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A Body Condition Scoring Chart for Holstein Dairy Cows
Abstract and Figures
A chart for body condition scoring of freely moving Holstein dairy cows was developed using an iterative process consisting of literature review, interviews with experts, field testing, statistical analysis, and comments from chart users. The chart consists of text and diagrams that detail changes in con- formation with body condition change for eight body locations identified as important in body condition scoring. The precision with which a prototype chart was used to give location specific condi- tion scores to cows was examined, and the variability among the assessors described. This chart gave consistent results with small variability among assessors, no significant difference at- tributable to experience of assessors, and no significant cow assessor interaction. Minor modifications were made to the chart, which was then used to assess location specific and overall body condi- tion scores. Assessors scored cows in the eight body locations and rescored the cows in a different order to assign an overall score. The chart produced con- sistent scores over a wide range of body conditions with small variance among assessors. The overall score was most closely related to the condition scores of the pelvic and tailhead areas of the cow.
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... The body condition was defined as the current nutritional status of the individual on the test day. This was assessed using a scoring system from 1 to 5 (Wildman et al., 1982;Edmonson et al., 1989;DEFRA, 2001). ...
... All cows were managed similarly during their dry and prepartum periods when they were confined and fed a prepartum TMR for 3 weeks before their expected calving date. The cows were blocked by BW, expected calving date, lactation number and pre-calving and body condition score (BCS) according to [26] before random assignment to treatments and grouping into pens of 4 cows each (i.e., 16 cows/treatment). The cows were assigned to their corresponding treatments immediately after calving. ...
Eighty-four autumn (ACS, n = 45)- and spring (SCS, n = 39)-calved multiparous early lactation Holstein cows were assigned to groups of either: (a) grazing + mixed ration (MR) during partial confinement in outdoor soil-bedded pens with shade (OD-GRZ); (b) grazing + MR during partial confinement in a compost-bedded pack barn with cooling (CB-GRZ); or (c) total confinement fed a totally mixed ration (CB-TMR) in a compost-bedded pack barn. Data were analyzed using the SAS MIXED procedure with significance at p ≤ 0.05. In both seasons, despite behavioral differences (p < 0.05) between the OD-GRZ and CB-GRZ groups (i.e., standing, first grazing meal length, bite rate), the milk and component yields, DM intake, microbial CP output (MCP) and NE efficiency were unaffected by the housing conditions, possibly due to mild weather conditions. The milk yield was substantially higher in the CB-TMR group versus the OD-TMR and CB-TMR groups (p < 0.01) in both ACS (~35%) and SCS (~20%) despite there being no intake differences, without any impact on milk component levels. In ACS, this was associated with a higher MCP, likely due to the higher nutritional value of TMR compared to pasture, which was not the case in SCS. In conclusion, the OD-GRZ group achieved the same milk production as the CB-GRZ group through behavior adaptation, under mild weather conditions, in both calving seasons. The CB-TMR group outperformed the grazing systems in both calving seasons, regardless of the MCP.
... A 7-d rolling average BW was calculated for each cow and used for estimation of NE L and MP requirements (NRC, 2001), as previously described. Body condition score (Edmonson et al., 1989) was evaluated by a trained person at the beginning of the study and once during data collection periods. Lactational performance data, including MY, milk components, BW, and BCS were also used for estimation of NE L and MP requirements of TMR, SF×3, and SF×6 according to NASEM (2021). ...
