Influences on Selection of Lithic Raw Material Sources at Huizui, a Neolithic/Early Bronze Age Site in Northern China

Abstract

At Huizui, a major centre of ground stone tool manufac- ture, five main lithologies were used, each for a particu- lar purpose: oolitic dolomite for spades; diabase for axes, adzes and chisels; fine micaceous sandstone for knives and sickles; other sandstone for grinding slabs; and fine limestone for lime. This reflects the functional properties of these lithologies. Diabase, oolitic dolomite and fine micaceous sandstone are tough and take sharp edges, which for diabase are particularly sharp and easily re- sharpened. All five rock types are probably available within 8 km of the site. Ground stone tool production may have been located at Huizui because of its proximity to the adjacent sandstone hills, which provided abundant abrasive material. Overall, raw materials are dominated by oolitic dolomite, which was quarried from a single thin-bedded layer that outcrops as flat pavements. Dia- base was sourced from river cobbles, and micaceous sandstone was quarried. All three of these lithologies were extracted as raw material that required minimal shaping to make tools. This factor was probably respon- sible for the choice of oolitic dolomite over fine-grained dolomite, which is more common and occurs closer to Huizui, but cannot be easily quarried. The small amounts of probably exotic lithologies (including red rhyolite, marble, turquoise, ?jade) may have been used for elite items.

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INFLUENCES ON SELECTION OF LITHIC RAW MATERIAL SOURCES AT HUIZUI,
A NEOLITHIC/EARLY BRONZE AGE SITE IN NORTHERN CHINA
John Webb
1
Anne Ford
2
and Justin Gorton
1
1
Earth Sciences, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia 3086. Email: john.webb@latrobe.edu.au
2
Archaeology Program, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia 3086
Keywords: China, Yiluo Project, Huizui, lithic raw materials, stone spades
ABSTRACT
At Huizui, a major centre of ground stone tool manufac-
ture, five main lithologies were used, each for a particu-
lar purpose: oolitic dolomite for spades; diabase for axes,
adzes and chisels; fine micaceous sandstone for knives
and sickles; other sandstone for grinding slabs; and fine
limestone for lime. This reflects the functional properties
of these lithologies. Diabase, oolitic dolomite and fine
micaceous sandstone are tough and take sharp edges,
which for diabase are particularly sharp and easily re-
sharpened. All five rock types are probably available
within 8 km of the site. Ground stone tool production may
have been located at Huizui because of its proximity to
the adjacent sandstone hills, which provided abundant
abrasive material. Overall, raw materials are dominated
by oolitic dolomite, which was quarried from a single
thin-bedded layer that outcrops as flat pavements. Dia-
base was sourced from river cobbles, and micaceous
sandstone was quarried. All three of these lithologies
were extracted as raw material that required minimal
shaping to make tools. This factor was probably respon-
sible for the choice of oolitic dolomite over fine-grained
dolomite, which is more common and occurs closer to
Huizui, but cannot be easily quarried. The small amounts
of probably exotic lithologies (including red rhyolite,
marble, turquoise, ?jade) may have been used for elite
items.
INTRODUCTION
The Huizui archaeological site is located close to the
modern village of Huizui in Yanshi county, Henan prov-
ince, in the Yiluo Basin of the middle Yellow River re-
gion, northern China (Figure 1a). Huizui appears to have
been a regional centre during the Neolithic cultures of the
Yangshao (c. 5000-3000 BC) and Longshan periods (c.
3000-2000 BC), and then became a secondary centre of
the early Bronze Age Erlitou state (1900 to 1500 BC) (Liu
et al. 2004).
The lithic technology evident at the Huizui site varied
substantially through time. Flakes recovered from the
Yangshao deposits are scarce and made from cobbles
available in the nearby river, with no dominant lithology,
suggesting that the Yangshao population at Huizui pro-
duced stone tools only for their own uses. However, start-
ing from the late Longshan period the site became a stone
tool production locus, whose major product, oolitic dolo-
mite spades, was distributed to the surrounding areas (Liu
et al. 2004; Liu and Chen in press). The Longshan depos-
its at Huizui yielded numerous flakes and spade blanks,
predominantly of oolitic dolomite among several other
rock types. Spade manufacturing occurred in workshops
located within the residential area (Chen 2005), and was
most likely practiced by a large part of the community.
During the Erlitou period, lithic manufacture at Huizui
expanded. The Erlitou culture was a complex society with
craft specialisation, social stratification, extensive re-
source exchange networks and bronze metallurgy (Liu
and Chen 2003; Liu 2006). Lithic industries were impor-
tant because stone tools were used for everyday purposes;
bronze was used mainly for ritual objects and weapons.
At Huizui raw material specialisation is evident in the
manufacture of several different types of tools, each of
which was made from predominantly one lithology (Table
1): spades from oolitic dolomite (94%), axes, adzes and
chisels from diabase (80%), knives and sickles from fine
micaceous sandstone (86%), and grinding slabs from sev-
eral varieties of sandstone (100%). The lithology used is
linked to the function of the tool, e.g. woodworking tools
are primarily made from diabase, whilst cutting tools are
made from micaceous sandstone, suggesting that choice
of raw material was at least partly due to its mechanical
properties. Overall, raw materials are dominated by ooli-
tic dolomite (at least 47% by number of all lithic material
- tools, blanks, flakes and indeterminate pieces), followed
by much smaller proportions of other materials (Table 2).
