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Activation and Restructuring of Prior Knowledge and their Effects on Text Processing
Abstract
In two experiments effects of a group problem-solving procedure were assessed. In Experiment 1 small groups of subjects were presented with a problem they had to discuss. Compared with a control condition the experimental subjects showed superior reproduction and transfer of information relevant to the problem. These effects were attributed to the activating and restructuring properties of the problem-solving procedure. In Experiment 2 effects of activation and restructuring of prior knowledge on subsequent text processing were examined. A general facilitative effect was found. This result cannot be explained in terms of selective attention induced by prior problem analysis.
... Chapter 3 Note taking and prior knowledge activation Prior knowledge activation has a strong positive impact on learning. Schmidt (1982), for example, activated students' prior knowledge by means of problem analysis. Students were asked to explain the problem of osmosis (i.e., swelling and shrinking of a red blood cell in pure water and a salt solution) in terms of an underlying process, principle, or mechanism. ...
... In line with Schmidt (1982), many studies have provided evidence for the facilitative effects of prior knowledge activation on learning (e.g., Chi et al., 1994;De Grave et al., 2001;Goetz et al., 1983;Machiels-Bongaerts et al., 1995). Prior knowledge activation involves the transfer of available knowledge from long-term memory to working memory. ...
... There are different strategies that can be used to activate learners' prior knowledge. Problem analysis, for example, is a strategy in which learners' collaboratively activate their prior knowledge when constructing explanations for a presented problem (e.g., De Grave et al., 2001;Schmidt, 1982). This is comparable to selfexplanation in which learners generate explanations to themselves using their prior knowledge (Chi et al., 1994). ...
Wetzels, S. (2009). Individualised strategies
for prior knowledge activation. Doctoral thesis. December, 18, 2009, Heerlen, Nederland: Open Universiteit Nederland.
... This explanatory model would be based on prior knowledge activated by the procedure and elaborated on by means of the discussion. The resulting cognitive structure would then facilitate the processing of a text on the subject (Schmidt, 1982). ...
... The learners are asked to explain these phenomena in terms of underlying processes, principles, or mechanisms. In other words, they are asked to construct an explanatory model using prior knowledge activated by the situation described by the problem (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Schmidt, 1982; Schmidt & De Volder, 1984). It is only after the students discuss this problem and propose possible explanations that a text is presented that provides information relevant to the solution of the problem (in the case of the present example, a text on the osmotic process). ...
... This explanatory model would be based on prior knowledge activated by the procedure and elaborated on by means of the discussion. The resulting cognitive structure would then facilitate the processing of a text on the subject (Schmidt, 1982). The results of Experiment 1 suggest that problem analysis is an effective knowledge activation procedure. ...
Two experiments assessed effects of activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion. Subjects were given a description of natural phenomena and were asked to elaborate on possible explanations for them. In Experiment 1, small groups of subjects were presented with a problem describing the behavior of a blood cell in pure water and in a salt solution. No additional text was studied. The experimental subjects produced more than twice as many propositions about osmosis (i.e., the biological process explaining the blood cell's behavior) as a control group produced. Experiment 2 investigated effects of problem analysis on subsequent text processing for subjects with imprecise prior knowledge (novices) and subjects with precise knowledge (experts). Recall of the text showed considerable facilitative effects of problem analysis. Results are explained in terms of faster accessibility of prior knowledge and better integration of new information into explanatory models that may exist before, or are actively constructed during, problem analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... The learners are asked to explain these phenomena in terms of underlying processes, principles, or mechanisms. In other words, they are asked to construct an explanatory model using prior knowledge activated by the situation described by the problem (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Schmidt, 1982; Schmidt & De Volder, 1984). It is only after the students discuss this problem and propose possible explanations that a text is presented that provides information relevant to the solution of the problem (in the case of the present example, a text on the osmotic process). ...
... This explanatory model would be based on prior knowledge activated by the procedure and elaborated on by means of the discussion. The resulting cognitive structure would then facilitate the processing of a text on the subject (Schmidt, 1982). The results of Experiment 1 suggest that problem analysis is an effective knowledge activation procedure. ...
Two experiments assessed effects of activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion. Subjects were given a description of natural phenomena and were asked to elaborate on possible explanations for them. In Experiment 1, small groups of subjects were presented with a problem describing the behavior of a blood cell in pure water and in a salt solution. No additional text was studied. The experimental subjects produced more than twice as many propositions about osmosis (i.e. the biological process explaining the blood cell's behavior) as a control group produced. Experiment 2 investigated effects of problem analysis on subsequent text processing for subjects with imprecise prior knowledge (novices) and subjects with precise knowledge (experts). Recall of the text showed considerable facilitative effects of problem analysis. Results are explained in terms of faster accessibility of prior knowledge and better integration of new information into explanatory models that may exist before, or are actively constructed during, problem analysis.
