making in
organizations (Caza et al. 2004; Nyberg 2007; Solomon
1992). There has been some foundational work focusing on
the philosophical underpinnings of the link between virtues
and organizations. For example, Weaver (2006) connected
individual virtue and identity pointing out that organiza-
tions set a context for compartmentalizing identities, giving
rise to situations in which individuals lose sight of who
they are. In the end, however, the absence of a virtue
ethical perspective in current models of EDM presents a
unique opportunity to integrate specific individual-level
determinants of ethical behaviour in organizations
(Tenbrunsel and Smith-Crowe 2008).
To illustrate, there is a clear absence of a virtue ethical
perspective in Rest’s (1986) model of EDM. In fact, Rest
goes so far as to emphasize that his four-component model
represents the processes involved in the production of
a moral act, not general traits of people. The four
components are not presented as four virtues that
make up the ideally moral person, but rather they are
the major units of analysis in tracing out how a par-
ticular course of action was produced in the context
of a particular situation (p. 5).
1
While the terms ethical and moral are often used interchangeably
(e.g., Jones 1991), we understand ethics to be a system of beliefs that
allows individuals to make decisions about difficult issues in order to
determine what is right and wrong, while morality, more broadly
construed, may encompass and support a particular ethical system, but
may also include personal, cultural and societal norms and standards
by which people judge the rightness or wrongness of behaviour
(Hosmer 2008, p. 99). For example, at one point in time, slavery was
considered morally acceptable behaviour. However, analyzing slavery
through ethical frameworks such as consequentialism, deontology or
virtue ethics, allows for a more methodological assessment of the
rightness/wrongness of this behaviour. As well, something could be
immoral individually yet moral organizationally as would be the case
with alcohol where it may be immoral for some individuals to
consume alcohol given religious beliefs, but still moral for organiza-
tions to serve alcohol at company events given company norms.
The Role of Virtues, Values and Character Strengths 569
123

Other models of EDM in organizations are also similarly
devoid of virtue ethical considerations focused on the
individual—how a charitable, benevolent, wise, courageous
or temperate person may act when facing ethical dilemmas.
For example, Trevin
˜
o’s (1986) person–situation interac-
tionist model of EDM sidesteps the possibility of virtue
ethical determinants of EDM. Individual-level factors are
limited to personality traits such as ego strength and locus of
control (Trevin
˜
o 1986). Similarly, both Hunt and Vitell
(1986) and Jones and Ryan (1997) allow for consequen-
tialist and deontological considerations in the EDM process,
but they do not consider a virtue ethical foundation. In fact,
many scholars have added individual-level variables to
Rest’s (1986) four-component model of EDM, including
thinking style (Groves et al. 2008), moral intensity (Jones
1991) and authentic leadership development (May et al.
2003); but none have included virtue ethical evaluations.
Indeed, several recent reviews of the determinants of EDM
in organizations clearly demonstrate the lack of attention
given to the possible role of virtues, character strengths or
values in the EDM process (Loe et al. 2000; O’Fallon and
Butterfield 2005; Trevin
˜
o et al. 2006).
As in all philosophical debates, however, a single
framework provides an unbalanced or insufficient expla-
nation of ethical behaviour (Hosmer 2008). In discussions
of EDM processes then, research rooted in consequentialist
and deontological frameworks have prioritized questions of
‘‘What should I do?’’ over equally important questions such
as ‘‘Who should I be?’’ and ‘‘How does who I am affect my
decisions and actions?’’ What is needed therefore, for all
the three normative approaches, is an additional principle
borrowed from one of the other frameworks—consequen-
tialists need universal principles to balance their exclusive
focus on cost–benefit equations, deontologists require some
type of cost–benefit analysis to prioritize between princi-
ples, and both can be informed by examining how ethical
decisions might be made by an individual that one would
consider to be virtuous. This is a rather controversial
approach since some scholars, notably MacIntyre (1991),
argued that these three perspectives are ‘‘rival versions of
moral enquiry.’’ However, in the end,
each ethical system expresses [only] a portion of the
truth. Each system has adherents and opponents. And
each, it is important to admit, is incomplete or inadequate
as a means of judging the true moral content of mana-
gerial decisions and actions (Hosmer 2008,p.112).
Although we are in general agreement with Hosmer, we
qualify the statement by suggesting that individuals need
not be seeking ‘‘truth’’ in the quest for judging ‘‘ethical
content’’ but rather, they may seek to broaden their
perspective in the quest for decisions and actions that are
better informed.
The next section describes in more detail what is meant
by a virtue ethical perspective specifically, and how this
perspective can serve to inform existing models of EDM in
organizations.
A Return to Virtue Ethics
The virtue ethical framework begins with an examination
of the intrinsic qualities that make someone admirable,
excellent or virtuous. Virtues are ‘‘acquired human quali-
ties, the excellences of character, which enable a person to
achieve the good life’’ (Mintz 1996, p. 827). This branch of
normative ethics is based in ancient Greek philosophy, in
particular the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, who con-
sidered the goal of human existence to be the pursuit of
excellence or of virtue. This constant striving for excel-
lence of character was deemed a necessary activity by all
humans so that they could live in a ‘‘good society’’ as
defined in terms of happiness.
The virtues of wisdom, courage, temperance, justice,
transcendence and humanity have been valued not only by
moral philosophers and religious thinkers across a broad
survey of historical texts and contexts, but they emerge as
almost universally accepted components of what might
broadly be considered good character (Peterson and
Seligman 2004). Aristotle conceived of virtues as desirable
mean states between vices of deficiency and vices of
excess. For example, courage is a virtue between coward-
liness (vice of deficiency) and recklessness (vice of excess)
(Nicomachean ethics
1106a26–1106b28). Similarly,
humility would be a virtue between the deficiency of
shyness and the excess of shamelessness. Virtues are thus
moral qualities attributable to the individual that can
nonetheless be destroyed by actions that are in some way
deficient or excessive. Core to this conceptualization is that
individuals make a deliberate, rational choice to act in a
manner that lies between these two extremes and is thus
considered virtuous (Mintz 1996). In fact, Aristotle
believed that good judgement held the greatest importance
in ethics, and the ability to carefully consider how a vir-
tuous person would act when facing an ethical dilemma,
key to developing a virtuous character (Cameron 2011;
Nyberg 2007; Solomon 1992).