The objective was to evaluate the effects of separate offering of feed ingredients (SF) and frequency of concentrate feeding versus offering a TMR, on lactational performance, ruminal fermentation, enteric CH 4 emissions , nutrient digestibility, N use efficiency, milk fatty acid profile, and blood variables in mid-lactation dairy cows. Twenty-four Holstein cows (12 primi-and 12 mul-tiparous) averaging (±SD) 141 ± 35 DIM and 43 ± 6 kg/d of milk yield (MY) at the beginning of the study were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design experiment with 3 periods of 28 d each, composed of 7 d for adaptation to the diets, 11 d for estimation of net energy and metabolizable protein requirements, and 10 d for data and samples collection. Cows were grouped based on parity, DIM, and MY into 4 Latin squares. Treatment allocation was balanced for carryover effects, and cows within square were assigned to (1) basal diet fed ad libitum as TMR; (2) basal diet fed as SF with forages fed ad libitum and concentrates fed 3×/d (SF×3); or (3) basal diet fed as SF with forages fed ad libitum and concentrates fed 6×/d (SF×6). Compared with TMR, SF decreased total DMI by 1.2 kg/d. Treatments did not affect MY, milk components, or ECM yield, except for a decrease in milk fat concentration and an increase in milk urea N by SF×3, compared with TMR. Feed efficiency (kg of MY/ kg of DMI) was increased by 7% in SF, compared with TMR. Ruminal molar proportion of acetate and acetate-to-propionate ratio were decreased, whereas molar proportion of propionate was increased by SF×3, compared with TMR and SF×6. There was a 9% decrease in daily CH 4 production by SF, compared with TMR. Enteric CH 4 yield (per kg of DMI) was not affected by treatments in the current study. Methane intensity per kilogram of MY tended to be decreased by 10% in SF, compared with TMR. The sums of odd-and branched-chain, odd-chain, and anteiso milk fatty acids tended to be or were increased by SF, compared with TMR. Intake of nutrients tended to be or were decreased by SF, compared with TMR. The digestibility of amylase-treated NDF tended to be decreased and ADF digestibility was decreased by 3% in SF, compared with TMR. Urinary and fecal N ex-cretions were not affected by treatments. As a percentage of total N intake, separate offering of feed ingredients increased milk N secretion, indicating an increased N use efficiency by SF, compared with TMR. Blood total fatty acid concentration was decreased by SF relative to TMR. Compared with both TMR and SF×6, SF×3 increased blood urea N concentration. Overall, feed and N use efficiencies were increased by separate offering of feed ingredients, and increasing the frequency of concentrate feeding promoted ruminal fermentation effects similar to those obtained by feeding a TMR.
Nowadays, for the choice of reproducers the selection pressure is focused mainly on
bulls characteristics, however, little attention is taken to the uterine environment of
female cows. In milk production the reproduction is a fundamental pillar, since in
order to achieve the highest efficiency of the system it is necessary for the cows to
conceive and calve at regular intervals. Uterine diseases, mainly non-specific
infections, are the most common cause of infertility and produce significant economic
losses to the dairy industry. Endometritis is a mucosa uterine inflammation, which in
the absence of clinical signs is defined as subclinical endometritis (ES). The main
characteristic of this entity is the presence of neutrophils in the uterus and in cows
subclinical endometritis can be detected by cytology using the cytobrush technique.
Cytobrush is an operator dependent technique which requires time and technical
skills, for this reason it is not a routine practice in a farm. Cervico-vaginal mucus
(CVM) provides valuable information about the health condition of the female
reproductive tract, therefore, it has great potential as a source of biomarkers for
pathologies of the reproductive system in women and animals. Furthermore, it is
collected easily and quickly, without causing damage to the uterine mucosa and
without special training. The goal of this thesis was to evaluate the physicochemical
characteristics of cervico-vaginal mucus of Holando Argentino dairy cows with and
without subclinical endometritis. The study population consisted of 450 Holando
Argentino cows from farms located in the dairy basin of Santa Fe, Argentina. Cows
were classified into three experimental groups according to discharge type and
cytobrush reading: healthy, subclinical endometritis, and clinical endometritis. The variables analysed in the mucus were: pH, discharge type, macroscopic and
microscopic characteristics, leukocyte esterase enzyme activity (LE), total solids
concentration, proteins and ions (Na+
, K+
, Mg2+), refractive index and water
percentage. Furthermore, the prevalence of the disease was evaluated. As a result, it
was obtained that the prevalence of ES in the dairy basin of Santa Fe was 35%.