This paper will firstly describe in detail the main rock
types used, and, as far as possible, relate the characteris-
tics of a lithology to the purpose of the particular tool
made from it. Secondly, the likely locations of the sites
where the raw materials were extracted will be discussed,
by relating the local geology to the petrographic charac-
teristics of the lithologies used for tool manufacture. The
choice of site will be assessed in terms of the suitability
and ease of extraction of the raw material, and proximity
to Huizui.

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77
Figure 1. (a) Topographic setting of Huizui. (b) Regional geology of area around Huizui, particularly the Songshan Mountains (from
Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Henan Province, 1984).

WEBB, FORD AND GORTON: LITHIC RAW MATERIAL SOURCES AT HUIZUI
78
Table 1. Number and proportion of major tool types made
from particular lithologies.
number %
spades
157
oolitic dolomite spades
148 94.3
axes, adzes, adzes/axes, chisels
86
diabase axes, adzes, adzes/axes, chisels
69 80.2
knives, sickles
49
fine micaceous sandstone knives, sickles
43 86.0
grinding slabs, abraders
31
sandstone grinding slabs, abraders
31 100
Table 2. Number and proportion of different rock types
within all lithic material recovered from Huizui excavations
(tools, blanks, flakes, indeterminate pieces).
number %
oolitic dolomite 910 47.0
other sandstones 330 17.0
diabase 187 9.7
micaceous fine sandstone 152 7.9
lime 87 4.5
fine limestone 81* 4.2*
fine dolomite 19 1.0
chert - grey, black 40 2.1
siltstone - silicified, unsilicified 27 1.4
rhyolite - red, grey, ignimbritic 21 1.1
marble 18 0.9
quartz 14 0.7
quartzite 8 0.4
dolomite, calcite crystal 8 0.4
aplite 7 0.4
gneiss 6 0.3
slate 5 0.3
granite/diorite 4 0.2
iron oxide 3 0.2
schist 2 0.1
turquoise 2 0.1
?jade 2 0.1
stalagmite 2 0.1
conglomerate 1 0.1
total 1936 100.0
*not differentiated from fine dolomite in one survey
LITHOLOGIES USED
Approximately twenty-five different lithologies were util-
ised at Huizui, but only four were used in large amounts
(>5% of assemblage; Table 2): oolitic dolomite, diabase,
micaceous sandstone and other types of sandstone. In
addition, a substantial amount of fine limestone and lime
was recovered from the Huizui excavations, along with
small amounts of other lithologies (Table 2).
Oolitic dolomite
The oolitic dolomite at Huizui is a uniform dark grey rock
type that on close examination is composed of small dark
grey circular bodies (oolites), averaging around 1 mm in
diameter, set in a white cement (Figure 2a,b). The distinc-
tive fine spotted appearance of this rock type is particu-
larly evident on polished surfaces, and means that spades
made of oolitic dolomite are easy to identify. Broken sur-
faces show sparkling crystal faces of dolomite. Thin sec-
tion examination of the oolitic dolomite under a petro-
graphic microscope reveals that it has a sugary texture of
interlocking crystals of dolomite (Figure 2c, d). Originally
this rock was an oolitic limestone (called a grainstone, i.e.
composed of grains cemented together); the oolites were
composed of very fine-grained calcite, and were sur-
rounded by a cement of medium-grained calcite. The cal-
cite of the limestone has been replaced by coarser-grained
more uniform dolomite; the oolites are still visible despite
the replacement, as very clear or faint outlines.
The nature of the oolitic dolomite is one of the reasons
it was selected to produce stone tools. Its homogenous
structure of interlocking crystals means that it will gener-
ally break evenly and predictably when it is being
worked, and that it is relatively strong and tough. Dolo-
mite is a soft material (hardness 3.5-4) and is easily
ground by harder rocks (e.g. quartz sandstone) to give
sharp, effective edges and very smooth faces that can take
a high polish. However, its softness means that it is read-
ily scratched, and the thin edges of dolomite tools would
chip if struck against harder rocks.
Diabase
Diabase is a medium-grained intrusive basic igneous rock,
also known as dolerite. The diabase at Huizui is generally
grey to dark green (occasionally brownish red) and varies
in grain size from fine to (mostly) medium to coarse; on
polished surfaces it can be seen to consist of interlocking
elongated crystals. Thin section examination shows that
the diabase consists of sericitised elongate plagioclase
laths up to 0.6 mm long, together with needle-like actino-
lite crystals and grains of chlorite, epidote and often
abundant fine opaques, all embedded in a very fine-
grained matrix that is generally altered to clay. There is
some variation in composition and texture, with differing
amounts of plagioclase and actinolite present, and the
grain size varies from fine to coarse; the plagioclase laths
may be highly elongate and spinifex-textured (strongly
interlocking) in some samples. The diabase has undergone
low-grade greenschist metamorphism, accounting for the
presence of chlorite and epidote.