Aristotle’s view of the virtuous mean has been largely
ignored in recent discussions. Cameron (2003) has sug-
gested that there can be no excess of virtue. Instead, vir-
tuousness is something that is positively deviant, with the
mean—or normal behaviour—being ethical behaviour and
the deficiency being unethical behaviour. We concur with
this point when virtue is understood to be the virtuous
mean. Wrapped up in this discussion of virtue and vice is
whether it is human nature to be virtuous or not. Many
570 M. Crossan et al.
123

current management theories in general (Ghoshal 2005)
and ethical models in particular (e.g., Donaldson and
Dunfee 1994) make the implicit assumption that individ-
uals only engage in ‘‘good’’ behaviour because of complex
social contracts and engage in virtuous behaviour out of
abnormality. However, the opposite assumption is also
plausible—that human beings are actually predisposed to
be virtuous (Sadler-Smith 2012) and are instead continu-
ously fighting temptations to transgress and thus remain
true to their virtuous selves. These two perspectives high-
light the key role that context plays in exerting pressure for
better or worse. Although we do not specifically examine
the role of situational determinants on EDM (for a recent
review see Alzola (2012) and O’Fallon and Butterfield
(2005)) we acknowledge its role and will examine its
implications in future sections.
While common sense suggests that virtue ethics is
clearly tied to EDM, it is interesting to note the absence of
a virtue ethical framework in existing EDM models.
Rather, large quantities of empirical studies have focused
on descriptive rather than normative individual-level
determinants of ethical behaviour including demographic
characteristics (e.g., age, gender, education level), person-
ality traits (e.g., locus of control, Machiavellianism) and
other attributes (e.g., religion, dispositions) (Kish-Gephart
et al. 2010; O’Fallon and Butterfield 2005). Virtues, how-
ever, differ from demographic characteristics or other
conceptualizations of personality traits, in that they
intrinsically carry value. Personality traits, on the other
hand, have largely been divorced from any moral value in
their descriptive use in sociology, psychology or business.
Nonetheless, there has been an increased call to include a
virtue ethical framework into the analysis of various
management topics including: executive leadership (Manz
et al. 2008), EDM in organizations (Arjoon 2007), the role
of business in society (Arjoon 2000), market economics
(Graafland 2009) and even the pedagogical approach to
teaching business ethics (Mintz 1996).
We propose that research into character strengths and
motivational values can serve as two natural bridges
between the descriptive ethics of psychological or man-
agement models of EDM and a virtue ethical account of
EDM in organizations.
The Role of Character Strengths
Character strengths are ‘‘the psychological ingredients—
processes or mechanisms—that define the virtues … they
are distinguishable routes to displaying one or another of
the virtues’’ (Peterson and Seligman 2004, p. 13). As such,
character strengths present themselves as objective and
observable analytical variables—actual behavioural dis-
positions—that can be assessed according to traditional
empirical methods (e.g., the use of behavioural observation
scales to measure the character strengths of creativity,
compassion or fairness). However, because they are rooted
in the virtues, they offer a link to the normative content of
what can universally be considered good character and thus
help fuse the two domains.
In their compendium of character strengths and virtues,
Peterson and Seligman (2004) identify six universal virtues
that are common across a broad sample of cultures, reli-
gions and moral philosophers: wisdom, courage, humanity,
justice, temperance, and transcendence. The authors have
identified numerous character strengths that exemplify
each of these virtues and that have passed a battery of
validity criteria.
What is less clear, however, is how these character
strengths influence EDM in organizations. Simply being
creative, kind or optimistic is unlikely to inform EDM
processes in organizations. As such, character strengths
alone are insufficient to explain EDM. Rather, what is
needed is a theory of individual-level motivation to act in a
manner that displays these character strengths. Aristotle
contends that goodness of character can be developed
through practice of the virtues, for as ‘‘virtue itself is a
disposition which has been developed out of a capacity by
the proper exercise of that capacity’’ (Copleston 1962,
p. 336). In other words, the only way to become virtuous is
by performing virtuous acts. For example, Mintz (1996)
articulated that ‘‘we become just by the practice of just
actions, courageous by performing acts of courage. [These]
characteristics develop from corresponding activities’’
(Mintz 1996, p. 829). However, this is not meant to imply
that a single act of courage renders an individual coura-
geous. Rather, virtues are developed over time and formed
through habitual practice of the virtues and regular repe-
tition of the right actions (Graafland 2009; Sadler-Smith
2012).
The Role of Values
What then motivates individuals to perform virtuous acts
must be some underlying belief in the intrinsic value of
repeatedly behaving in a way that reflects the pursuit of
excellence of character. Here we present our second pro-
posed bridge between descriptive and normative ethics—
the vast empirical work on motivational values that has
shown that values are determinants of individual behaviour
and choice (Agle and Caldwell 1999; Fritzsche and Oz
2007; Hitlin and Piliavin 2004; Schwartz 1996).
Values are desirable, trans-situational goals that serve as
guiding principles in people’s lives (Schwartz 1996)by
exerting internal pressure to behave in a certain way (Illies
and Reiter-Palmon 2008). Thus values are ‘‘what people
want or consider beneficial to their welfare, although the
The Role of Virtues, Values and Character Strengths 571
123

ultimate evidence for what a person values lies in their
actions’’ (Rokeach 1973). Values motivate action and as
such, values can be prioritized in some hierarchical manner
and preference given to certain values over others; if not,
individuals would become paralyzed by conflict and unable
to act (Locke 1991).
Schwartz (1996) and his colleagues have established that
there are ten distinct and universally applicable motiva-
tional values that can be distinguished along two competing
dimensions: openness to change (stimulation, self-direc-
tion) versus conservation (tradition, conformity, security)
and self-enhancement (power, achievement, hedonism)
versus self-transcendence (universalism, benevolence).