... In line with Schmidt (1982), many studies have provided evidence for the facilitative effects of prior knowledge activation on learning (e.g., Chi, de Leeuw, Chiu, & LaVancher, 1994; De Grave, Schmidt, & Boshuizen, 2001; Goetz, Schallert, Reynolds, & Radin, 1983; Machiels-Bongaerts, Schmidt, & Boshuizen, 1995). Prior knowledge activation involves the transfer of available knowledge from long-term memory to working memory. ...
... There are different strategies that can be used to activate learners' prior knowledge. Problem analysis, for example, is a strategy in which learners collaboratively activate their prior knowledge when constructing explanations for a presented problem (e.g., De Grave et al., 2001; Schmidt, 1982). This is comparable to self-explanation in which learners generate explanations to themselves using their prior knowledge (Chi et al., 1994). ...
Prior knowledge activation facilitates learning. Note taking during prior knowledge activation (i.e., note taking directed at retrieving information from memory) might facilitate the activation process by enabling learners to build an external representation of their prior knowledge. However, taking notes might be less effective in supporting prior knowledge activation if available prior knowledge is limited.
This study investigates the effects of the retrieval-directed function of note taking depending on learners' level of prior knowledge. It is hypothesized that the effectiveness of note taking is influenced by the amount of prior knowledge learners already possess.
Sixty-one high school students participated in this study. A prior knowledge test was used to ascertain differences in level of prior knowledge and assign participants to a low or a high prior knowledge group.
A 2×2 factorial design was used to investigate the effects of note taking during prior knowledge activation (yes, no) depending on learners' level of prior knowledge (low, high) on mental effort, performance, and mental efficiency.
Note taking during prior knowledge activation lowered mental effort and increased mental efficiency for high prior knowledge learners. For low prior knowledge learners, note taking had the opposite effect on mental effort and mental efficiency.
The effects of the retrieval-directed function of note taking are influenced by learners' level of prior knowledge. Learners with high prior knowledge benefit from taking notes while activating prior knowledge, whereas note taking has no beneficial effects for learners with limited prior knowledge.
... Students can elaborate on information by answering questions about a text; by taking notes, 9 by discussing subject matter to be learned with other students, 11 by teaching peers what they have first learned themselves, 4 by writing summaries, 15 and by formulating and criticizing hypotheses about a given problem. 13 According to Reder, 10 elaborations provide redundancy in the memory structure. Redundancy can be viewed as a safe-guard against forgetting and an aid to rapid retrieval. ...
The goal of this chapter is to describe the process of problem-based learning in the light of current theories of human information processing. First, three principles of learning are discussed. Second, a detailed account is given of how students transform a problem into a series of learning activities using a systematic working procedure. Finally, the extent to which these activities, undertaken within the problem-based format, fit the principles of learning will be assessed.
In this chapter, we will describe the emergence of problem-based learning as an approach to higher education, first at McMaster University Faculty of Health Sciences in Canada and then worldwide. Problem-based learning did not appear out of the blue but had several precursors: First in the work of Dewey who established an experimental school at the University of Chicago based on the idea that learning is more interesting if the learner is actively involved in his own learning. The second source of influence was the Case Study Method pioneered at Harvard University in the 1930s of the previous century. And the third source of influence to be described is Jerome Bruner's learning by discovery from which the idea that a problem could be the starting point for learning originated. Problem-based learning has eventually developed into three different strands or Types, that agree on the basic elements of the approach but see different goals for it. © Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2012. All rights are reserved.
In this study, three experiments examine the effects of mobilizing prior knowledge on information processing. Subjects generated names of either US presidents or States before studying a relevant list. Study time allocated to different parts of the list and free recall were recorded. In Expt 1, study time was unlimited; no recall differences were found but experimental subjects spent less time studying the material. In Expt 2, total study time was fixed, but subjects were free to allocate the available time to individual items. Experimental subjects spent less time on items in the mobilized category and recalled more items. This facilitative effect of mobilization extended or ‘spilled over’ from mobilized to non-mobilized information. In Expt 3, where both time for studying individual items and, hence, total study time were fixed, experimental subjects recalled more mobilized category items than controls. These results were interpreted in terms of a cognitive set-point regulating the amount of time spent on processing different parts of the material. Mobilization reduces the time required to reach criteria set for mobilized category items during study since these items have been processed previously. Finally, these experiments prove that the set-point hypothesis applies not only to items actually mobilized but also to non-mobilized same-category items, probably through a process of spreading activation at mobilization.
Medical schools and medical education look different as we advance into the 21st century. Nepal has seen a dramatic increase in the number of medical schools/colleges in the last decade. Most schools practice traditional teaching method while others are implementing problem based learning (PBL). It is important to explore the current advances and practices in medical education to meet the needs of the health services of the country.