Diabase was used to produce woodworking tools
(axes, adzes and chisels) that require strong edge-holding
capabilities. Diabase is very suitable for ground-edge
tools as its uniform texture of interlocking crystals of rela-
tively hard minerals (hardness 5-6.5) means that it is rela-
tively strong and tough, able to withstand considerable
force and therefore unlikely to break during use (Garber
1989: 15). Diabase grinds smoothly to strong, sharp work-
ing edges, which are easily resharpened.
Lithologies similar to diabase have been used for
ground-edge tools elsewhere in the world. Greenstones,
basic igneous rocks (dolerites,
basalts
, andesites) altered

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79
Figure 2. (a, b) Polished surface of oolitic dolomite spade; oolites appear as dark spots embedded in pale cement. (c, d) Photomicro-
graphs of oolitic dolomite from outcrop; oolites appear as mostly circular bodies, some concentrically banded, within pale cement;
oolites and cement replaced by blocky crystals of dolomite, sample traversed by thin bedding-parallel ferruginous layer. (e, f) Photo-
micrographs of oolitic dolomite from spade; note strong similarities to oolitic dolomite from outcrop, and well-marked outlines of
blocky dolomite crystals replacing oolites.
by low-grade greenschist metamorphism, are composed
predominantly of interlocking actinolite crystals, and
were preferentially used for ground-edge axes in south-
eastern Australia (McBryde and Harrison 1981). Testing
of mechanical properties showed that greenstone has high
fracture toughness and Young's modulus of elasticity,
reflecting the fact that this lithology is extremely tough,
and accounting for its strong edge-holding properties
(Domanski et al. 1994). Greenstone has higher elasticity
and fracture toughness values than siliceous lithologies
used for flaked stone artefacts.

WEBB, FORD AND GORTON: LITHIC RAW MATERIAL SOURCES AT HUIZUI
80
Fine-grained micaceous sandstone
The fine-grained micaceous sandstone at Huizui is green
or brown, even-grained and composed predominantly of
quartz grains, with a small but distinctive component of
muscovite (white mica) flakes aligned parallel to bedding.
The mica flakes are strongly reflective and give the sand-
stone a characteristic sparkle on bedding planes. Thin
section examination under a microscope shows that the
sandstone contains a substantial component of calcite
grains, the same size as the quartz grains, along with scat-
tered rounded pellets of brownish glauconite and flakes of
chloritised biotite, as well as occasional tubular fossil
fragments. The sandstone is well-cemented by over-
growths on the quartz and calcite grains. It is thin-bedded,
and interbedded with relatively soft red-brown and green
siltstone, as shown by a small number of tools that con-
tain thin siltstone laminae.
The micaceous sandstone was made into knives and
sickles; these are thin, rectangular or semi-circular tools,
manufactured by trimming and bevelling only the work-
ing edge (Ford 2001: 60). The body of the tool received
only a light grinding or polishing to smooth the surface.
The thin bedding of the micaceous sandstone meant that
sheets of ideal thickness for tool blanks could probably be
selected at the quarry site. The fine, even, well-cemented
texture and the predominant quartzose mineralogy (quartz
is tough with a hardness of 7) meant that tools of mica-
ceous sandstone take a moderately sharp edge that is re-
sistant to chipping (Xie 2005).
Other varieties of sandstone
A large number of irregular sandstone fragments have
been recovered from the Huizui excavations, as well as
several grinding slabs and smaller pieces with flat sur-
faces that have been used to abrade tool faces. These are
made of a variety of sandstone types: fine, medium and
coarse-grained, and composed predominantly of quartz,
although the coarser-grained ones generally have a sub-
stantial component of weathered feldspar grains. The col-
our of the sandstone varies considerably, from maroon or
violet to pale grey or cream; the feldspathic sandstones
tend to be lighter coloured. The finer sandstones may
have ferruginous laminae and very thin ferruginous layers
coating the quartz grains, giving them a reddish or purple
colour.
At a ground stone tool manufacturing site like Huizui
large amounts of abrasive material are required, and this
was supplied by the sandstone (Ford 2001, 2004). The
coarser sandstones were probably used for initial grinding
of the tool, with the finer sandstones employed to smooth
surfaces and sharpen edges (Owen 2006). Final polishing
would have required a finer medium still, using very fine
sediment (clay/silt), animal and/or plant products.
Fine limestone and lime
Fine-grained grey limestone occurs occasionally as tools
(predominantly spades). It is finer and less even grained
than dolomite (although much the same hardness), and so
may fracture more unpredictably, making it less suitable
for tool manufacture.