These ten values and their uniqueness are supported by
cross-cultural research (Smith et al. 2008). Each of these 10
motivational values contains two or more different single
values which represent a motivational value (e.g., single
values such as forgiving and loyal are reflective of benev-
olence). Interestingly, research on values and EDM has
focused almost entirely on just two of these dimensions—
self-enhancement versus self-transcendence values. Not
surprisingly, self-transcendence values have been linked to
ethical and socially responsible behaviour while self-
enhancement values appear to be negatively related to
ethical behaviour (Crilly et al. 2008; Egri and Herman
2000). It seems evident that individuals who are motivated
by self-transcendence values such as universalism or
benevolence will select different courses of action than
individuals who are motivated by power, achievement or
hedonism (self-enhancement motives).
The universal motivational values established by Schwartz
and colleagues and validated by others (Bardi and Schwartz
2003) have been found to have a circular structure in that the
competing dimensions form polar opposites to each other.
This means that pursuing opposing values simultaneously is
unlikely given competing motivational cores (Locke 1991)—
for example, seeking success for oneself (pursuit of achieve-
ment values) is likely to circumvent actions aimed at
enhancing the welfare of others (pursuit of benevolence val-
ues) which lie on opposite poles of the structure (Schwartz
1996, p. 4). This does not mean, however, that these opposing
values have limited relationships with character strengths and
virtues. In examining the relationships between values (as
proposed by Schwartz) and virtues (as proposed by Peterson
and Seligman), one can see how virtues might fundamentally
underpin different character strengths, which can ultimately
be seen as different expressions of what one values. For
example, the virtue of wisdom can be displayed through the
character strengths of curiosity, creativity and independent
thought, which are also characteristics associated with indi-
viduals who are motivated by openness to change. However,
wisdom can also be displayed through ambition and the pur-
suit of intellect (self-enhancement values) or through deep
understanding, tolerance and appreciation (self-transcen-
dence values). The same could be said for courage, humanity,
justice, temperance and transcendence in that these virtues
may also manifest differently for individuals driven by dif-
ferent motivational values. Relegating the discussion of vir-
tues as the sole purview of individuals who are primarily
motivated by self-transcendence values is thus an incomplete
account of how virtues and character strengths can serve as
underlying mechanisms in models of EDM.
Returning to Rest’s (1986) model of EDM, it is quite
possible that individuals with the character strengths
associated with the same virtue but with different motiva-
tional values would have different awareness, judgement,
intent and behaviour as a result of the application of those
values to ethical decisions. For example, research has
shown that the character strength of compassion is asso-
ciated with greater levels of awareness in others’ suffering
(Dutton et al. 2006) which could impact the EDM process.
However, this impact may differ depending on one’s
motivational values—an individual motivated by conser-
vation versus openness to change values, for example, may
choose to display their compassion through philanthropic
donation rather than a more stimulating or self-directed
behaviour such as volunteering in the field. Similarly,
individuals with the same values but with different char-
acter strengths will yield different outcomes with respect to
EDM. Motivated by self-transcendence values, individuals
may display compassion or generosity, both of which are
character strengths associated with the virtue of humanity.
Hence virtues and character strengths alone are insufficient
in explaining EDM as are values alone and it is only by
integrating the three that we gain a more complete under-
standing of EDM.
In summary, we argue that virtue ethics should be con-
sidered alongside traditional consequentialist and deonto-
logical models of EDM in social scientific accounts of EDM
in organizations. As well, by examining virtues, character
strengths and values together, we have greater insight into
EDM. In the following section, we illustrate the importance
of this virtue ethical perspective in EDM by returning to
Aristotle’s doctrine of the virtuous mean. In so doing, we
highlight several premises that contribute to our overall
model and therefore understanding of EDM.
Virtues, Values, Character and EDM: The VBO Model
Having bridged virtues to EDM through character strengths
and values, we now present the key processes in our VBO
model of EDM in organizations, which includes three pri-
mary components: (1) the virtuous mean, (2) a VBO and (3)
the buffering role of a VBO. At the core of our model is the
virtuous mean or the excellences of character that defines an
572 M. Crossan et al.
123

individual. We then link the virtuous mean to EDM by
introducing the construct of a VBO. We also modify Rest’s
(1986) primarily linear model by highlighting the role of
self-reflection in developing a VBO. Lastly, we illustrate
how a VBO functions as a buffer against dysfunctional
behaviour in the face of strong situational pressures.
The Virtuous Mean
In contrast to consequentialist or deontological frameworks,
the heart of our model uses a virtue ethical perspective built
around Aristotle’s characterization of the virtuous mean. It
is important to note that by ‘‘mean’’ Aristotle does not imply
average or moderation, but rather that one’s disposition is to
display particular character strengths associated with the
virtuous mean (Nicomachean ethics 1109a20). It is also
important to note that only character strengths, not the
virtues themselves, can be observed in excess. Virtuousness
here ‘‘is what individuals aspire to be when they are at their
very best … that which represents the highest of the human
condition’’ (Cameron 2006, p. 319). As discussed, these
character strengths are associated with both universal vir-
tues and motivational values.
However, prior research that has tried to integrate values
with EDM has not adequately distinguished between this
virtuous mean and its close corollaries, vices of excess or
deficiency. For example, while we have argued that the
virtue of courage when associated with the value of
openness to change could be observed in the character
strength of bravery, self-enhancement when coupled with
the excess of this character strength (recklessness), or the
deficiency of bravery (cowardice), would quite likely lead
to negative individual or societal outcomes.