Significant differences were found between the behaviour of the entities and the
seasons of the year, being spring the season with the lowest percentage of
endometritis. Regarding the macroscopic analysis of the mucus, no significant
relationship was found between the cloudy aspect and the entity. Differences were
found between the type of background of MCV spreads and uterine status
(p<0.0001), as well as between the percentage of neutrophils in cytobrush in
samples with a clean and dirty background (p<0.0001). The background study as a
diagnostic technique yielded 58% sensitivity and 85% specificity. 86% of the MCV
samples were positive for the LE test, statistically significant differences were found
in the LE reading between the S and ES groups (p<0.0001). The leukocyte esterase
test revealed 86% sensitivity and 95% specificity for the diagnosis of ES. Regarding
the pH, differences were obtained between the groups (p=0.0026), being more
alkaline in MCV of females that had ES. No differences were found between the
groups in the total solids concentration, total proteins concentration, Mg2+
, Na+
, water
percentage and refractivity values (p>0.05). Differences were found in the K+
concentration between the groups (p=0.01), as well as in the Na
+
/K+ relationship
(p=0.003). In conclusion, no association was found between discharge type and ES.
An association was found between the percentage of neutrophils in cytobrush and
the type of MCV spread background. The physicochemical characteristics that were
modified in ES cow MCV were: pH, K+ concentration and LE activity. The total solids
concentration, total proteins concentration, Mg2+
, Na+
, water percentage, and
refractivity values did not change. The leukocyte esterase test that revealed high
sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of subclinical endometritis in mucus
samples.
This research aimed to compare the conception rates among AI at 12, 24, and 36 h after estrus in cattle living in tie-stall barns in a tropical environment. The second study was to determine factors at insemination at 24 h after estrus, including secondary signs of estrus behavior, reproductive tract characteristics, and heat-stress factors, in relation to conception. The study was conducted on 22 tie-stall dairy farms in Chiang Mai, Thailand. After secondary signs of estrus were observed, all farmers were informed for data collection at the insemination time. Repeated logistic regression models were used to determine factors associated with conception. The results revealed that cattle inseminated 24 h after estrus detection had the highest conception rate (67.5%). The study also found that cattle with three or two secondary estrus signs before insemination had a higher risk of conception than those with only one sign. Interestingly, there was an increased risk of conception when sticky or no cervical mucus was observed during insemination (OR = 6.85 and OR = 5.96, respectively). Moreover, increases in body temperature and ambient relative humidity were related to a decrease in the chances of conception. This study recommends delaying insemination to 24 h after the initiation of secondary estrus signs. Multiple signs of estrus, sticky cervical mucus, and lower body temperature increased conception risk in dairy cattle living in tie-stall barns in a heat-stress environment.
A knowledge of the chemical composition of the dairy cow is Important in interpreting the interacting influences of body reserves, diet and feed intake on milk production. An investigation has designed to obtain information from a representative sample of Friesian/Holstein cows at different stages of lactation, different ages, and of different yield potential. This information is expensive to collect due to the costs Involved in slaughtering and analysing dairy cows, especially if they are high yielding cows at peak production. The animals used in the investigation have therefore all been Planned culls with sixteen in the later stages of lactation with only three killed in early lactation. It is intended to continue this investigation for several years to obtain a comprehensive data set on the chemical composition of the dairy cow.
Nutrition in the dry and immediate postpartum period directly affect reproductive performance. Nutritional effects on fertility are mediated through a complex of complications at calving and metritis. Cows in negative energy balance during this period haveincreased incidence of metritis, altered hormonal profiles and delayed conception. Successful reproductive programsmust recognize these early indicators of impaired fertility and, when indicated, implement control and treatment programs.
Two experiments were carried out to measure effects of body condition at calving and different levels of feeding after calving on milk and subsequent reproduction.In experiment 1, which was conducted in two consecutive years, 162 cows (77 in year 1 and 85 in year 2) were group feed so as to reach a target body condition (condition scores ranging from 3-6) four weeks before calving. During the last four weeks before calving, all cows were managed so as to maintain their individual condition scores. At calving, cows in similar condition of similar breed and with similar previous milk production were allocated to high and low levels of feeding at pasture for the first five weeks of lactation. Mean pasture intakes were 13.0 and 7.0kg dry matter (DM)/cow.d in year 1 and 15.0 and 8.5 kg DM/cow.d in year 2In experiment 2, 40 cows were offered pasture and hay from 20 weeks before calving to achieve a body condition score of either 4 or 6 by two weeks before calving. During the first five weeks of lactation, cows were individually fed in stalls on freshly cut pasture at one of three levels of intake, 7 or 10 kg DM/cow.d or .In both experiments cows were grazed as one group from week 6 to 20 of lactation.Improved body condition at calving resulted in an extra 4.0, 11.0 and 7.4 kg milk fat per unit condition score over 20 weeks of lactation, for year 1 and 2 of experiment 1, and experiment 2, respectively. Cows in poorer condition partitioned a higher proportion of feed energy to liveweight at the expense of milk production than did the cows in better condition. However, increasing the plane of nutrition in early lactation resulted in higher levels of milk production and reduced the need for cows to mobilize bodyreserves. Improved body condition at calving had a positive effect on milk fat percentage, particularly in early lactation, but did not affect milk protein percentage. Input-output relations calculated from the experimental data showed that the benefit sf to improve body condition before calving was less than that of additional feeding after calvin changes in the condition of the cows were taken into consideration (25.8 vs 1 4.6 kg DM to yi kilogram of milkfat). Improvements in condition and feeding in early lactation reduced the anoestrus interval after calving by 5.7 d for each additional condition score at calving and 1. d for each additional kgDM/cow.d fed over weeks 1-5 of lactation. The input-output relations resented will enable farmers to assess the likely consequenes of changes in their feeding management in the crucial peripartum period with a greater degree of confidence than in the past.