Limestone is more commonly present as irregular
pieces, at least some of which were probably the raw ma-
terial for lime manufacture. Lime is produced by heating
limestone; this converts the calcite (calcium carbonate) of
the limestone to a material called lime (calcium hydrox-
ide). Calcium hydroxide quickly absorbs carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and reverts back to a white, chalky
form of limestone, hardening in the process. This is the
basis for the use of crushed lime as mortar; it is also suit-
able for making house floors, and may have been used for
this purpose at Huizui. A substantial number of irregular
blocks of white, chalky limestone were found in the exca-
vations, as well as a small number of broken spades made
of the same material.
Seven samples of lime from Huizui were subjected to
mineralogical analysis by X-ray diffraction; this showed
that six are composed of calcite, as expected. However,
the seventh is made up of a mixture of calcite and hydro-
magnesite, showing that it was originally dolomite (rather
than limestone). On heating, dolomite (calcium magne-
sium carbonate) converts to a mixture of calcium hydrox-
ide and magnesium hydroxide; these then absorb carbon
dioxide to form calcium carbonate (calcite) and magne-
sium carbonate (hydromagnesite). Lime is not generally
made from dolomite, as its properties are inferior; today
limestone is still strongly preferred for lime manufacture.
Fine dolomite
Fine-grained dolomite was used to manufacture only a
small proportion of spades (<5%), despite its abundance
in the northern slopes of the Songshan Mountains (dis-
cussed further below). The dolomite is grey to cream-
brown in colour and generally uniform and massive in
appearance, although some samples show distinctive
elongate or subcircular spots that represent burrows in the
original limestone when it was deposited. Fine dolomite is
composed of interlocking dolomite crystals, with some
variation in grain size, and probably has similar mechani-
cal properties to oolitic dolomite.
Very fine-grained siliceous rocks (chert, silicified silt-
stone, rhyolite)
The very fine-grained siliceous lithologies, chert and sili-
cified siltstone, occur in small but significant numbers
(total ~3.5%, Table 2). They vary in colour but are mostly
grey or black. Red rhyolite is most common in the Yang-
shao rather than Longshan/Erlitou deposits; it is very fine
grained and often lacks phenocrysts. A few pieces of grey
ignimbritic rhyolite are also present, identified by their
characteristic flattened pumice fragments (fiamme). The
very fine grain size and lack of distinctive features often
makes chert, silicified siltstone and rhyolite hard to dis-
tinguish from each other in the Huizui assemblages. A
few tools (chisels, adzes and knives) were made from
these lithologies. From the Yangshao deposits, some of
the red rhyolite pieces are worked material, with traces of
cutting or sawing, and a fragment of bracelet made of red

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81
rhyolite was unearthed. These remains testify that red
rhyolite was used to made ornaments by the Yangshao
people at Huizui, perhaps for their own use.
Marble
Marble is a rare raw material at Huizui and was used to
produce a small number of tools, including an axe, as well
as more decorative items like a bracelet.
The marble varies substantially in colour (white, green
and brown) and grain size (fine to medium); some sam-
ples are foliated.
Other metamorphic rocks (gneiss, quartzite, schist, slate)
A variety of metamorphic rocks are present. The higher-
grade metamorphics (gneiss) were used for a few tools
(e.g. axes); the lower grade rocks (schist and slate) are
much softer and were rarely made into artefacts.
Quartz
The few quartz fragments present are poor quality, milky
vein quartz.
Medium and coarse-grained igneous rocks (granite, dio-
rite, aplite)
The very small amount of igneous rock material (apart
from rhyolite) present was used to make a few tools, e.g. a
knife.
Crystalline calcite and dolomite (including stalagmite)
Within the assemblage are several dolomite and calcite
cleavage fragments. Both these minerals have perfect
rhombohedral cleavage (3 cleavage directions at ~120°),
so large crystals that are struck will break into rhombo-
hedral fragments. In addition there are a few pieces of
crystalline calcite that display typical stalagmite fabrics:
colour banding and/or elongate crystals often arranged in
radiating sheaves.
Turquoise and ?jade
Two turquoise beads were found in one excavation. There
are also two pieces that may represent poor quality jade;
they are patterned in dark brown and green.
RAW MATERIAL SOURCES
To determine where the lithologies used for tool
manufacture at Huizui were obtained, it is first necessary
to describe the geology of the area around the site.
Geology and geomorphology of the Huizui area
Huizui lies south of the Yilou River on a flat alluvial plain
composed of redeposited Pleistocene and Holocene wind-
blown loess. Protruding through these Quaternary depos-
its are several low hills composed of Lower Triassic flu-
vial and lacustrine sandstone and siltstone (Figure 1a,b),
dipping shallowly (20-30°) to the north.
To the south lie the northern ridges of the Songshan
Mountains, which close to Huizui consist of two E-W
trending asymmetrical ridges, with very steep or cliffed
southern slopes and gentler northern slopes, separated by
a small valley (Figure 1a). The north ridge rises to 700-
800 metres while the south ridge is higher (up to 1500
metres in elevation). They have formed by differential
erosion of a shallowly north-dipping (15-20°) sequence of
Cambrian carbonates, siltstones and sandstones (up to
1000 metres thick; Figure 1b). These sediments were de-
posited in predominantly shallow marine environments on
a broad open platform (BGMR of Henan Province 1984;
Meng et al. 1997; Meyerhoff et al. 1991; Zhu 1989),
where sub tidal oolite shoals, bisected by tidal channels,
separated lagoon and peritidal deposits from the open
ocean.