This observation suggests that developing the capacity to
operate within the virtuous mean is crucial to deepening
character strengths. We suggest that this process can be
understood as two different trajectories—a deepening of
character strengths within the mean as opposed to adding to
(or taking from) the mean which leads to excess (or defi-
ciency) of that character strength. By deepening within the
mean, there is a strengthening of character rather than simply
an accumulation of experiences that may serve to shift the
character strength away from a virtue to a vice. In developing
the virtue of courage, therefore, one may develop habits or
routines that exhibit the character strengths of perseverance,
bravery or integrity, thus deepening within the mean, but
must simultaneously avoid being reckless, righteous, or a
zealot which would indicate a shift to an excess of these
character strengths and hence a vice. Table 1 summarizes the
difference between deepening character strengths within the
mean versus accumulating experiences that lead to excess or
deficiency of character strengths.
These two very different trajectories have been lost in
prior research and yet may have significant implications for
EDM. There are two primary points to consider in this
regard. The first is in the examination of how virtues and
their closely associated vices of excess and deficiency
affect EDM. The second is how EDM may enhance or
undermine the development of character within the virtu-
ous mean. For example, using Rest’s (1986) four-compo-
nent model of EDM, individuals may find a virtue shifting
to a vice when they take action for which there is little or
no concrete or specific feedback from their peers that sig-
nals the shift, as for example in the case of integrity that
eventually turns into becoming self-righteous. In contrast,
development within the virtuous mean would arise when
there is reinforcement for character strengths and in par-
ticular when there has been some stretch in the enactment
of the character strength as might occur, for example, when
someone forgives a significant other even though it is
painful to do so. The development within the mean is thus
an integral part of a VBO, a construct which we discuss in
the next section.
Virtue-Based Orientation (VBO)
To link the virtuous mean to EDM, we introduce the
construct of a VBO which we define as a capacity to
deepen character strengths along the mean through self-
reflection while avoiding the vices of excess or deficiency.
Because virtues are habituated, this process is iterative and
requires deep contemplation regarding one’s responses to
ethical dilemmas. As such, we introduce self-reflection as a
mediator to Rest’s (1986) EDM model and depict the
sequence as circular rather than linear to signify the con-
tinual learning that occurs when individuals reflect upon
one’s own, or other’s, ethical or unethical conduct (Hill and
Stewart 1999). Locke (1991, p. 289) also highlights the
importance of reflection in motivational models arguing
that ‘‘reason does not automatically tell people what is right
or wrong, it confronts people with the responsibility of
validating their knowledge. However, they can default on
their responsibility and not exert the effort that thinking
requires.’’ This suggests that choosing to think or to reflect
about ‘‘what values they should pursue and the validity of
the values other people have told them to pursue; whether
and how to apply their values to a specific situation’’
(Locke 1991, p. 297) is something determined by indi-
vidual volition. We concur with Yanow and Tsoukas
(2009) that reflection should be understood as reflection-in-
action not simply reflection on or after action. Reflection-
in-action leaves room for understanding reflection as
embedded in practice and embodied in action, not simply
as a cognitive function.
The Role of Virtues, Values and Character Strengths 573
123

Without this step of self-reflection, Rest’s (1986) model
of EDM assumes that individuals confront each new ethical
issue as independent from previous experience with ethical
dilemmas. However, research does not support this
assumption; people can and do learn from previous ethical
decisions and can thus increase their capacity for moral
reasoning (Sadler-Smith 2012; Schmidt et al. 2009). As
such, existing models and empirical tests of EDM do not
adequately account for the correlated nature of one’s
response to new ethical decisions with one’s experience
with past ethical decisions. A VBO explicitly includes this
deliberate reflection about the kind of person one would
like to become, as part of the capacity to deepen character
strengths along the virtuous mean. Our view is consistent
with the work of Bandura (1986, 1991) whose extensive
research has demonstrated that behaviour is motivated and
regulated by the ongoing process of self-influence. Self-
monitoring of behaviour and associated outcomes is a
cornerstone of the self-regulation process.
Because we define a VBO as the capacity to deepen
character strengths along the virtuous mean through self-
reflection, we conceptualize a VBO as something that can
be developed. As such, we use orientation in the sense that
one is either more or less aligned with a VBO and that a
VBO can thus also be observed in terms of degree.
The VBO and capacity for self-reflection does not,
however, suggest that EDM is a purely rational process and
that individuals must engage in ‘‘deliberate and extensive
reasoning as a precursor for ethical behaviour’’ (Sonensh-
ein 2007, p. 1024). Rather, we argue that without a VBO
and self-reflection, individuals are more likely to fail to
learn from previous situations and hence are more likely to
shift unconsciously towards the vices of excess or defi-
ciency. As such, a VBO model is neither purely rational
nor purely intuitionist, but rather a combination of both.
Individual values which drive behaviour are largely
unconscious; however, individuals have the capacity to
reflect on these values and therefore to change their
behaviour. In this manner, a VBO to EDM can also serve
as a buffer against strong situational pressures to act
unethically.
The Buffering Role of a VBO
Given the results of several well-known experiments in
social psychology (e.g., Milgram’s obedience studies, the
good Samaritan lecture and intervention, Zimbardo’s
prison experiment, and the Robbers Cave experiment),
many researchers have suggested that ‘‘character doesn’t
matter’’ in questions of EDM. Because otherwise ‘‘good’’