Box plots display batches of data. Five values from a set of data are conventionally used; the extremes, the upper and lower hinges (quartiles), and the median. Such plots are becoming a widely used tool in exploratory data analysis and in preparing visual summaries for statisticians and nonstatisticians alike. Three variants of the basic display, devised by the authors, are described. The first visually incorporates a measure of group size; the second incorporates an indication of rough significance of differences between medians; the third combines the features of the first two. These techniques are displayed by examples.
A scoring system with 1 to 5 scale was devised to measure body condition of dairy cows at any point during the lactation cycle. Cows were scored on appearance and palpation of back and hind quarters only. Relationships of body weight, frame size measurements, milk production, and characteristics related to the body condition scoring system were determined. During 18 too, 28 cows in each of 29 dairy herds were used for body measurements and body condition scores. Data were obtained from each herd at 3-mo intervals. Body weight and frame size measurements could not be correlated with body condition score. Dairy cows of greatest efficiency of milk production showed no significant increase in body condition during lactation, had fewer days open, but had lower per- sistency of lactation. Dairy cows that in- creased significantly in body condition during lactation were less efficient pro- ducers, had a greater number of days open, and had high body condition scores at the end of lactation. The body condition scoring system is a means of accurately determining body condition of dairy cows, independent of body weight and frame size.
Three experiments were carried out to examine the separate effects of rate of liveweight gain in late pregnancy and of body weight of cows at calving on subsequent milk production. In each experiment, cows were allocated to one of two treatments about 12 weeks before calving. They were then fed so that by six weeks before calving there was a difference of about 50 kg liveweight between the animals in the two groups. In the first experiment, the two groups were then fed to gain weight at either 1.0 or 0.5 kg day-l so as to calve in similar body condition. In the second experiment, the two groups were fed to gain 1.5 kg day-1 or maintain weight so that again they calved in similar condition. In the third experiment both groups had similar rates of liveweight gain, 0.7 kg day-1 in the last six weeks of pregnancy, so that there was a difference of 51 kg at calving. In the first two experiments there were no differences due to the contrasting pre-calving nutrition in the milk production of the two groups, but in the third experiment the cows calving with the heavier body condition had a 7% greater milk yield and a higher milk fat concentration in the first 100 days of lactation. The results demonstrate that body condition of cows at calving is the important factor affecting milk production and that liveweight trends per se prior to calving were unimportant in influencing subsequent milk production. These findings offer dairy farmers alternative choices of feeding and grazing management strategies to improve cow condition at any stage during the dry period.
Multiparous, spring-calving beef females (n = 355) were utilized during three production years to study the effects of postpartum nutritional management on subsequent fertility and calf pro- duction. At critical times in the production cycle, a body condition score (BCS), using a numerical score ranging from 1 = emaciated to 9 = extremely fat, was assigned to each animal. Cows were maintained prepartum to calve with BCS 4 to 7. Following parturition cows were allotted to 1 of 4 nutritional regimens: high (H), moderate (M), low (L) or low-flush (LF). Postpartum nutritional management had no effect on interval to estrus (ITE) or interval to pregnancy (ITP). However, mean ITE was 61 vs 49 d (P