The Cambrian strata of the northern Songshan Moun-
tains are divided into eight formations; the lower Early
and Middle Cambrian units are dominated by siltstones
and limestones; within the siltstone sequences are thin
interbeds of fine sandstone. The upper formations consist
largely of carbonates, both limestone and dolomite.
The uppermost unit, the Upper Cambrian Fengshan
Formation, forms the northern slopes of the Songshan
Mountains, closest to Huizui, and is composed of ~150m
of light to dark grey mostly thick-bedded dolomite. Origi-
nally the Fengshan Formation was deposited as lime-
stones, predominantly fine-grained, laminated and stro-
matolitic, with occasional beds of oolitic grainstone. All
these have been pervasively dolomitised and now consist
of coarse mosaics of dolomite crystals, with varying de-
grees of preservation of the original limestone grains.
Most commonly, the dolomitisation is comparatively
coarse and uniform, and preserves relatively little of the
limestone fabric. Towards the top of the Fengshan Forma-
tion is a partly silicified layer, in which scattered irregu-
larly shaped patches of fine-grained quartz (chert)
weather out in relief on the bed surface.
In the lower part of the Fengshan Formation is a read-
ily distinguishable unit comprising a beige laminated
dolomitic siltstone (marl), ~10m thick, overlying about
15m of dolomitised grey oolitic grainstone (Figure 3); the
oolites are still evident as tiny, spherical, dark grey bodies
(up to 1 mm in diameter). There are also two thin beds of
oolitic dolomite, less than 1m thick, within the laminated
siltstone itself. The oolitic beds show overall low angle
hummocky topography, enhanced by the beige siltstone,
which drapes the topography. The siltstone weathers
much more readily than the overlying and underlying
dolomites, so in the hillsides it occurs as a slightly lower
gradient step that is uniformly grass-covered and lacks
rock outcrop (Figure 3a,b). The oolitic dolomite beneath
frequently outcrops as a 2-15m high cliff; the top of the
bed forms a pavement (Figure 3c) that is sometimes used
as a convenient location for trackways through the moun-
tains.
Underlying the Fengshan Formation are over 100m of
Upper and Middle Cambrian grey limestone, both oolitic
and fine-grained massive. These lithologies outcrop on
the very steep or cliffed southern (but not northern) flanks
of the northernmost E-W ridge of the Songshan Moun
tains near Huizui (Figure 4).

WEBB, FORD AND GORTON: LITHIC RAW MATERIAL SOURCES AT HUIZUI
82
Figure 3. Outcrop characteristics of oolitic dolomite and overlying siltstone. (a, b) In hillsides oolitic dolomite forms small cliff; silt-
stone occurs as grassy, less steep slope. (c) Unquarried outcrop of oolitic dolomite, showing natural pavement at top of bed. (d) Pre-
modern quarry in oolitic dolomite; note rubble slope below quarry. (e) Quarried pavement of main bed of oolitic dolomite, with over-
lying siltstone containing a thin separate bed of oolitic dolomite; note tendency of oolitic dolomite to split into thin slabs. (f) Premod-
ern quarry in oolitic dolomite; note thin-bedded nature of main (lower) bed.
Overlying the Cambrian strata are thin Carboniferous
beds of claystone, bauxitic siltstone, limestone, sandstone
and coal, deposited in alluvial fan, swamp, or lacustrine
environments. Succeeding these are Permian river, swamp
and lake sediments consisting of sandstone, mudstone,
and minor coal, overlain by Triassic strata. In the Huizui
area the Carboniferous and Permian sediments are cov-
ered by the Quaternary redeposited loess, but both bauxite
and coal are extracted from underground mines.
The Cambrian carbonates and siltstones overlie Pre-
cambrian (Archaean and Proterozoic) basement that out-
crops in the southern Songshan Mountains (Figure 1b;
BGMR of Henan Province 1984; Meyerhoff et al. 1991).
The Archaean igneous and high-grade metamorphic com-
plexes consist of hornblende gneiss, quartzite, migmatite,
schist and marble, and have been intruded by granites and

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83
Figure 4. Distribution of most of the common rock types used for artefact manufacture at Huizui. Distribution of oolitic dolomite based
on mapping carried out during the present study; sites of premodern quarries shown.
diorites, with very minor pegmatite. The younger Protero-
zoic deposits are divided into three units; in stratigraphic
order these are the Songshan Group (quartzite, schist,
phyllite, slate and dolomite marble), Ruyang Group
(quartz sandstone, conglomerate and dolomite) and Luoyo
Group (sandstone, siltstone, and dolomite). Upper Pro-
terozoic medium to large granites and granodiorites and
minor shallow-level diabases intrude these Proterozoic
strata. In some locations Upper Proterozoic carbonate and
terrigenous sediments, including glacial tillite and glau-
conitic siltstone, overlie the Luoyo Group.