individuals are willing to commit ‘‘bad’’ acts under par-
ticular circumstances, critics argue that character strengths
can not be understood as stable and consistent but rather
that they will bend to the particular demands of the
Table 1 Deepening within the mean versus beyond the mean
Virtue
Deficiency
Mean
Excess
Wisdom
Unoriginality
Closed to experience
Closed minded
Apathy
Creativity
Curiosity
Open Mindedness
Love of Learning
Impracticality
Unfocused interest
Lack of judgement
Obsessive
Courage
Cowardice
Laziness
Inauthenticity
Bravery
Persistence
Integrity
Recklessness
Zealot
Righteousness
Humanity
Harsh/Cruel
Unfeeling
Stinginess
Socially awkward
Kindness
Compassion
Generosity
Social Intelligence
Obsequious
Indulgent
Profligacy
Manipulative
Justice
Treachery
Unjust
Lack of confidence
Citizenship
Fairness
Leadership
Blind obedience
Undiscerning
Dictatorship
Temperance
Unmerciful
Boastfulness
Rash
Sloth
Forgiveness
Humility
Prudence
Self-regulation
Pushover
Self-deprecation
Overly cautious
Inflexible
Transcendence
Ungrateful
Hopeless
Spiritlessness
Gratitude
Hope
Spirituality
Suppliant Behaviour
Foolishness
Fundamentalism
574 M. Crossan et al.
123

situation. For example, despite being compassionate, kind
and caring, individuals still administered what they con-
sidered to be excruciating electrical shocks to innocent
participants if so instructed by a person of authority or
failed to help someone in need if they were personally late
for another appointment (Zimbardo 2008). In this manner,
situationalists suggest that relying on issues of character to
explain EDM is futile as it can not address why even vir-
tuous people might behave in an uncharacteristically un-
virtuous manner; strong character alone cannot prevent
unethical behaviour (Alzola 2012; Homiak 2007).
In response, ethicists have examined the degree of moral
intensity, displacement of responsibility, diffusion of
responsibility for deleterious behaviour, strength of orga-
nizational culture and other situational or issue specific
moderators to explain the deviation from otherwise virtu-
ous decisions. For example, Jones (1991) argued, and
research has supported (O’Fallon and Butterfield 2005),
that specific characteristics of the moral issue itself (e.g.,
magnitude of consequences, degree of social consensus)
can affect the likelihood of ethical behaviour. Other situ-
ational determinants suggested to affect EDM include
cultural, industry and environmental factors (Hunt and
Vitell 1986), job context and organizational culture
(Trevin
˜
o 1986) and perception of rewards and punishments
(Ashkanasy et al. 2006). In fact, a recent meta-analysis of
the individual, issue and organizational determinants of
EDM found that organizational climates that emphasize
self-interest promoted unethical behaviour while benevo-
lent, principled ethical climates and stronger ethical
cultures are inversely related to unethical choices
(Kish-Gephart et al. 2010).
However, individuals do vary in the degree to which
they are susceptible to these situational pressures (Trevin
˜
o
1986) and previous experience and reflection on ethical
dilemmas appears to bolster one’s resolve. Comer and
Vega (2008, p. 129) introduce the idea of personal ethical
thresholds to describe
how vulnerable the individual is to situational factors
in his or her organization, i.e., how little or how much
in the way of these contingencies it takes for orga-
nizational members to cross their proverbial line,
acting in a way they consider unethical.
Not everyone in the Milgram studies, for example, was
completely compliant to authority—in fact, 35 % dis-
obeyed. In replication studies, this rate of disobedience has
ranged from 12 to 72 %, indicating significant variance in
individual response to situational pressures (Zimbardo
2008). Joseph Dimow, a participant in the original Milgram
studies, recently reflected on why he declined to obey the
‘‘teacher’s’’ orders to administer greater shocks to the
‘‘learner’’, attributing his dissent to a suspicion of authority
born out of early experiences in political and military
organizations (Dimow 2004). The circular nature of a VBO
to EDM that includes self-reflection on previous experi-
ences can thus serve as a buffer against the strong pressures
of external situations to act against one’s virtuous core.
We argue then that when a VBO model of EDM is fully
engaged, individuals are better equipped to cope with sit-
uational pressures and are thus better equipped to make
ethical decisions. We see a VBO as operating in degrees—
one can have more or less of it and it is through the cir-
cularity of the EDM model and self-reflection in particular
that one develops, or habituates, a greater VBO. The VBO
can therefore be seen as a coping response—a self-control
strategy that facilitates the maintenance of behaviours that
are deemed desirable (Marx 1982). In the case of low
VBO, external forces—situational pressures, business
norms and the moral intensity of the issue itself—will
overwhelm the EDM process. In contrast, a greater degree
of VBO suggests that virtues, character strengths and val-
ues work together to overcome situational pressures in the
EDM process. The capacity to accumulate experiences that
deepen character strengths along the virtuous mean while
avoiding the second trajectory of accumulating experiences
that go beyond the mean into the vices of excess or defi-
ciency plays a buffering or moderating role.
The idea that virtuousness can buffer individuals against
negative performance has been observed in studies of
positive psychological states such as ‘‘courage, optimism,
faith, integrity, forgiveness, and compassion [that] have
been found to protect against psychological distress,
addiction, and dysfunctional behaviour’’ (Caza et al. 2004,
p. 174). The growing body of literature in positive psy-
chology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000), positive
organizational behaviour (Luthans
2002) and positive
organization scholarship (Cameron et al. 2003) suggests
that striving for the highest in human potential can enable
individuals and the organizations they work for to with-
stand detrimental individual, group and organizational
outcomes (Caza et al. 2004; Cameron 2006).
In summary, we propose that these three core ele-
ments—the virtuous mean, a VBO and the buffering role of
a VBO—serve as a model to augment existing conse-
quentialist and deontological accounts of EDM. While
evaluating the costs–benefits of a decision on all parties
(consequentialist framing) in light of universal principles
of duty and obligation (deontological framing) is critical to
EDM, a virtue ethical perspective allows one to also con-
sider the interplay between character strengths and values
as drivers of a VBO approach to ethical dilemmas. It also
highlights the critical, mediating role of self-reflection in a
continuous learning model of EDM.
The Role of Virtues, Values and Character Strengths 575
123

Core Premises of the VBO Model
Having presented the major components of our model, we
now transition to a statement of claims or core premises
that underpin the model. They are intended to capture the
core ideas of the model and in some cases are established
points building on prior theory, and in others, more novel
insights that arise from our theorizing. In all cases, these
claims form the foundation of our theoretical model.
1. Character strengths are the positive behavioural
dispositions associated with a set of universal virtues.
2. Character strengths shift from the virtuous mean to
vice if manifest in either their excess or deficiency.
3. Character strengths are developed through experi-
ences that deepen the strength without depleting it
(deficiency) or embellishing it (excess).