The objective of the present study is to explore the students' perception regarding present status of medical education in Nepal and provide recommendations to address future needs.
The study design of the present research was descriptive and exploratory type. Structured Questionnaire was used to assess the students' perception relating to different aspects of medical education. A total of 24 students studying in the final year of MBBS from six medical colleges were selected randomly.
The traditional teaching/learning methodologies have been prevailing in the medical schools of the country. PBL suits many objectives of self directed learning (SDL) because students learn to reason and deduce facts and figures rather than rote learning. For the success of PBL and SDL students require learning resources and as per our findings although 71% of the students were satisfied with library facilities 54% were dissatisfied with computer resources. Community based approaches have been focused in the curriculum of all the medical schools of Nepal. About public health and community medicine teaching 86% of the students reported to be appropriate, of which 18% actually thought it was excessive. About the teaching of evidence based medicine (EBM), 50% students felt it was adequate and other half thought it was inadequate. Majority of the students i.e. 62% of the students also felt that the care of ambulatory patients was as well covered as the care of hospitalized patients. The areas of clinical practice which the students felt were inadequate included: nutrition (71%), geriatrics (70%), end of life care (71%), palliative care (67%), long term health care (70%), continuity of care (70%), ethical decision making (56%) and patient follow up (50%). In spite of completing their training, 25% felt they were not confident that they had acquired the clinical skills required to begin the residency program. As much as 60% felt they did not receive information about specialties and alternative medical careers. About 75% of the students had the feeling that medical profession will not be financially rewarding; 80% felt it would not be as respectable; 99% felt it would be more scientifically challenging.
The medical education of Nepal is still guided by the notion of the traditional approaches. The teaching methods should come up as per the advancement in contemporary medical education. The training needs to be more structured and focused in practical reality than only feeding students with theoretical knowledge.
In recent years the systematic development of the skill of clinical reasoning has come to assume a high priority as an explicit aim of medical education. Clinical reasoning, it is contended, is the application of general reasoning and problem-solving skills to the specific knowledge base of medicine. The results presented in this paper constitute a preliminary study designed to investigate the ability of first-year medical undergraduates to solve abstract problems using a simple nonmedical knowledge base. Further studies are being carried out and will continue to extend this into the specific medical knowledge base area. The potential implications for medical education and the development of clinical reasoning are discussed.
Problem-based learning is an instructional method that is said to provide students with knowledge suitable for problem solving. In order to test this assertion the process of problem-based learning is described and measured against three principles of learning: activation of prior knowledge, elaboration and encoding specificity. Some empirical evidence regarding the approach is presented.
Manipulated comprehension of metaphorical passages by prior presentation or nonpresentation of a short title reflecting their theme or main idea. Word order was varied independently by presenting the material in 1 of 3 forms: (a) random words, (b) random phrases, and (c) prose. In Exp. I with 120 undergraduates, both variables facilitated free recall performance with no interactions. In Exp. II with 240 undergraduates, a paced binary-recognition test followed the same input conditions. Ss who understood the theme performed better only with those words prejudged as thematically relevant, indicating a true semantic effect and a process of matching test words to an internally stored thematic surrogate. Results suggest that an abstract representation of a passage's central meaning is used as a mnemonic device in the retention of prose. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Taught binomial probability problems to a total of 225 undergraduates in 2 experiments by emphasizing either calculating with a formula (Sequence F) or meanings of the variables in the formula (Sequence G). Experiments involved a multileveled transfer posttest administered after S read some of the instructional booklet and variational testing conditions (e.g., open vs closed book or speed vs power). A Treatment * Posttest interaction (TPI) resulted in which Sequence G Ss excelled on interpretive items while Sequence F Ss excelled on near-transfer items. The TPI did not differ reliably among different points in learning or under different testing conditions. Results indicate the importance of S's initial assimilative set in acquiring new knowledge and the apparent resilience of the acquired structure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes 3 experiments in which a total of 124 undergraduates were taught the concept of a binomial probability using methods that emphasized (a) calculating with the formula, or (b) the meanings of the variables in the formula. Learning outcomes were tested using 4 kinds of items, including calculation for new problems and questions about general properties of the formula. Large interactions in transfer performance were obtained in 3 cases, indicating that the 2 methods produced structurally different learning outcomes. Results are interpreted in relation to a hypothesis that cognitive structures can vary in the connectedness that components have with each other (internal connectedness) and with other elements of the S's knowledge (external connectedness). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
72 undergraduates studied a 3000-word prose passage about Greece for a fixed period of time. 1 group was required to guess answers to 15 prequestions, and another just to read the prequestions. Of 2 control groups, 1 was allowed as much extra time for studying as Ss were given to deal with the prequestions. Prequestion groups showed significantly better 7-day retention of question-relevant prose content than both control groups, but significantly inferior delayed retention of question-irrelevant information than the extended reading time control group. On immediate retention this control group performed significantly better than the no guess group. Recognition of prequestions after the posttest was higher for the guess group, and was related to the correctness of answers on the pretest and on the posttest. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent changes in pretheoretical orientation toward problems of human memory have brought with them a concern with retrieval processes, and a number of early versions of theories of retrieval have been constructed. This paper describes and evaluates explanations offered by these theories to account for the effect of extralist cuing, facilitation of recall of list items by non-list items. Experiments designed to test the currently most popular theory of retrieval, the generation-recognition theory, yielded results incompatible not only with generation-recognition models, but most other theories as well: under certain conditions subjects consistently failed to recognize many recallable list words. Several tentative explanations of this phenomenon of recognition failure were subsumed under the encoding specificity principle according to which the memory trace of an event and hence the properties of effective retrieval cue are determined by the specific encoding operations performed by the system on the input stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper briefly reviews the evidence for multistore theories of memory and points out some difficulties with the approach. An alternative framework for human memory research is then outlined in terms of depth or levels of processing. Some current data and arguments are reexamined in the light of this alternative framework and implications for further research considered.