Oolitic dolomite and fine dolomite (quarried from out-
crop)
The Cambrian Fengshan Formation forms the northern
flanks of the Songshan Mountains, adjacent to Huizui.
Outcrops are composed almost entirely of thick-bedded
massive fine dolomite, and there are only a few beds of
oolitic dolomite; the most prominent is the bed beneath
the beige siltstone (Figure 4). This unit was most probably
the source of the oolitic dolomite used for spade manufac-
ture at Huizui, based on the strong similarity of the two
lithologies and its ease of quarrying. The other beds of
oolitic dolomite within the Fengshan Formation are thin,
generally contain smaller, more densely packed oolites
and lack the overlying siltstone.
The oolitic dolomite beneath the siltstone is thin-
bedded, and breaks readily along bedding parallel cracks
into thin slabs (Figure 3e); the surfaces of these slabs of-
ten have a very thin reddish-purple ferruginous coating
(Figure 2d). The dolomite consists of dark grey, spherical,
mostly medium to large oolites (0.5-1 mm in diameter),
often concentrically laminated, embedded in a white ce-
ment (Figure 2c,d). In some samples the oolites have been
replaced by clear, coarse, randomly oriented crystals
(oomoulds), and are lighter in colour. Smaller oolites (0.2
mm) may be present, along with minor amounts of echi-
noderm and trilobite fossil fragments. The oolites and
oomoulds are composed of medium-sized blocky dolo-
mite crystals, occasionally oriented radially, and some-
times rhombic rather than irregular in shape; in some
samples the original very fine-grained calcite composition
of the oolites has been retained in patches. The cement in
the pore spaces between oolites has been replaced by
equant dolomite crystals.
A detailed petrographic examination of the oolitic
dolomite used to manufacture spades at Huizui shows that
it is very similar to the oolitic dolomite beneath the silt-
stone (Figure 2e,f). The oolitic dolomite of the spades
consists of dark grey small (0.2 mm) to mostly large (1
mm) oolites and oomoulds surrounded by white cement,
all composed of blocky dolomite crystals. The crystal
textures of the oolites and cement show no differences to
those in the oolitic dolomite beneath the siltstone. Many
of the spade blanks often show a thin purplish coating on
both sides, undistinguishable from that evident on bed-
ding planes in an oolitic dolomite outcrop.

WEBB, FORD AND GORTON: LITHIC RAW MATERIAL SOURCES AT HUIZUI
84
The oolitic dolomite bed has been quarried at a num-
ber of locations in the northern foothills (Figures 3d-f; 4),
as close as ~4 km to Huizui; these quarries were used to
supply blocks for house foundations for local villages up
until ~50 years ago. However, it is possible that these
quarries were also used in Longshan and Erlitou times.
There are two factors that make the oolitic dolomite
bed beneath the siltstone particularly suitable for quarry-
ing. Firstly, its thin-bedded nature means that it splits
readily into thin slabs (Figure 3e,f), close to the desired
thickness for spade manufacture. Secondly, the oolitic
dolomite is overlain by relatively soft siltstone that is of-
ten removed by weathering. As a result, its upper surface
is often exposed as a pavement that is immediately suit-
able for breaking off large slabs (Figure 3c). Furthermore,
the overlying laminated siltstone is soft and easily exca-
vated during quarrying operations to reveal the oolitic
dolomite beneath (Figure 3e,f). None of the other dolo-
mite beds of the Fengshan Formation that outcrop abun-
dantly in the same area (many of them closer to Huizui)
exist in similar outcrops. Together these factors explain
why the oolitic dolomite, which makes up less than 5% of
the dolomite outcrops on the northern slopes of the Song-
shan Mountains, accounts for >90% of the dolomite mate-
rial in the Huizui excavations.
In contrast to the oolitic dolomite, the fine dolomite
tools and fragments are not lithologically distinctive and
could have been quarried almost anywhere on the north-
ern flanks of the Songshan Mountains.
Diabase (collected from river gravels)
Most of the diabase tool blanks present at Huizui are
made from waterworn cobbles. The source of the cobbles
is uncertain; gravels in the nearby Liujian River lack dia-
base as this river runs entirely through Cambrian carbon-
ates and Triassic sandstones (Figure 1b). The diabase may
have been derived from the Shagou River, which runs as
close as 2 km to Huizui to the northwest (Figure 1a); dur-
ing the present study diabase cobbles were collected from
gravel beds in this river about 3.5 km to the west of Hui-
zui. The headwaters of the Shagou River lie in Precam-
brian basement, which presumably contains diabase out-
crops, although none are mapped (Figure 1b). The gravels
could also have been sourced from the Yi and/or Majian
Rivers, which lie respectively 10 km or more to the north
and 6 km or more to the east of Huizui; the upper reaches
of both rivers run through extensive areas of Precambrian
rocks (Figure 1b), which are likely to contain diabase out-
crops.
Selecting diabase cobbles as tool blanks minimised the
amount of production required, as there is little change in
size and shape between the natural cobble and the fin-
ished tool. Only the lateral margins are squared and the
working edge created before the tool was ready to use
(Ford 2001: 58; 2004: 73).