4. Values provide the motivational force that influences
the disposition towards experiences that deepen char-
acter strengths and virtues.
5. Individuals choose to activate (or not) a VBO to
EDM by engaging in self-reflection on previous
experiences with ethical dilemmas. Self-knowledge
and feedback are a sine qua non for self-reflection
and hence learning to occur.
6. A VBO buffers or moderates the effects of situational
forces on EDM. Situational forces dominate EDM under
the consequentialist paradigm in the case of low VBO.
7. In the case of low VBO, where a deontological approach
anchored in shareholder value maximization reigns,
situational forces will be filtered through that lens alone.
8. The more complex and conflictual the forces, the
greater the need for a VBO.
9. Most decisions have an ethical component but are not
perceived as such. Character strengths provide a
means to bridge EDM to decision making in general
through the construct of VBO.
10. It is through the circularity of Rest’s EDM model and
through the mediating role of self-reflection that
individuals develop a VBO. The development of a
VBO is a conscious process that becomes habitual
and intuitive with experience.
Having outlined the principle components of the VBO
model as well as the underlying core premises that link
virtues, values, character strengths and EDM, we now turn
to a discussion about the implications of the model for
theory, teaching and practice.
Discussion
In the last several decades, research on virtues, values,
character strengths and EDM has been abundant. However,
most theories and empirical tests have focused on just a
fragment of the entire nomological network or just one or
two aspects of EDM processes without providing an inte-
grative framework (O’Fallon and Butterfield 2005). Fur-
thermore, most accounts of EDM within organizations
implicitly follow a consequentialist framework focused on
cost–benefit analysis and ethical outcomes. In contrast, we
have proposed herein an integrated model of EDM that
incorporates virtues, values and character strengths with
both rational and intuitionist models of EDM, delivering a
set of premises that provide the opportunity for further
theorizing around each of the components of the model. As
such, we contribute to theory building in several research
domains.
First, many existing models of EDM are implicitly lin-
ear, suggesting that individuals approach each new ethical
decision in isolation from previous experience. We argue
instead that EDM should be seen as circular, and that self-
reflection plays a crucial mediating role in the EDM pro-
cess. It is through self-reflection that individuals can
develop a VBO, or a commitment to deepen character
strengths along the virtuous mean while avoiding the vices
of excess and deficiency. This critical element has been
previously overlooked in (or explicitly left out of) existing
EDM models, despite increasing evidence regarding the
importance of self-reflection in moral development and
EDM (Schmidt et al. 2009).
Second, previous research into the role of values and
EDM has also implicitly privileged some values over
others (e.g. self-transcendence over self-interest) as moti-
vators of ethical behaviour (Agle and Caldwell 1999).
However, this may in fact mask how values and virtues
interact and are manifest in different underlying character
strengths and how these character strengths can either be
deepened along the virtuous mean or shift through expe-
riences towards vices of excess or deficiency. Under-
standing this variance within the character strengths
associated with the values and virtues may explain some of
the equivocal research findings around their relationship to
EDM.
Third, most extant studies that report correlations
between values and ethical behaviour are largely devoid of
any normative content (Tenbrunsel and Smith-Crowe
2008) thus leaving unexplained which processes drive the
significant relationship between values and behaviour (i.e.
the black-box phenomenon). In contrast, we propose that it
is precisely a virtue ethical perspective that is missing from
existing models of EDM. Given that it has been shown that
both consequentialist and deontological considerations
have an impact on EDM (e.g. Groves et al. 2008), we argue
that a virtue ethical perspective will also have an impact on
EDM, particularly through the deepening of character
strengths around the virtuous mean, the development of a
576 M. Crossan et al.
123

VBO and the buffering role of the VBO in guarding against
situational pressures.
Fourth, our model of EDM is not meant to imply that all
that is required to consistently make ethical decisions is a
VBO. Rather, it is meant to highlight that in the case of a
low VBO, both consequentialist and deontological frame-
works privilege a process of awareness, judgement, intent
and behaviour that is less resistant to situational pressures.
For example, a stakeholder theory of EDM, which is a
fundamentally consequentialist theory of decision making,
would define the right or ethical decision as that which
satisfies or balances the needs of the most salient firm
stakeholders (e.g. shareholders, customers, suppliers or
employees). The ‘‘good’’ CEO is then the one who is able
to balance all of these internal and external situational
demands in a manner that maximizes the net utility for all
stakeholders. The danger here, of course, is that the EDM
process gets overwhelmed by situational pressures that
dictate the right course of action and the CEO may be
accused of being inconsistent or lacking clear principles. A
virtue ethical perspective, on the other hand, such as the
VBO model proposed, would ask an entirely different set
of questions to ascertain what the right decision may be or
what the ‘‘good’’ CEO may decide to do.
Take for example the recent case of Maple Leaf Foods
and the 2008 listeria outbreak in Canada, in which more
than 20 people died and hundreds fell ill as a result of
consuming contaminated meat. The situation was highly
complex in that seemingly incompatible pressures
emerged—short term profit versus long term sustainability
and conflicting stakeholder perspectives, to mention a few.
A purely consequentialist framing, especially one focused
on shareholder wealth protection, may have suggested the
best course of action was to deny any responsibility, to
continue to defend this decision, and to try to lay blame for
deaths and illnesses elsewhere. Similarly, a purely deon-
tological framing may also have delayed response as one
debated the rights, responsibilities and duties of all inter-
mediaries involved in handling the contaminated meat
products. In contrast, building in a virtue-based approach
provides insight not solely on the response or the outcome
of the response, but to the nature of the individuals
involved in leading the response to the crisis. A VBO
allows us to ask—what would a courageous, temperate or
wise CEO do in such a situation?