Information that is significant in the light of die conceptual framework, or “schema,” within which a text is interpreted ought to be better learned and recalled than less significant information. This hypothesis was evaluated in an experiment in which college students read narratives about a meal at a fine restaurant or a trip to a supermarket. The same 18 items of food, attributed to the same characters, were mentioned in the same order in the two stories. As predicted, foods from categories determined to be part of most people’s restaurant schemata were better recalled by students who read the restaurant narrative. Also as predicted, students who received the restaurant narrative were more likely to recall the character to whom a food had been attributed. However, contrary to expectation, participants were equally likely to reproduce food-order information whichever passage they had read. Information of the same significance in the context of either the restaurant or supermarket story was equally well recalled by the two groups.
This article outlines the preparation of an integrated, problem-based course as followed by the Faculty of Medicine, University of Newcastle, New South Wales. The policy and philosophy of the school, and the cardiovascular system course unit will be outlined in subsequent issues of this journal (Neame 1981, Powis and Neame 1981). The keys to successful course construction are faculty emphasis on the tasks to be achieved rather than on the disciplines themselves, coherent statements of policy and objectives which staff view as at least as important as those of their own disciplines, and a willingness to communicate, negotiate and be flexible. Students at the end of their third year were considered to be at least as competent as those from conventional curricula and excelled in some areas. A recent unpublished survey of the full-time academic staff revealed a high level of commitment to the goals of the course and satisfaction with the procedures involved.
Forty-four published research studies involving advance organizers were reviewed. Twenty-seven studies included an advance organizer vs. a control group (standard advance organizer study) and 17 studies included an advance organizer vs. a post organizer group (modified advance organizer study). Results of the studies were compared to the predictions of several theories. In addition, four specific predictions of assimilation theory were evaluated: that advance organizers should have a stronger effect for poorly organized text than for well organized text, that advance organizers should have a stronger positive effect for learners lacking prerequisite knowledge, that advance organizers should have a stronger effect for learners lacking prerequisite abilities, and that advance organizers should have an especially strong effect on measures of transfer rather than retention.
The present paper presents a series of studies showing that relevant contextual knowledge is a prerequisite for comprehending prose passages. Four studies are reported, each demonstrating increased comprehension ratings and recall scores when Ss were supplied with appropriate information before they heard test passages. Supplying Ss with the same information subsequent to the passages produced much lower comprehension ratings and recall scores. Various explanations of the results are considered, and the role of topics in activating cognitive contexts is discussed.
221 high school and college students studied a 1,481-word passage to achieve prememorized goals in 3 experiments. Inspection times and eye movements were recorded in goal-relevant and nonrelevant text neighborhoods. Averaged group data indicated 2 inspection modes: (a) relatively rapid inspection of incidental text, and (b) slow goal processing. Goal-relevant sentences resulted in over twice as many fixations, each 15 msec longer than incidental sentences. Relative goal-processing time and goal achievements were positively correlated. Contrary to previous conjecture, the obtained descriptive model suggests that goal-guided reading is time-efficient when density of goal-relevant information in text is low. Qualitative differences were observed in style of Ss' responses to task demands. General processing models of goal-guided learning may have to be elaborated to accommodate inspection style differences among readers. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The M.D. program at McMaster University is in its 5th year. An important factor in the growth and development of this program has been a commitment to a central set of ideas, known as the 'McMaster Philosophy'. Component features include self directed learning, problem based learning, and small group tutorial learning. Additionally, there is an emphasis on diagnostic evaluation, on the selective use of learning resources, and on integrated learning and educational planning. Several other features are described briefly, including educational faculty roles and the student selection process.