Fine micaceous sandstone (quarried from outcrop)
The presence of slabs of unmodified raw material at Hui-
zui shows that the fine micaceous sandstone was available
locally. It was most probably quarried from outcrops of
the Middle Cambrian Zhangxia Formation at the base of
the steep southern flanks of the northernmost E-W ridge
of the Songshan Mountains (Figure 4). The basal part of
the Zhangxia Formation in this area contains a 15m thick
siltstone section with as many as 8 thin interbeds of fine
micaceous sandstone up to 20 cm thick. The sandstone
beds are often plane laminated and split into thin sheets
along the laminations. Thin section examination of the
fine micaceous sandstone shows that it is very similar to
the artefact sandstone, in that apart from quartz and mus-
covite it contains a substantial component of calcite
grains, along with minor amounts of brownish glauconite
pellets, flakes of chloritised biotite and occasional tubular
fossil fragments.
The sandstone interbeds in the other Early and Middle
Cambrian formations in the area were examined in thin
section; while they are superficially similar to the mica-
ceous fine sandstone from which knives and sickles were
made, they all differ in significant ways (e.g. grain size,
fossil content).
The sandstone beds in the Zhangxia Formation lie
within 6 km of Huizui (Figure 4), but because a high ridge
separates Huizui and the outcrops, a journey of at least 8
km would have been required to reach them.
Other varieties of sandstone (quarried from outcrop)
The Lower Triassic sandstones outcropping in the two
hills located within one kilometre of Huizui (Figure 1a,b)
differ in colour and composition. The outcrop ~1.5 km to
the southwest of Huizui is white, medium coarse grained
and feldspathic, whilst the hill to the northeast, which lies
within 500 metres of one of the excavation sites, is com-
posed predominantly of fine-grained quartzose ferrugi-
nous violet coloured sandstone. Both outcrops show evi-
dence for quarrying, although much of it appears to be
sub-modern; in addition large sandstone boulders and
cobbles litter the hillsides, and could have been easily
transported to Huizui. Similar sized cobbles and boulders
have been found at Huizui in their natural state (Ford
2001: 45).
Petrological examination under a microscope showed
that the sandstone fragments found at Huizui encompass a
variety of lithologies (feldspathic and quartzose, fine to
coarse grained, often ferruginous), and were probably
sourced from both hills. The location of Huizui near these
sandstone outcrops is important for a ground stone tool
manufacturing site, as the sandstone provided the abrasive
for tool preparation (Ford 2001, 2004).
Fine limestone and lime (quarried from outcrop)
Limestone does not occur on the northern slopes of the
Songshan Mountains, but there are abundant outcrops on
the very steep or cliffed southern flanks of the northern-
most E-W ridge of the Songshan Mountains (Figure 4).
Although dolomite is present much closer to Huizui,
limestone is strongly preferred for lime manufacture, be-
cause of its superior properties. The limestone pieces and
tools found in the excavations are not distinctive and
could have been sourced from anywhere on the southern
flanks of the ridge. Just like the fine micaceous sandstone,

INDO-PACIFIC PREHISTORY ASSOCIATION BULLETIN 27, 2007
85
Table 3. Factors influencing the choice of particular lithologies
Lithology (major
use)
Proximity of
source
Functional properties Extraction at source Appearance
Oolitic dolomite
(spades)
min. 4 km Strong and tough, takes sharp
edge but soft and chips easily
Quarried from pave-
ment as thin slabs
Fine spotted
Diabase (axes, adzes,
chisels)
min. 2 km Very strong, tough and hard;
takes sharp edge and good
edge-holding properties
River cobbles Dark green
Fine micaceous
sandstone (knives,
sickles)
min. 8 km Strong, tough hard; takes
moderately sharp edge
Probably quarried as
thin slabs
Mica sparkle
Other sandstone
(grinding material)
0.5-1.5 km Good abrasive As irregular blocks Irrevelant
Fine limestone (lime
source)
min. 8 km Appropriate for lime manu-
facture
Probably as irregular
pieces
Irrevelant
which also outcrops in this area (Figure 4), a journey of at
least 8 km would have been required to reach the lime-
stone outcrops from Huizui.
Other lithologies
Among the less common raw materials there is probably a
mixture of local and exotic lithologies. Many of the rock
types are known to outcrop in the Precambrian basement
in the southern Songshan Mountains (gneiss, marble,
schist, slate, quartzite, granite and diorite), and vein
quartz and aplite are most likely to occur there also. Thus
these lithologies could be derived from gravels deposited
by the Majian River, which flows within 5 km of Huizui
and drains an area where these rock types occur (Figure
1b). Quartzite cobbles are present within these gravels,
and rounded aplite cobbles have been found in the Huizui
excavations. Alternatively the rock types could have been
quarried from outcrops distant from Huizui (at least 10
km on the other side of the high ridge of the Songshan
Mountains; Figure 1a,b). Some of these raw materials are
found predominantly as finished tools, suggesting that
they were produced off-site and are therefore exotic. The
tool blanks that have been found are of indeterminate
form, making their origin inconclusive.