Maple Leaf Foods launched an immediate recall of the
suspected contaminated products to mitigate the risk to
consumers and closed their processing plant within a day of
the listeria reports. The recalls and the collection and
destruction of the recalled products cost Maple Leaf Foods
tens of millions of dollars. The CEO, Michael McCain,
gave a press conference as soon as word of the outbreak
reached him, and publicly apologized to all Canadians,
expressing his sympathy for those affected. The CEO took
personal accountability for the problems and showed
compassion. As the crisis unfolded, television spots and
advertisements gave updates on what the company was
learning through its investigation. It provided specific plans
to correct the problem. Additional structures and processes
have been put in place since the crisis to help Maple Leaf
Foods become a global leader in food safety.
In dealing with the crisis, the CEO’s approach was
decisive and transparent, displaying character strengths of
leadership and fairness as associated with the virtue of
justice. Michael McCain acted with honesty and integrity
in dealing with all stakeholders, character strengths asso-
ciated with the virtue of courage. He behaved with open
mindedness and an unwavering commitment to social
responsibility, character strengths associated with the vir-
tues of wisdom. Throughout the days and weeks that fol-
lowed the outbreak, he showed a great sense of compassion
and kindness, character strengths that are a reflection of
humanity. Last but not least, he did so with great humility,
a character strength associated with the virtue of temper-
ance. No doubt there were deontological and consequen-
tialist elements to his decision making, however, the VBO
element was clear. As Nyberg (2007, p. 587) argued: ‘‘…
traditional ethical theories (consequentialism and deontol-
ogy) are not suitable … since universal principles and rules
leave little room for the ambiguity and everydayness of
situated work activities.’’ These theories have challenges
capturing complex organizational practices—situations
with information uncertainties and ambiguities; situations
that involve ethical leadership predicaments; and moral
dilemmas embedded in the decision-making context
(Beabout 2012). A VBO to EDM thus has the potential to
free individuals from purely consequentialist frameworks
without committing them to a purely shareholder duty
(deontological) perspective. It is essential in complex or
turbulent situations where there is no immediate or
straightforward plan of action.
Last, the three components of a VBO model—the vir-
tuous mean, the VBO, and the buffering role of a VBO—
can also be applied to decision making in general, not only
to EDM. Many strategic decision-making models are
similarly anchored in a problem identification, judgement
and selection sequence, which have been depicted as either
purely rational or bounded rational processes (Eisenhardt
and Zbaracki 1992). Models of bounded rationality suggest
that individuals are plagued by cognitive limitations and
thus rely heavily on established routines to make strategic
judgements (e.g. base rate fallacy, confirmation bias, or
bandwagon effect). We argue that this routinization of
decision making can easily incorporate a VBO in that the
habituation process that is inherent in cultivating the vir-
tues of character, just as inculcating routines around
The Role of Virtues, Values and Character Strengths 577
123

shareholder value maximization, is something that occurs
with practice. Reflecting on the routines within the orga-
nization can therefore surface the underlying normative
framework that is being applied and hence improve deci-
sion-making over time.
The foregoing describes contributions to current
research, however the model also provides opportunity for
future research. We address these opportunities as they
relate to the various components of the model.
With respect to the character strengths and virtues, there
is opportunity to develop the model by delving more dee-
ply into the role of each of the virtues and their relationship
to EDM. We have not advocated any particular role for
each of the virtues and it remains to be seen how these
character strengths interact with each other and how they
support EDM. It is quite possible that some are more
important than others and that combinations of various
character strengths and virtues reveal themselves as
working together in unique ways. For example, research
has suggested that humility, a character strength associated
with the virtue of temperance, may also be associated with
openness to new ideas and a love of learning (Vera and
Rodriguez-Lopez 2004), which are traditionally character
strengths reflective of the virtue of wisdom. It could be
then that temperance and wisdom work together in the
development of a VBO to EDM in that individuals who are
disposed to a love of learning are more open to self-
reflection and when coupled with humility or self-regula-
tion are better equipped to engage in balanced processing
of both positive and negative feedback. More interestingly,
future research could also investigate if there are particular
virtues or character strengths that work against each other
to prevent the development of a VBO to EDM.
Although related to the former point, there is an addi-
tional opportunity to examine the relationship between
values, virtues and the components of EDM as described
by Rest (1986). For example, as discussed, the character
strength of compassion, associated with the virtue of
humanity, has been shown to increase the attention and
concern paid to other members of the organization who are
suffering (Dutton et al. 2006), thereby providing support
that this character strength may impact the first stage in the
EDM process—awareness. However, how does compas-
sion affect judgement, intent or behaviour? How does this
character strength relate to self-reflection? How does the
deficiency (unfeeling) or excess (indulgent) of compassion
affect EDM? While our model identifies the individual
components of EDM, it was beyond the scope of this paper
to develop hypotheses around the specific relationships. It
is quite possible that values and virtues play different roles
relative to the components we have identified.
Understanding the factors that enable individuals to
deepen character strengths within the virtuous mean as
opposed to those that lead to excess or deficiency in the
context of management education and in organizations is
an important avenue of inquiry. Claims have been made
suggesting that management education programs may fuel
the development of excess especially in terms of priori-
tizing self-enhancement values (Krishnan 2008) and fur-
thermore, that in doing so, they are part of the problem, not
the solution (Bennis and O’Toole 2005). These are very
serious claims. Our model is ideally suited to examine
these claims and examine the role of management educa-
tion programs in fostering a VBO (or not). The question is
both one of content and of process: To what degree does
the content mastered in business programs implicitly or
explicitly endorse a consequentialist or deontological eth-
ical framework over a virtue-based one? Does the process
of teaching organizational behaviour, leadership, strategy,
finance, accounting or marketing encourage and support
the development of a VBO? Similarly, organizations are
also not exempt from culpability in the factors that may
lead to either developing excess or deficiency in employee
character strengths. For example, compensation and other
reward systems may motivate behaviours that are incon-
sistent with the virtuous mean. As well, organizational
culture may be misaligned and in fact may be one of the
external pressures for which individuals need a strong VBO
to withstand. There are several examples where organiza-
tional culture steered individuals away from making good
decisions, including Enron, Lehman Brothers and NASA.
As such, understanding individual and structural determi-
nants of a VBO is a promising avenue for future research.
Although we have described our model at the individual
level, there is opportunity to take a multi-level view of the
phenomenon to understand how values, virtues and char-
acter strengths relate to EDM at the group, organization
and societal levels. In particular, we need to better under-
stand how an individual with a strong VBO can influence
EDM at the group level or even the organizational level.
Given the variance observed in individual responses to
situational pressures (Zimbardo 2008), we expect to find
variance in the degree of VBO of individual employees,
and that individuals are therefore at least partially inde-
pendent of group and organizational influences. However,
because a VBO is habituated through practice, group-level
variables (e.g. group identity, trust) may also have a direct
effect on individual character strength development.
Unpacking the cross-level effects of a VBO to EDM thus
holds considerable promise for future empirical testing. We
consider such research paramount since there are few
individuals, even those with a strong VBO, who will be
able to sustain virtuous behaviour amidst others in the
organization, or industry, who take actions inconsistent
with a VBO. Therefore, understanding the multi-level
interactions will be essential.
578 M. Crossan et al.
123

Finally, there is a tremendous need and also a wealth of
opportunity to examine the interplay between VBO and
external forces to better understand the situational deter-
minants that challenge a VBO. We have cited prior
research that presents sobering findings about the strength
of external forces in shaping individual behaviour, often for
the worse (Zimbardo 2008). However, such research has
not examined the possibility of developing a strong VBO to
withstand the adverse effect of these forces, or indeed how
individuals with a strong VBO can shape situational forces.
Rather, the need for heroism is suggested as the antidote to
enduring negative situational pressures (Zimbardo 2008).
In contrast, our model, which is based on the fundamental
quest for excellence, not heroism, provides a more useful
starting point to examine the role of virtues, values and
character strengths in EDM that may provide important
answers to these pressing issues.
Conclusion
While there has been a renewed call to re-examine the
role of character development in light of recent ethical
and financial crises, surprisingly little attention has been
giventoarticulatingavirtue ethical framework of deci-
sion making. In fact, there has been a deliberate shift
away from character-based models with the prevalence of
social psychological research into situational determi-
nants of ethical behaviour. Yet, a return to the funda-
mentals of virtue ethics, including a deeper understanding
of the character strengths associated with virtues and the
values these reflect, has the potential to inform the EDM
processes now required not only of organizational leaders
but of managers at all levels given an increasingly global
environment.
Given the almost entirely descriptive nature of most
EDM research, it is not surprising that virtues, motivational
values and character strengths have been largely excluded
from recent reviews of the EDM field (Kish-Gephart et al.
2010; Loe et al. 2000; O’Fallon and Butterfield 2005;
Trevin
˜
o et al. 2006). Furthermore, where ethical frame-
works have been tested, these have focused primarily on
consequentialist versus deontological distinctions and have
not included a virtue ethical perspective (e.g. Brady and
Wheeler 1996; Fritzsche and Becker 1984; Groves et al.
2008). In taking a virtue ethical perspective, therefore, we
elevate the assessment of personal character (being) to the
same status afforded to the assessment of ethical or
unethical acts (doing). This answers the call to integrate a
more balanced approach to EDM which incorporates a
discussion of virtues and character strengths into a conse-
quence-based or duty-based evaluation of moral behaviour.
Further, it strives to answer a more general call with
regards to a renewed interest in the role of virtues, values
and character traits in broader leadership theories (Arjoon
2000; Manz et al. 2008; Solomon 1992).
Importantly, because the distinction between decisions
with and without ethical implications can be difficult to
discern, a VBO can be generalized to apply to all decision
making and does not need to be contained to the realm of
ethical discourse. The four components of EDM—aware-
ness, judgement, intent and behaviour—are germane to
many rational decision-making models (Eisenhardt and
Zbaracki 1992). A commitment to cultivating character
strengths along the mean while avoiding depleting or
embellishing these character strengths thus applies to
strategic decisions just as much as to more proximal ethical
dilemmas. The VBO model therefore can be used alongside
consequentialist and deontological assessments of alternate
courses of action.
We acknowledge that the VBO presents a somewhat
ideal type of EDM, where a commitment to the virtuous
mean and the development of a VBO can serve as a buffer
to strong situational pressures. However, we understand
that ‘‘realistically, a truly virtuous manager is an unreal-
izable ideal, but nevertheless represents a set of virtuous
character dispositions toward which a real—and necessar-
ily imperfect—manager can strive’’ (Whetstone 2001,
p. 107). The commitment to deepen character strengths
within the mean without shifting to the vices of deficiency
or excess requires practice, as Aristotle argued:
The virtues on the other hand we acquire by first
having actually practised them, just as we do the arts.
We learn an art or craft by doing the things that we
shall have to do when we have learnt it: for instance,
men become builders by building houses, harpers by
playing on the harp. Similarly we become just by
doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts,
brave by doing brave acts (Nicomachean ethics
1103a31–1103b1).
We thus argue that a VBO to EDM is an acquirable skill
(Crossan et al. 2013). Like Hartman (2006, p. 69), we
believe that education has a role to play in character
development and that training in ethics ‘‘can improve stu-
dents’ character by helping them think critically about their
values and realize them in practice.’’ Further, research in
this area has demonstrated that individuals can, in fact,
increase their level of moral reasoning which is a critical
component of character in that higher levels of moral
reasoning require virtuous character strengths such as jus-
tice, fairness, humanity and compassion (Schmidt et al.
2009). We are thus optimistic that re-introducing a VBO
model of EDM alongside consequentialist and deontolog-
ical frameworks can contribute to the habituation of rou-
tines anchored in the virtuous mean.
The Role of Virtues, Values and Character Strengths 579
123

Acknowledgments We gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
port of the Trudeau Foundation and the Ian O. Ihnatowycz Institute
for Leadership at Richard Ivey School of Business, the insightful
contributions of the practitioners in the ‘‘Leadership on Trial’’ study,
as well as the insights provided by Jeffrey Gandz, Corey Mulvihill,
Dusya Vera, editor Joan Fontrodona and the anonymous reviewers.
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