The calcite and dolomite crystals could have been de-
rived locally from veins within the Cambrian carbonate
sequence. Likewise the stalagmite material could also be
local, as small caves are known within the northern Song-
shan Mountains.
Chert and siltstone are found close to Huizui, but are
of low quality. Chert concretions within the upper part of
the Fengshan Formation are small, porous and irregular in
shape, and these are probably the source of the small cob-
bles of poor quality chert present within Pleistocene
gravel beds near Huizui. The siltstone in the area is un-
silicified and also unsuitable for tool manufacture. It is
perhaps more likely that the chert and siltstone artifacts
are exotic. Two of the silicified siltstone tool blanks are in
slab form, suggesting that that they were quarried rather
than picked up as waterworn cobbles.
Rhyolite is not recorded from the Songshan Moun-
tains, so it is almost certainly exotic, along with turquoise
and ?jade, and probably the higher quality marble. Among
these lithologies, only rhyolite shows evidence of manu-
facture at Huizui (during the Yangshao period, as dis-
cussed above). Turquoise, jade and marble, normally
found in elite contexts and preferred for use in elite or
ritual items (Liu 2000: 149), were worked at other sites;
there is a turquoise workshop near the palace area at Erli-
tou. The presence of turquoise at Huizui may be evidence
of interactions between elite individuals from Huizui and
Erlitou.
FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF
LITHOLOGY AT HUIZUI
There are four main factors that are likely to have influ-
enced the choice of the most common rock types for par-
ticular purposes at Huizui: proximity of source, functional
properties, extraction at source and appearance (Table 3).
Perhaps the most important of these is distance to source.
The five main lithologies used at Huizui (oolitic dolomite,
diabase, fine micaceous sandstone, other sandstone and
fine limestone) together comprise 91% of the excavated
material (by number), and all are probably available
within 8 km of the site. The main reason for the location
of a major stone tool production site at Huizui may have
been its proximity to the adjacent sandstone hills, which
provided an abundant source of abrasive material. Com-
pared to the other lithologies used on site, sandstone for
grinding is heavy and relatively low value, so it would
have been advantageous to minimise the transport dis-
tance of this rock type.
Each of the most common lithologies was used for one
main purpose (Table 1). Diabase was used to produce
woodworking tools (axes, adzes and chisels) which re-
quire strong edge-holding capabilities, because the com-
position of this rock type means that it is strong, tough
and takes sharp working edges which are easily resharp-
ened. Oolitic dolomite is soft but tough, so it can be rela-
tively easily ground to a sharp edge that will, however,
scratch and chip easily. The purpose of the oolitic dolo-
mite spades is not known, but experimental work indi-
cates that they might not have been digging implements
(Owen, 2006); whatever their use, their softness was evi-

WEBB, FORD AND GORTON: LITHIC RAW MATERIAL SOURCES AT HUIZUI
86
dently not a problem. The fine micaceous sandstone is
hard and tough and takes moderately sharp edges, suitable
for its use as knives and sickles. Thus the choice of raw
material was at least partly due to its mechanical proper-
ties.
All three of these lithologies were extracted as raw
material that required minimal shaping to make tools.
Oolitic dolomite and micaceous sandstone were quarried
at sites where these lithologies split readily into thin slabs,
close to the desired thickness for making spades and
knives/sickles respectively. For diabase there was little
change in size and shape between the natural river cob-
bles and the finished axes/adzes/chisels. Thus the choice
of these lithologies was influenced by their ease of extrac-
tion as material immediately suitable for tool manufac-
ture. This was probably particularly important for oolitic
dolomite; fine-grained dolomite has similar mechanical
properties to oolitic dolomite, is much more common and
occurs closer to Huizui, but does not outcrop as exposed
pavements that can be easily quarried as thin slabs.
The appearance of the rock types may also have influ-
enced their choice; oolitic dolomite, diabase and mica-
ceous sandstone could all be regarded as attractive. This
factor was probably more important in the choice of the
exotic lithologies like turquoise and high quality marble.
Thus it would appear that the choice of raw materials
used at Huizui was a reflection of proximity to source,
functional properties and extraction in an appropriate
form for tool manufacture. The stone tool producers at
Huizui were making cost efficient decisions based on
more than one criterion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project is supported by a Discovery Project grant
from the Australian Research Council (DP0450025). We
are thankful to the members of the Yiluo Archaeology
Team, Li Liu, Xingcan Chen, Ming Wei, Gyoung-Ah
Lee, Arlene Rosen, Li Yongqiang, Xie Liye, Wei Xing-
tao, Wang Facheng, Wang Hongzhang, Yang Junfeng,
Sheahan Bestel, Geoffrey Hewitt, Liz Kilpatrick, and
Charles Hartley. Xie Liye assembled much of the data on
which this paper is based. We are also grateful to Guowei
Xu and Cameron Cairns, who provided geological infor-
mation and expertise, and Dale Owen, who provided pho-
tographs of dolomite spades.
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